TIMEEVENT DESCRIPTIONLOCATION

UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN
1) We are a tiny part of a universe that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
  
990,000,000,000 YBN
2) There is more space than matter.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
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3) All matter is made of particles of light.6 Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest particles to the largest galaxies.7 In
this sense light particles are the most basic atoms.8

The basic order of matter from smaller to larger is light particles, electrons
and positrons, muons, protons and antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular clusters, galaxies, and then galactic
clusters.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
970,000,000,000 YBN
11) The universe has no start or end. The same light particles that have always
been, continue to move in the space that has always been.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
960,000,000,001 YBN
5) Matter and motion can never be created or destroyed. Matter can never be
converted into motion, and motion can never be converted into matter.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
950,000,000,000 YBN
6) Light particles become trapped with each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.4

This accumulation of light particles into atoms may be the result of particle
collision, gravitation, or a combination of both.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
  
940,000,000,000 YBN
7) All of the billions of galaxies we see are only a tiny part of the universe.
We will never see most of the universe because no light particles from there
can ever reach us.4

Most galaxies are too far away for even one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our tiny location, and all the light particles
they emit are captured by atoms in between there and here.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980). (estimate of how many galaxies)
  
935,000,000,000 YBN
4) There is a pattern in the universe. Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which exist as
gas clouds (like the Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula). These gas clouds,
called nebulae continue to accumulate trapped light particles. At points of
high density planets and stars form and the cloud is eventually dense enough to
become a galaxy of stars. The stars emit light particles back out to the rest
of the universe, where the light again becomes trapped and forms new clouds.
Around each star are many planets and pieces of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant emitting of light particles (decay). Like
bacteria, these living objects grow in number, with the most successful
organisms occupying and moving around many stars. These advanced organisms then
move the groups of stars they control, as a globular cluster, away from the
plane of the spiral galaxy. As time continues, all of the stars of a galaxy are
occupied by living objects who have organized their stars into globular
clusters. These globular clusters together form an elliptical galaxy, and then
finally a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy may then exist for a long time
living off the matter in stars, in addition to matter from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped into volumes of space that grow in density
first forming atoms, then gas clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an
elliptical galaxy, and finally a globular galaxy.4

Globular galaxies at our scale may be light particles at a much larger scale,
just as light particles at our scale may be globular galaxies at a much smaller
scale. This system may go on infinitely in both larger and smaller scale.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
930,000,000,000 YBN
8) An expanding universe seems unlikely to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken observation, for one reason because spectrum
size changes the position of spectral lines (as clearly shown in the 1936
Humason photo)3 , and because the distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of spectral lines4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol. 83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/paper_Bragg.htm
3. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol. 83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
4. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/paper_Bragg.htm
  

LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN
13) The Milky Way Nebula starts to form.4

Galaxies may form from accumulation of light particles or from the collision of
two or more galaxies.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
33,000,000,000 YBN
6180) The first star in the Milky Way Galaxy forms.5

Stars may form from the accumulation of matter or from collisions of two or
more large bodies. As less collisions occur over time, most smaller objects are
absorbed by the larger star and planets.6

Stars and planets may have centers of densely packed unmoving light particles.
Atoms may form in the less dense space near the surface of planets and stars
where there are less collisions.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
22,000,000,000 YBN
6181) Living objects in the Milky Way Galaxy reach another star using a ship.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
10,000,000,000 YBN
6182) The first globular cluster of 100,000 stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
5,500,000,000 YBN
5 		16) The star Earth orbits forms.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington, guess

MORE INFO
[1] http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/mar1/nucleo.html (with image of
onion skin layers)
[2] another person declares star inside to be similar to planets:
iron, oxygen, nickel, etc. do not support standard solar
model. star_inside_iron.pdf
  
5,500,000,000 YBN
6 		17) Planets form around our star from many collisions. Like the star, they are
red hot with liquid rock and metals on the surface. Lighter atoms move to the
surface of the planets. Larger planets are surrounded by gas.4

As the number of collisions decreases, and smaller objects are absorbed by the
star and planets, the average temperature of the star system is lowered. As the
temperature of the planets and moons decreases, water and other molecules
condense at the surface.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,600,000,000 YBN
21) The moon of Earth is captured.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,600,000,000 YBN
5 6 		30) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid rock turns into a solid thin crust. Water
condenses and falls to the surface, filling the lowest parts of the land to
make the first Earth oceans, lakes, and rivers.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ part about rain and streams going to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
2. ^ part about rain and streams going to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
3. ^ part about rain and streams going to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
4. ^ part about rain and streams going to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,600,000,000 YBN
5 		50) Start of the "Precambrian". The Hadean {HA DEen3 } Eon.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
2. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
3. ^ "Hadean Time." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
03 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
4. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
5. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time", 2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
4,571,000,000 YBN
5 6 		31) The oldest meteorite yet found on Earth: 4.5 billion years old.3 4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&searchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
2. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/783048.stm
3. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&searchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
4. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/783048.stm
5. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&searchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2 (4.7 +- .2 billion years)
6. ^ sci has 4.7 +- .2 by where did 4.571
come from?
  
4,530,000,000 YBN
33) The oldest Moon rock.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/nojs/wl.br.1.html
2. ^ http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/nojs/wl.br.1.html
  
4,404,000,000 YBN
34) The oldest "terrestrial" zircon; evidence that the crust and liquid water
are on the surface of Earth. A terrestrial zircon is not from a meteorite.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/links/010111/010111-1.html
2. ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/links/010111/010111-1.html
  
4,400,000,000 YBN
18) Larger molecules form on Earth, like amino acids, phosphates, and sugars,
the components of living objects.6

These molecules are made in the oceans, fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth
(and other planets) by lightning, from light particles with high frequency from
the Sun, and around ocean floor volcanoes.7

The initial building blocks of living objects are easily formed, but assembling
them into longer-chain molecules, or polymers, is more difficult. Amino acids
link up to form polymers called proteins, simple fatty acids plus alcohols link
up to form lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars like glucose and sucrose link
together to form complex carbohydrates and starches, and finally, the
nucleotide bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link up to form nucleic acids,
the genetic code of organisms, known as RNA and DNA.8

Possibly all proteins, carbohydrates and lipids are strictly the products of
living objects.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,395,000,000 YBN
19) Nucleic acids form on Earth. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,385,000,000 YBN
167) The first proteins on Earth. Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA), and
link amino acids into proteins using other RNA molecules ("messenger" or mRNA
molecules), as a template.

This protein assembly system is the main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.4

Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a specific amino acid, and another part
of the tRNA molecule bonds with an opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence on
an mRNA molecule.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,380,000,000 YBN
40) A protein can copy RNA. This protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS3 }.

For the first time, a nucleic acid functions both as a template for building
proteins (with the help of tRNA molecules) and also as a template for building
other nucleic acid molecules.4

Eventually an mRNA that codes for the necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may be
copied many times.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26
Jan. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Schuppli, Daniel et al. “Altered 3′-terminal RNA Structure in
Phage Qβ Adapted to Host Factor-less Escherichia Coli.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 94.19 (1997): 10239 –10242.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/94/19/10239.abstract
  
4,370,000,000 YBN
168) The ribosome evolves. The first Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a protocell, providing a platform for more
efficient protein production. A single RNA may contain all the instructions
needed to make more ribosomes.

All cells contain ribosomes.2 Ribosomes are the cellular organelles that carry
out protein synthesis, through a process called translation. These molecular
machines are responsible for accurately translating the linear genetic code on
the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
2. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
3. ^ "ribosome." Genetics.
The Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
  
4,365,000,000 YBN
166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a ribonucleotide reductase.3

This protein changes ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides, which allows
the first DNA molecule on Earth to be assembled.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB (March 1992). "Ribonucleotide reductase:
regulation, regulation, regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17 (3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID 1412696.
2. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB (March
1992). "Ribonucleotide reductase: regulation, regulation, regulation". Trends
Biochem. Sci. 17 (3): 119–23. DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID 1412696.
3. ^
Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB (March 1992). "Ribonucleotide reductase:
regulation, regulation, regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17 (3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID 1412696.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,360,000,000 YBN
212) A protein can copy DNA molecules, a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS4 }.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymerase
2. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26
Jan. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
3. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymerase
4. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
5. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The Gale Group, Inc,
2003. Answers.com 04 Aug. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymerase
  
4,360,000,000 YBN
6409) Transcription. A protein assembles RNA from DNA.
  
4,355,000,000 YBN
20) The first cell on Earth evolves. This is the first prokaryotic cell and
first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a membrane of proteins made by ribosomes;
the first cytoplasm.9

This cell may form in either fresh or salt water, near the sunlit water surface
or near underwater volcanoes on the ocean floor.10

The DNA of this cell is a template containing the code for a copying molecule
(DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS11 }), and the necessary mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
molecules needed to build the cytoplasm. For the first time, ribosomes and DNA
build cell structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm is more likely to survive and
be copied.12

This is the start of binary cell division. A protein duplicates DNA within the
cell and then the cell divides into two parts.13

This is also the start of passive transport: molecules enter and exit the
cytoplasm only because of a difference in concentration and represent the
beginnings of the first digestive system.

This cell structure forms the basis of all future cells of every living object
on Earth.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p145-154.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
11. ^ "Polymerase."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,350,000,000 YBN
8 		183) Cells make the first lipids on Earth; (fats, oils, waxes6 ).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ find biomarker evidence
2. ^ "lipid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
28 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "lipid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
28 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "lipid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
28 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
4,345,000,000 YBN
27) A phospholipid bilayer evolves around the cell, providing added protection
from the external environment.2 All extant cells have this phospholipid
bilayer.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Alternative eText Formats Series, p76-77.
  
4,340,000,000 YBN
64) Operons evolve. Operons are sequences of DNA that allow a bacterium to
produce certain proteins only when necessary. Bacteria before now can only
build a constant stream of all proteins encoded in their DNA.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/TermPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

2. ^ http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gene-regulation.html#table
3. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/TermPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

4. ^ http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gene-regulation.html#table
5. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/TermPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

6. ^ http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gene-regulation.html#table
  
4,340,000,000 YBN
6340) Facilitated diffusion. Proteins in the cell membrane allow only certain
molecules to enter the cell.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology", 2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
2. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology", 2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
  
4,335,000,000 YBN
28) Cellular respiration. Glycolysis evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can make
ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN4 } triphosphate) by converting glucose into pyruvate
{PIrUVAT5 }. This is the beginning of cellular respiration, how cells convert
food into ATP and waste products.6

ATP is the molecule that drives most cellular work.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
2. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
4. ^ "adenosine." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/adenosine
5. ^ "pyruvate." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/pyruvate
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
7. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
  
4,330,000,000 YBN
44) Fermentation evolves in the cell cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+oldest&hl=en
3. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+oldest&hl=en
  
4,325,000,000 YBN
213) A second kind of fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) into
ethanol.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
  
4,315,000,000 YBN
196) Active transport evolves. Proteins and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html
2. ^ "active transport." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
10 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/active-transport
3. ^ "active transport." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science
. Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-transport
4. ^ http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html
5. ^ "active transport." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/active-transport
6. ^ "active transport." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-transport
  
4,200,000,000 YBN
4 5 		292) The prokaryote flagellum evolves.3

Prokaryotic cells now have more mobility, and can make more choices about their
location.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^
conjugation in protists, flagella in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ conjugation in
protists, flagella in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Pallen MJ, Matzke NJ (October 2006). "From The Origin of Species to
the origin of bacterial flagella". Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4 (10):
784–90. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1493. PMID
16953248. http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n10/full/nrmicro1493.html
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Tree of life, http://tolweb.org/tree/
[4] David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia,
"Symbiosis Between methanogenic Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin
of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530.
eukorig6_jmol.pdf
[5] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli",
Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[6] "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>
  
4,193,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		77) Archaea (also called archaebacteria) evolve according to genetic
comparison.3 The Phylum Nanoarcheota.4 5

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two major lines of Prokaryotes.6 7 8 9 10 11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuzzi2009Chap06.pdf
5. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel, R., Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and Stetter,
K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea represented by a nanosized hyperthermophilic
symbiont." Nature (2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
7. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms
with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4 eu)
10. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo: Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of
Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
12. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/pdf/Hedges2009Chap05.pdf
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
16. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms
with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996). 2142-1873my (2142-1873my)
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my (2300my)
18. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4 eu) (4100my)
19. ^
Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
(1800my)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). 4000my (4000my)
21. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my (3970my)
  
4,189,000,000 YBN
7 8 		193) The Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles" evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and
Thermotoga).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of
Life", 2009, p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
  
4,187,000,000 YBN
7 8 		180) The Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota (the ancestor of Sulfolobus).5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC
Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
  
4,187,000,000 YBN
14 15 		181) The Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu10 } evolve (the ancestor
of methanogens and halobacteria).11 12

The earliest cell response to light.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryarchaeota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/44
5. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryarchaeota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/44
9. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

10. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryarchaeota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/44
13. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/44

MORE INFO
[1] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and evolution of model organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November 2002),
doi:10.1038/nrg929 http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html#to
p
  
4,112,000,000 YBN
5 		58) The first autotrophic cells; cells that can produce some of their own
food.3

Autotrophs produce their own sugars, lipids, and amino acids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/44
  
4,100,000,000 YBN
12 		49) Photosynthesis.6

Bacteria use light particles to convert carbon dioxide gas and an electron
donor7 (also called a reductant), like Hydrogen sulfide, into glucose, water,
and sulfur.8 This process of moving carbon from carbon dioxide gas to the
hydrocarbon molecule glucose is called carbon fixation.9

This is the ancestor of Photosystem I.10

This system of photosynthesis does not liberate oxygen.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
2. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
3. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982, p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
4. ^ "carbon fixation>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon fixation." The American Heritage® Science
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/carbon fixation>.
5. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ "reductant."Answers.com 14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
8. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
9. ^ "carbon fixation>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"carbon fixation." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company. 14 Jul. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/carbon
fixation>.
10. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
11. ^ Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". Photosyn. Res.
88 (2): 109–17. doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/content/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}
12. ^ Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". Photosyn. Res.
88 (2): 109–17. doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/content/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology", 2009, 190-198
  
4,000,000,000 YBN
12 		43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves. Cells emit free Oxygen.8

Bacteria use light particles to convert carbon dioxide gas and water into
glucose, releasing oxygen gas in the process.9 10

This is the main system responsible for producing the Oxygen now in the air of
Earth.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
2. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
3. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
4. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
5. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
6. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
7. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
8. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
9. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
10. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy",
1982, p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
11. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
12. ^ Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". Photosyn. Res.
88 (2): 109–17. doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID 16453059.

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology", 2009, 190-198
  
4,000,000,000 YBN
7 		51) The end of the Hadean {HADEiN4 } and start of the Archean {oRKEiN5 } Eon.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
2. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
3. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
4. ^ "Hadean Time." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
30 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time
5. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
6. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
7. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time", 2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
3,950,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		37) (Filamentous) multicellularity evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay fastened together after cell division.4


Multicellularity appears to have evolved independently multiple times in the
history of life on Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
2. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
3. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
4. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
5. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole King, B.
Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger, Michael W. Gray, The origins of multicellularity:
a multi-taxon genome initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume 23, Issue 3, March
2007, Pages 113-118, ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
6. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1 (2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol.
1, 27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
9. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Grosberg R. K., Strathmann R. R. 2007 The evolution of
multicellularity: a minor major transition? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 38,
621–654. (doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
[2] Rokas A. 2008 The origins of multicellularity and the early history of the
genetic toolkit for animal development. Ann. Rev. Genet. 42, 235–251.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091513) http://apps.webofknowledge.com/Inb
oundService.do?UT=000261767000011&IsProductCode=Yes&mode=FullRecord&product=WOS&
SID=1EHDdbNiNf4NO8nC299&smartRedirect=yes&SrcApp=CR&DestFail=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.we
bofknowledge.com%3FDestApp%3DCEL%26DestParams%3D%253Faction%253Dretrieve%2526mod
e%253DFullRecord%2526product%253DCEL%2526UT%253D000261767000011%2526customersID%
253DHighwire%26e%3DQZIAIzGgKoYbxc_i_WNamlaqQ0.s968BNEwQvqhM9p.770dFYju0AbJCFAAcj
orA%26SrcApp%3DHighwire%26SrcAuth%3DHighwire&action=retrieve&Init=Yes&SrcAuth=Hi
ghwire&customersID=Highwire&Func=Frame
  
3,950,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		316) Cell differentiation evolves in filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of cells.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
3. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
5. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
6. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N. SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès: Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=DEEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
  
3,950,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		322) Nitrogen fixation evolves. Cells can make nitrogen compounds like ammonia
from Nitrogen gas in the air.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
3. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
5. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation
6. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
7. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
8. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/14/5442.full
9. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
10. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N. SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès: Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
West Africa7   
3,900,000,000 YBN
57) Aerobic cellular respiration. The first aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell. These
cells use oxygen to convert glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
  
3,850,000,000 YBN
18 		36) The oldest physical evidence for life: the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12
in grains of ancient apetite {aPeTIT10 } (which are calcium phosphate
minerals).11 12 13

Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving source (such as calcium carbonate or
limestone).14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
2. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
4. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

5. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
6. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

7. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
8. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
9. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

10. ^ "apatite." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
11. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
12. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

13. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
14. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al.
"Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million Years Ago." Nature 384.6604
(1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
15. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

16. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
17. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

18. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Banded iron formation." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 11 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/banded-iron-formation
[2] Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
AND http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Akilia Island, Western Greenland16 17   
3,850,000,000 YBN
18 		45) The oldest sediment, the Banded Iron Formation begins.12
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years ago,
made of iron-rich silicates (like silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating layers
of black colored reduced or ferrous iron and red colored oxidized or ferric
iron.13 14 These alternating layers represent a seasonal cycle where the
quantity of free oxygen in the ocean rises and falls, possibly linked to
photosynthetic organisms.15 16

The atmosphere of Earth still has only small amounts of oxygen at this time.
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
2. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
3. ^ Cesare Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel, New
Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/books?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Konhauser,
Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/30/12/1079.abstract
6. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al. “Deposition of Banded Iron Formations by
Anoxygenic Phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology 33.11 (2005): 865
-868. Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/33/11/865.abstract
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^
Cesare Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an
Old Planet 2nd ed. 1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/books?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have Formed the
Precambrian Banded Iron Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/30/12/1079.abstract
11. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al. “Deposition of Banded Iron Formations by
Anoxygenic Phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology 33.11 (2005): 865
-868. Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/33/11/865.abstract
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^
Cesare Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an
Old Planet 2nd ed. 1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/books?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have Formed the
Precambrian Banded Iron Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/30/12/1079.abstract
16. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al. “Deposition of Banded Iron Formations by
Anoxygenic Phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology 33.11 (2005): 865
-868. Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/33/11/865.abstract
17. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
18. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102, {3850 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Roger Lewin, "Thread of Life", (New York: Smithsonian Books, 1982).
p102
[2]
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/RogueComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

[3] "Banded iron formation". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_iron_formation
Akilia Island, Western Greenland17   
3,500,000,000 YBN
11 12 		39) The oldest fossil evidence of life: stromatolites.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
2. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
3. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
4. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
5. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
6. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
7. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
8. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
9. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
10. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
11. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area, Western Australia." Nature 284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
12. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower, and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig Tree Group, South Africa9 10   
3,500,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 		287) The oldest fossils of an organism. The organism is similar to
cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u12 }, and is found in the 3,500 million year
old chert, sedimentary rock made of silica13 , in Australia14 15 and South
Africa.16

2.8 billion years will pass before the first animal evolves.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
2. ^ Schopf, J. William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest
Fossils." Nature 416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
3. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
4. ^ Schopf, J. William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest
Fossils." Nature 416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "cyanobacterium."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacteria
8. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
9. ^ Schopf, J. William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest
Fossils." Nature 416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^ "cyanobacterium."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacteria
13. ^ "chert." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chert
14. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
15. ^ Schopf, J. William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest
Fossils." Nature 416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
16. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R. Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from the
3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa." Nature
314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
17. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
18. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Schopf, J.
William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest Fossils." Nature
416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
20. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R. Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from the
3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa." Nature
314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
21. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R. Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from the
3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa." Nature
314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
22. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
23. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260, 640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249
24. ^ Schopf, J. William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s Earliest
Fossils." Nature 416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html

MORE INFO
[1] BIO415 (Author? University?) Multicelluarity.pdf (t3:
multicellularity of cyanobacteria)
[2] t3:
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
"Some cyanobacteria species exist in a truly, though primitive, multicellular
form in which cellular differentiation occurs."
Warrawoona, northwestern Western Australia19 and Onverwacht Group, Barberton
Mountain Land, South Africa20   
3,400,000,000 YBN
6 		190) The earliest fossils of coccoid {KoKOED3 } (spherical) bacteria.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)

MORE INFO
[1] maybe evidence: Nagy, B. and Nagy, L.A., 1969. Early Precambrian
microstructures: possibly the oldest fossils on Earth?. Nature 223, pp.
1226-1229.?
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System, South Africa5   
3,260,000,000 YBN
5 		71) Prokaryote reproduction by budding.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research, Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
Swartkoppie, South Africa4   
3,200,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 		66) The earliest acritarch fossils (unicellular microfossils with uncertain
affinity9 10 ). These acritarchs are also the earliest possible eukaryote
fossils.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
2. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p194.
3. ^ http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/acritarch.html
4. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256: 622-627
5. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
6. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin and Evolution
of Dinoflagellates", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
7. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/acritarch.html
8. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256: 622-627
9. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
10. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin and Evolution
of Dinoflagellates", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
11. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/acritarch.html
12. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256: 622-627
13. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine siliciclastic deposits.” Nature 463.7283
(2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
14. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature 463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
15. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J. Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic
Organisms in Proterozoic Oceans", Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution: Palaeontological,
Molecular and Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and Global Effects (Jun. 29,
2006), pp. 1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20209698 {1.8 bybn}
16. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/dinoflagfr.html {1.8 bybn}
17. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/acritarch.html {1900-1600 mybn}
18. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p257. {1.6 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Knoll, Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins of Life
and Evolution of Biospheres, 2003-02-01, Springer Netherlands, Vol33, Iss1,
p75-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1023992712071
[2] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
[3] Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A Molecular Time-Scale for Eukaryote
Evolution Recalibrated with the Continuous Microfossil Record", Proceedings:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 273, No. 1596 (Aug. 7, 2006), pp.
1867-1872 http://www.jstor.org/stable/25223537
[4] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and ecological complexity in early eukaryotic ecosystems.”
Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(Moodies Group) South Africa13   
2,923,000,000 YBN
14 		178) The Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes (FiRmiKYUTEZ10 ) evolves (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism, tetanus, and anthrax).11 12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=firmicutes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not TOL)
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges,
"A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=firmicutes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not TOL)
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=firmicutes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not TOL)
13. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC
Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
14. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale
of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglycan
[2] firmicutes only bacteria to make endospores
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmicutes
[4] http://www.earthlife.net/prokaryotes/firmicutes.html
  
2,920,000,000 YBN
3 		288) The first endospores evolve; in firmicutes. An endospore is a tough
reduced dry form of a bacterium, triggered by a lack of nutrients, that
protects the bacterium, and allows it to be revived after long periods of
time.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National Council for Science and the Environment,
Washington DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480
2. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480
3. ^ Ted Huntington, a total guess my friends

MORE INFO
[1] "Endospore". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
  
2,800,000,000 YBN
16 		76) The Eubacteria Phylum Proteobacteria evolves (includes Rickettsia {the
ancestor of all mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli
{esRriKEo KOlI9 } or E coli {E KOlI10 }).11 12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
4. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Tree of life, http://tolweb.org/tree/
8. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria
as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
9. ^ "Escherichia coli." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House,
Inc. 30 Dec. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Escherichia coli>.
10. ^ "E.
coli." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia-coli
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
14. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
15. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree.aspx?id=71320
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] multicellularity.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
Multicellularity.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacteria
[2] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli",
Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[3] "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>
[4] conjugation in protists, flagella in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)
[5] prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cfm?meds=profile&profile=12
[6] Stackebrandt et al. Proteobacteria classis nov., a name for the
phylogenetic taxon that includes the "purple bacteria and their relatives".
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1988, 38,
321–325. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/38/3/321.full.pdf
  
2,800,000,000 YBN
29 		177) Gender and sex (conjugation) evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo KOlI21 }
bacteria. Conjugation is the exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor {male}
bacterium through a pilus to a recipient {female} bacterium.22 23 24 25 26 27

In addition to pili and conjugation, proteins that can cut DNA, and other
proteins that can connect two strands of DNA evolve.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli",
Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
6. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
7. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October 1946)
doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
8. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
12. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
13. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Escherichia coli>.
14. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19
October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
15. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>.
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
19. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
20. ^ prokaryote pili and archaea
flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cfm?meds=profile&profile=12
21. ^ "Escherichia coli." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 Dec.
2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Escherichia coli>.
22. ^ JOSHUA
LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli", Nature 158,
558-558 (19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
23. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/132820/conjugation>.
24. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
26. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
27. ^ David moreira, Purificacion Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between methanogenic
Archaea and delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998) 47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
28. ^ prokaryote pili and archaea
flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cfm?meds=profile&profile=12
29. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
  
2,795,000,000 YBN
23) The first virus evolves.5

These cells depend on the DNA duplicating and protein producing systems of
other cells to reproduce themselves. The first viruses may be made from
bacteria, or may be bacteria initially.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
2. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
3. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
4. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
5. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
6. ^ http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm
  
2,784,000,000 YBN
7 		176) The Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS5 } (also known as
Planctobacteria) evolves.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planctomycetes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planctomycetes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planctomycetes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] s10 http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/6/1965
[2] http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/6/research/0031
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomycetes
[4] Lee, Kuo-Chang, Rick Webb, and John Fuerst. “The
Cell Cycle of the Planctomycete Gemmata Obscuriglobus with Respect to Cell
Compartmentalization.” BMC Cell Biology 10.1 (2009):
4. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2121/10/4/
  
2,784,000,000 YBN
20 		179) The Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu13 } evolves (the
source of streptomycin and the cause of tuberculosis and leprosy14 ).15 16 17
18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=actinobacteria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not TOL
4. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacteria
5. ^ http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archives/leprosy.htm
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale
of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=actinobacteria&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not TOL
10. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacteria
11. ^ http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archives/leprosy.htm
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale
of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=actinobacteria&submit=Submit
14. ^ Schaechter, M. Desk Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Academic Press, 2009.
Academic Press, p1-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0oU4z36DIC&pg=PA1
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not TOL
17. ^ "Actinobacteria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacteria
18. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archives/leprosy.htm
19. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
20. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] "streptomyces." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/streptomyces
  
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		174) The Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ5 ) evolves (the cause of
Syphilis, and Lyme disease).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunciation%20Guide.pdf
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunciation%20Guide.pdf
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
5. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunciation%20Guide.pdf
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ estimated from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life. http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
[3] "spirochete." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/spirochete
  
2,775,000,000 YBN
10 11 		175) The Eubacteria Phylum Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ7 } evolves.8 9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bacteroidetes+&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).. ^
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bacteroidetes+&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).. ^
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bacteroidetes+&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).. ^
10. ^ estimate from
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy,
and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidetes
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
  
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		217) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae {Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E5 } evolves.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=chlamydiae&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=chlamydiae&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=chlamydiae&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life. http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicrobia
  
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 8 		6309) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi {KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur
bacteria).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).. ^
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC
Evolutionary Biology, (2004).. ^
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).. ^
7. ^ estimate from Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidetes
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
  
2,775,000,000 YBN
7 		6310) The Eubacteria Phylum Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo5 ) evolves.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=verrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=verrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=verrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
7. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life. http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicrobia
  
2,730,000,000 YBN
5 6 		80) Endo and exocytosis evolve. Cells can now eat other cells.

In endocytosis the plasma membrane folds inward to bring substances into the
cell.3

In Exocytosis substances contained in vesicles are released from the cell.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "endocytosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis
2. ^ "exocytosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
3. ^ "endocytosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis
4. ^ "exocytosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess
and }
6. ^ guess based on Cavalier-Smith stating that endocytosis occurs before a
cytoskeleton {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess and}
  
2,700,000,000 YBN
21 		60) The eukaryotic cell evolves. The first cell with a nucleus. The first
protist. The nucleus may develop from the infolding of plasma membrane.12

There are some differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In prokaryotic
cells the DNA is concentrated in a region that is not membrane enclosed called
the "nucleoid" while in eukaryotic cells most of the DNA is contained in a
nucleus that is bounded by a double membrane. Eukaryotic cells are generally
much larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are typically 10-100 um in diameter.13 Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change their shape and to surround and engulf other
cells. Eukaryotic cells also have internal structures that prokaryotic cells
lack such as mitochondria and plastids.14 DNA in prokaryotic cells is usually
in the form of a single circular chromosome, while DNA in the nucleus of
eukaryotes contains linear chromosomes.15

Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably haploid (has a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets of DNA).16 17 18 19

All protists, fungi, animals and plant cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
2. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
4. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008,
p516-517.
6. ^ Jill Saffrey, "Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core of life, Book 3,
Volume 2", 2001, p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
7. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring evolutionary biology:
readings from American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
8. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
9. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim, "Computer analysis of genetic macromolecules:
structure, function, and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=crip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
10. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/topic/diploid
11. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
14. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
15. ^ Jill Saffrey, "Biology: uniformity &
diversity. Core of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
16. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
17. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
18. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim, "Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function, and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=crip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
19. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/topic/diploid
20. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong
Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4, (2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
{split of archae and eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote {with nucleus?} at)
2.7 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p256
[2] Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13
August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
[3] Alexey S. Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics Vol. 28: 391-435 (Volume publication date November
1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
  
2,700,000,000 YBN
62) The earliest molecular fossil evidence of eukaryotes (sterane {STiRAN7 }
molecules).8 9 Steranes are formed from sterols {STeRoLZ10 }, molecules made
by mitochondria.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13
August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
4. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13
August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
7. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13
August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
10. ^ "sterol." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterol
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13
August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036 , 13 August 1999 Archean Molecular Fossils and
the Early Rise of Eukaryotes Jochen J. Brocks, 1,2* Graham A. Logan, 2 Roger
Buick, 1 Roger E. Summons 2
Northwestern Australia13 14   
2,700,000,000 YBN
198) The endoplasmic reticulum evolves in a eukaryotic cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum is a membrane system that extends from the nucleus, important in the
synthesis of proteins and lipids.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic-reticulum
2. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic-reticulum
3. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic-reticulum
  
2,690,000,000 YBN
13 14 		207) The cytoskeleton {SI-Te-SKeL-i-TN9 } forms in the eukaryote cytoplasm.10
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Feb.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleton
2. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
3. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman Inc,
New York. Margulis, L., Dolan, M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
4. ^ Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993 second
edition
5. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Feb.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleton
6. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
7. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman Inc,
New York. Margulis, L., Dolan, M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
8. ^ Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993 second
edition
9. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Feb.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleton
10. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony 2005 vol95 issue 1
11. ^ Margulis,
L. 1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan, M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
12. ^ Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993 second
edition
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess
and }
14. ^ guess based on ER and golgi made of same material as cytoskeleton,
and after first eukaryote cell {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess and}
  
2,690,000,000 YBN
5 		208) The eukaryote flagellum and cilia evolve.

The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are structurally the same1 but are very
different from the prokaryote flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is composed of
a characteristic "9+2" arrangement of microtubules {mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ2 }. Unlike
the prokaryote flagella that rotate, the flagella and cilia of eukaryotic cells
undulate in a wave-like motion to propel the cell.3

The sperm cells of algae, animals, and some plants have flagella.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
2. ^
"microtubule." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/microtubule>.
3. ^ Dr. P.D. Sharma, "Microbiology & Plant Pathology", 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=ByDwOIWXp4MC&pg=PA86
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
5. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi
Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -10mybn
guess}
  
2,680,000,000 YBN
5 		65) The circular chromosome in the eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.3

Although the eukaryotic cell may have descended from a prokaryote that already
had linear DNA.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale
for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4, (2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
{Nucleus 2700 +20mybn guess}

MORE INFO
[1] not all prokaryotes have circle of
DNA: http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.
391;jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[2] Jumas-Bilak E, Maugard C, Michaux-Charachon S, Allardet-Servent A, Perrin
A, et al. 1995. Study of the organization of the genomes of Escherichia coli,
Brucella melitensis and Agrobacterium tumefaciens by insertion of a unique
restriction site. Microbiology 141:2425-32 (Medline)
[3] Lezhava A, Kameoka D, Sugino H,
Goshi K, Shinkawa H, et al. 1997. Chromosomal deletions in Streptomyces griseus
that remove the afsA locus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
[4] Marconi RT, Casjens S,
Munderloh UG, Samuels DS. 1996. Analysis of linear plasmid dimers in Borrelia
burgdorferi sensu lato isolates: implications concerning the potential
mechanisms of linear plasmid replication. J. Bact. 178:3357-61
  
2,680,000,000 YBN
216) Histones evolve. Histones are proteins found in all eukaryotic cell nuclei
that package and order a single continuous DNA molecule into structural units
called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ1 }.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nucleosome." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleosome Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answer.jsp#ixzz2Ga2DeYfP
2. ^ Nelson, D.L., and M.M. Cox. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. W. H.
Freeman, 2008. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry,
p963. http://books.google.com/books?id=5Ek9J4p3NfkC
  
2,680,000,000 YBN
3 		291) The eukaryote cell evolves two intermediate stages between cell division
and DNA synthesis.1

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate their DNA exactly once during a discrete
period between cell divisions.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).: p45
2. ^ "cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/101396/cell>.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] Cooper GM (2000). "Chapter 14: The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle". The cell:
a molecular approach (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN
0-87893-106-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9876/
[2] Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p228-245
  
2,670,000,000 YBN
199) The Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages
proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
2. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
3. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Endosome." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endosome
  
2,670,000,000 YBN
4 		290) The nucleolus evolves. The nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus that makes
ribosomal RNA.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus divides
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus divides
3. ^ Michael
Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold,
1989).: p48 nucleolus divides
4. ^ Ted Huntington guess

MORE INFO
[1] Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry Oxford University Press. Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006 All rights
reserved. http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleolus#ixzz2VAspF99U
  
2,660,000,000 YBN
11 		72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote cells.7 8

Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the nucleus divides resulting in two new nuclei,
each of which contains an identical copy of the parental chromosomes. Mitosis
is usually immediately followed by cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm.9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).: types of mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
2. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists",
(London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of mitosis, evolution of
mitosis.
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
5. ^ "mitosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of mitosis,
evolution of mitosis.
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
9. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi
Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -40mybn
guess}
  
2,640,000,000 YBN
29 		73) Eukaryote sex evolves. This is the first diploid cell and the first
zygote.18 19

Because of sex, two cells with different DNA can mix providing more genetic
variety. Having two chromosome sets also provides a backup copy of important
genes.20 21

All sexual species alternate between haploid and diploid. There are three main
different types of sexual life cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.22 23

This begins the haplontic life cycle: in the entire life cycle mitosis only
occurs in the haploid phase; the only diploid cell is the zygote24 .25 26

This fusion of two haploid cells results in the first diploid single-celled
organism, which may then immediately divide back to two haploid cells.

Initially sex may be the fusion of two indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with
gender (anisogamy) only evolving later.27 Although possibly eukaryote cell
fusion and gender is directly descended from prokaryote conjugation.28
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p258.
4. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of Evolution",
(London: Nelson, 1964).
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p258.
7. ^ Karen Arms,
Pamela S. Camp, "Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
8. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
9. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p258.
11. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan AP biology",
2000, p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=PWsKAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M. Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009, p203.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
14. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
15. ^
Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson & Sons, Limited,
1992. Bath Science 16-19 Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
16. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
17. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
18. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
19. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Glenn E. Croston,
"Kaplan AP biology", 2000, p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=PWsKAQAAMAAJ
21. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M. Haith,
"Diseases and Disorders in Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009, p203.
22. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
23. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
24. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced Science - Biology. Thomas
Nelson & Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19 Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
25. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
26. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors Tail", 2004, p626.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ estimate
based on diplomonads having sex repro, and origin of euk being (is now)
{Nucleus 2700 -60mybn guess)(was 2710mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] J. William Schopf, "Major Events in the History of Life", (Boston,
MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1992).p57 (was)
  
2,640,000,000 YBN
12 		206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis: a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).7 8

Meiosis, which looks similar to mitosis9 , is the process of cell division in
sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in
reproductive cells from diploid to haploid, leading to the production of
gametes in animals and spores in plants.10

Without the reduction back to haploid, genomes would double in size with every
generation.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in one-division
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in one-division
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth
Edition, 2008, p253.
6. ^ "meiosis." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
7. ^ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in one-division
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
10. ^ "meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors Tail",
2004, p627.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
  
2,610,000,000 YBN
17 		296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves.12 Anisogamy {aNISoGomE13 14 }, sex (cell
and nucleus fusion) between two cells that are different in size or shape.15 16

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
29 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisogamy&submit=Submit
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
6. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists",
(London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
8. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 29 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisogamy&submit=Submit
10. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).
11. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Mar.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
12. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
13. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
29 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
14. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisogamy&submit=Submit
15. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists",
(London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
16. ^ "anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale
for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4, (2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
{Nucleus 2700 -90mybn guess}
  
2,590,000,000 YBN
5 		298) Oogamy {O-oG-omE3 }, a form of anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex between
a flagellated gamete and an unflagellated gamete.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy&submit=Submit
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy&submit=Submit
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists",
(London; New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale
for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4, (2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
{Nucleus 2700 -110mybn guess}
  
2,570,000,000 YBN
6 		295) Two-step meiosis (diploid DNA copies and then the cell divides twice into
four haploid cells).3

Most protists divide by two-step meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.4 5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
2. ^ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
3. ^ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/research/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989) p71.
5. ^ Igor B. Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems, European Journal of Protistology, Volume 31,
Issue 1, 15 March 1995, Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -130mybn
guess}
  
2,558,000,000 YBN
4 		171) The Eubacteria phylum "Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes Thermus
Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and Deinococcus radiodurans {which can survive long
exposure to radiation}).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life. http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
  
2,558,000,000 YBN
11 12 		172) The Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u7 } evolves.

Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes with oxygen-producing photosynthesis,8
and are the ancestor of all eukaryote plastids (for example chloroplasts).9 10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacteria
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
4. ^ "cyanobacterium."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacteria
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales", Trends in Genetics Volume 19,
Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
7. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacteria
8. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 2008.
Alternative eText Formats Series, p569.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
11. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization
of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC533871/ {2558 mybn}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales", Trends
in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003). {2558 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life. http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004)
[3] Journal of Molecular Evolution Publisher:
Springer-Verlag New York ISSN: 0022-2844 (Paper) 1432-1432 (Online) Issue:
Volume 42, Number 2 Date: February 1996 Pages: 194 - 200
[4] Phylogenetic
Relationships of Nonaxenic Filamentous Cyanobacterial Strains Based on 16S rRNA
Sequence Analysis jme_42_2_1996.pdf
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria
[6] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang,
Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
  
2,558,000,000 YBN
4 		315) The Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin
of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[2] Tree of Life http://tolweb.org/tree/
  
2,500,000,000 YBN
52) The end of the Archean and start of the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or
ProTReZOiK6 7 } Eon.8

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542 million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proterozoic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proterozoic&submit=Submit
3. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
4. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th Edition,
2006, p243.
6. ^ "Proterozoic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proterozoic&submit=Submit
8. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
9. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th Edition,
2006, p243.
  
2,480,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 		170) Bacteria live on land.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V. Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto Pecoits,
Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J. Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E. Barley, Carlos
Rosìere, Phillip W. Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker. Aerobic bacterial
pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event.
Nature, 2011; 478 (7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10511
2. ^ University of Alberta. "New evidence for the oldest oxygen-breathing life
on land." ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14 Jul. 2012.
3. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let
there be life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
4. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V. Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto Pecoits,
Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J. Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E. Barley, Carlos
Rosìere, Phillip W. Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker. Aerobic bacterial
pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event.
Nature, 2011; 478 (7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10511
5. ^ University of Alberta. "New evidence for the oldest oxygen-breathing life
on land." ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14 Jul. 2012.
6. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let
there be life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
7. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V. Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto Pecoits,
Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J. Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E. Barley, Carlos
Rosìere, Phillip W. Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker. Aerobic bacterial
pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event.
Nature, 2011; 478 (7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10511
8. ^ University of Alberta. "New evidence for the oldest oxygen-breathing life
on land." ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14 Jul. 2012.
9. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let
there be life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
10. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V. Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto Pecoits,
Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J. Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E. Barley, Carlos
Rosìere, Phillip W. Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker. Aerobic bacterial
pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event.
Nature, 2011; 478 (7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10511
11. ^ University of Alberta. "New evidence for the oldest oxygen-breathing life
on land." ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14 Jul. 2012.
12. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let
there be life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
13. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V. Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto Pecoits,
Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J. Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E. Barley, Carlos
Rosìere, Phillip W. Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker. Aerobic bacterial
pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event.
Nature, 2011; 478 (7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10511
14. ^ University of Alberta. "New evidence for the oldest oxygen-breathing life
on land." ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14 Jul. 2012.
15. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let
there be life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary Biology, (2004). (2600-2700my)
17. ^ University of
Tennessee at Knoxville. "Bacteria's move from sea to land may have occurred
much later than thought." ScienceDaily, 22 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Jul.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111222195017.htm
18. ^ Florence Wisniewski-Dyé, Kirill Borziak, Gurusahai Khalsa-Moyers, Gladys
Alexandre, Leonid O. Sukharnikov, Kristin Wuichet, Gregory B. Hurst, W. Hayes
McDonald, Jon S. Robertson, Valérie Barbe, Alexandra Calteau, Zoé Rouy,
Sophie Mangenot, Claire Prigent-Combaret, Philippe Normand, Mickaël Boyer,
Patricia Siguier, Yves Dessaux, Claudine Elmerich, Guy Condemine, Ganisan
Krishnen, Ivan Kennedy, Andrew H. Paterson, Victor González, Patrick Mavingui,
Igor B. Zhulin. Azospirillum Genomes Reveal Transition of Bacteria from Aquatic
to Terrestrial Environments. PLoS Genetics, 2011; 7 (12): e1002430 DOI:
10.1371/journal.pgen.1002430

MORE INFO
[1] "pyrite." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02 May.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/pyrite
  
2,400,000,000 YBN
59) Start of a 200 million year ice age.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
  
2,300,000,000 YBN
48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide formed on land, begin here, and are also
evidence of more free oxygen in the air of Earth.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/lecture5.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/lecture5.html
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/lecture5.html
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/lecture5.html
  
2,000,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		63) A parasitic bacterium, closely related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an aerobic
proteobacteria, is engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell. Over time a symbiotic
relationship evolves within the eukaryotic cell (an endosymbiosis) where the
Rickettsia become mitochondria.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of almost all
eukaryotic cells, and are where cellular respiration occurs producing most of
the ATP in a eukaryotic cell.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4
4. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386130/mitochondrion>.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p100.
6. ^
"mitochondrion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/386130/mitochondrion>.
7. ^ B. Franz Lang, Michael W. Gray, and Gertraud Burger, "Mitochondrial Genome
Evolution and the Origin of Eukaryotes", Annu. Rev. Genet., V33, p351-397,
p385. 1999. {2 BYBN}
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {average of)
2230-1840 bybn} {earliest of) 2350-1640 bybn} {average of 1995my) 2350-1640
mybn}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {1.8 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael W. Gray, et al, "Genome structure and gene content in protist
mitochondrial DNAs", Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4): 865-878
doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865 http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/4/865.full
  
1,874,000,000 YBN
15 		61) The earliest large filamentous fossil (Grypania).8 9 Grypania spiralis is
about 10 cm long, and is thought to be either a green alga or large
cyanobacterium.10 11 If eukaryote, Grypania would be the earliest eukaryote
fossil.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science
257 (1992), pp. 232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
2. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
3. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
4. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
5. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
6. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the 1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi Formation in
the Jixian Area, North China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct.
27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science
257 (1992), pp. 232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
9. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
10. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
11. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
12. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the 1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi Formation in
the Jixian Area, North China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct.
27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
13. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science
257 (1992), pp. 232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
14. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
15. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and
syndepositional iron formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for
the tectonic setting of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior
region. Can. J. Earth Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Samuelsson, Joakim, Peter R Dawes, and Gonzalo Vidal.
“Organic-walled Microfossils from the Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Northwest
Greenland.” Precambrian Research 96.1–2 (1999):
1–23. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301926898001235
[2] Jacques Dumais, Kyle Serikawa and Dina F Mandoli, "Acetabularia: A
Unicellular Model for Understanding Subcellular Localization and Morphogenesis
during Development", Journal of Plant Growth Regulation Volume 19, Number 3
(2000), 253-264, DOI:
10.1007/s003440000035 http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/JP
GR2000.2.pdf
(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA13 14   
1,800,000,000 YBN
46) The end of the Banded Iron Formation.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
  
1,570,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		99) The first homeobox genes evolve. These genes regulate the building of major
body parts in algae, plants, fungi and animals.7 8 9 10

For example, when a homeobox gene responsible for growing a mouse eye is added
to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo that is destined to be a leg, an extra fruit
fly eye is built on the leg.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
9. ^ Thomas R. Bürglin, "Analysis of TALE superclass homeobox genes (MEIS,
PBC, KNOX, Iroquois, TGIF) reveals a novel domain conserved between plants and
animals", Nucl. Acids Res. (1997) 25(21): 4173-4180 doi:10.1093/nar/25.21.4173
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/21/4173.abstract
10. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin. “A
Comprehensive Classification and Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/12/2775.short
11. ^ Halder, G, P Callaerts, and WJ Gehring. “Induction of ectopic eyes by
targeted expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila.” Science 267.5205
(1995) : 1788 -1792. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=sci;267/5205/1788
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p399.
13. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA, a
novel domain with similarity to PAS domains, is fused to plant
homeodomain-leucine zipper III proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
14. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin. “A
Comprehensive Classification and Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/12/2775.short {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown algae}
15. ^ Jongmin Nam, Claude W. dePamphilis,
Hong Ma, and Masatoshi Nei, "Antiquity and Evolution of the MADS-Box Gene
Family Controlling Flower Development in Plants", Mol Biol Evol (2003) 20(9):
1435-1447 first published online May 30, 2003 doi:10.1093/molbev/msg152
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/9/1435.abstract {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown algae}
  
1,570,000,000 YBN
10 11 		197) The ancestor of all living eukaryotes divides into bikont and unikont
descendants. Bikonts lead to all Chromalveolates, Excavates, Rhizaria, and
Plants. Unikonts lead to all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
4. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
7. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
8. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
10. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf} {problem with 1250 my
bangia red algae fossils)1126 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the
major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1570 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early Eukaryote Megaevolution", J Mol Evol
(2003) 56:540 563
[2] J Mol Evol (2003) 56:540 563 Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early Eukaryote Megaevolution Thomas
Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao
  
1,520,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 		202) The Protist Phylum Amoebozoa evolves (amoebas, slime molds).7 8 Feeding
using pseudopods evolves.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p515.
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p515.
7. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p515.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1520 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1400 my}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1587mybn)
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1400) {c1220}
14. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c1090}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

  
1,520,000,000 YBN
3 4 5 6 7 8 		203) Colonialism (where cells form a colony2 ) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colonial." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
2. ^ "colonial." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1080 mybn}
4. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080 mybn}
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). {1956 mybn}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1999 mybn}
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1600mybn)
8. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms
with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996). (1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Biorealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
  
1,500,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 		15) The first "plastids" evolve. Cyanobacteria form plastids through
endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell. Like mitochondria, these organelles
copy themselves and are not made by the cell DNA.4

Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell with food from photosynthesis and gain
protection by living within the cell.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Lee, R.E. Phycology. Cambridge
University Press, 2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=gfoIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1300 mybn}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {c1600 my}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see comments {1576 MYBN}
11. ^ Knoll A, Summons
R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J, "The Geological Succession of Primary Producers in
the Oceans", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers
in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p152. {no later than) 1200 my}
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see comments {1576 MYBN} {needs to be at
least as old as Euglenozoa since many have plastids)1956} {Euglenozoa)1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Plastid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
[2] Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
  
1,500,000,000 YBN
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 		86) The first plant (ancestor of all green and red algae and land plants).21 22
23 24 25

This begins the plant kingdom. The first plant is probably unicellular, similar
to the glaucophytes {GlxKoFITS26 }.27 28 29 30 31
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der Staay,
Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from picoplankton
reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
4. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der Staay,
Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from picoplankton
reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
9. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from
picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
14. ^ Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from
picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
19. ^ Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
23. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from
picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
24. ^ Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
26. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glaucophytes&submit=Submit
27. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
29. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences from
picoplankton reveal unsuspected eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
30. ^ Elizabeth
Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
31. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1500)
33. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {first plastid) 1300mybn}
34. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources
and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {first plastid) c1600}
35. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll
A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120.
{1550 mybn}
36. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 (1609 mybn)
37. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{1580} http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
38. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science
257 (1992), pp. 232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf {fossil
Grypania) 1874my}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early Eukaryote Megaevolution", Springer New
York, (2003). file:///home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-smith_apusozoa_fulltext.html
  
1,500,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 		220) Protists Opisthokonts (ancestor of Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya
D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1380 mybn}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson
MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1400mybn}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1600
mybn}
11. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {960 mybn}
  
1,400,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 		209) The earliest extant plant: Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu9 }.10 11 12

Glaucophytes are unicellular algae found in freshwater.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glaucophytes&submit=Submit
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glaucophytes&submit=Submit
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glaucophytes&submit=Submit
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
13. ^ Lee, R.E. Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008, p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=gfoIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1400)
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson
MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson
MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150 mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1290 mybn}
18. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1225 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849
(2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (c1500my)
20. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(1558my)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P6064
  
1,300,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 		188) The Plant Phylum Chlorophyta {KlORoFiTu12 } evolves, Green Algae:
(ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce, Spirogyra, and Stoneworts).13 14 15 16 17

The
first land plants most likely evolve from green algae.18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record 2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
5. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chlorophyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
10. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record 2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
11. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html
12. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chlorophyta&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
16. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record 2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
17. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
19. ^ Taylor, Taylor, Krings, "Paleobotany: The
Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants", 2009, p133-134.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
21. ^ "algae."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14828/algae>.
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1150 mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450mybn}
24. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (968mybn)
25. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2
Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular
Evidence for the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10
August 2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001). (1061?)
26. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record 2",
(London; New York: Chapman & Hall, 1993). fr2b (1650-800mybn)
27. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.html (1000my)
28. ^ Herman N,
"Organic World One Billion Years Ago", Nauka, Leningrad, 1990.
29. ^ Knoll A, Summons
R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J, "The Geological Succession of Primary Producers in
the Oceans", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers
in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p150.
  
1,300,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		219) The plant Phylum Rhodophyta {rODOFITu7 } evolves (Red Algae).8 9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodophyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodophyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodophyta&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources
and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450 mybn}
12. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1428mybn)
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
  
1,300,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 		323) The Protists Excavates: includes Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS11 }, and
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ12 } {like Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u13 }).14 15 16
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardia&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=parabasalid&submit=Submit
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplomonads&submit=Submit
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardia&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=parabasalid&submit=Submit
12. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplomonads&submit=Submit
13. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardia&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1300 mybn}
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {2000 my}
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). {2291} {2291 my}
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
{1600} {1600 my}
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{2230} {2230 my}
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1594 my}
23. ^ Cédric Berney
and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {1030 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heterokonts". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokonts
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
  
1,280,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 		38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in Eukaryotes evolves.7 8

In this organism, unlike single cell eukaryotes, cells stay fastened together
after cell division.

Multicellularity seems to have arisen multiple times independently in
eukaryotes.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
2. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf
3. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
4. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf
5. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
6. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf
7. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J.
Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar,
Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf
9. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
10. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^
Schneider et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz
and M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup; implications for the tectonic setting of
Paleoproterozoic iron formations of the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874 mybn}
15. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the
2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal_cysts.pdf {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874
mybn}
16. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2009, p517.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506. (c850my)
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1351my)
[3] Ted huntington, Estimate based on origin
of brown algae around 1,973,000,000
(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada10   
1,280,000,000 YBN
2 3 4 		85) Differentiation in a multicellular eukaryote evolves. In addition to gamete
(or spore) cells, there are somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells, somatic cells
are asexual (non-fusing). This is the start of death by aging.

Cell differentiation is how cells in a multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific functions in a variety of tissues and organs.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cell differentiation." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differentiation
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of
Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
  
1,280,000,000 YBN
1 2 3 		210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the origin of eukaryotes", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2001, 1:4 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -80mybn
guess}
  
1,280,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		301) The haplodiplontic life cycle evolves (mitosis occurs in both haploid and
diploid life stages).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
3. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles",
1994, p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
  
1,274,000,000 YBN
11 12 		187) A captured red alga, through endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.7 8 9

This is a secondary plastid endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is captured
instead of a cyanobacterium.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS. “Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion.”
Annals of Botany 95.1 (2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.short
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS. “Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion.”
Annals of Botany 95.1 (2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.short
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS. “Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion.”
Annals of Botany 95.1 (2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.short
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007.
11. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818. Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract {1274
mybn}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1280mybn}
  
1,250,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 27 		88) The Protists "Chromalveolates" {KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS15 } evolve (ancestor of
the Chromista {Cryptophytes, Haptophytes, and Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ16 }} and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS17 }).18 19 20 21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chromalveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
3. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p540.
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full
7. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626 (2003)
: 1703 -1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/300/5626/1703.short
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chromalveolates&submit=Submit
9. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p540.
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full
14. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703 -1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/300/5626/1703.short
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chromalveolates&submit=Submit
16. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
17. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p540.
20. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full
21. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703 -1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/300/5626/1703.short
22. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the Origin
of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004):
809 -818. Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract
{c1250 mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1300 mybn}
24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1665 mybn}
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 (1973mybn)
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
27. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1600mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brown alga". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_alga
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data", Science,
Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
  
1,250,000,000 YBN
12 		201) The earliest certain eukaryote fossils and eukaryote filamentous
multicellularity: Rhodophyta (red algae) fossils.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
2. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3 (September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2
3. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer, Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
4. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
5. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3 (September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2
6. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer, Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
7. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
8. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3 (September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2
9. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer, Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
10. ^ Science 1990 vol 250
Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
11. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3 (September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2
12. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science 250:
104-107 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905 {1250 mybn}
(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island, arctic Canada10 11   
1,200,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 		221) The first fungi. This begins the Fungi Kingdom.8 9

Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic (unable to build structural materials by
photosynthesis) and so must feed on other living things.10

Fungi live on organic material and are therefore generally parasitic (live or
feed on another organism to the detriment of the host organism11 ) or are
saprophytic (live on dead or decaying organic matter12 ). Some types of fungi,
however, form symbioses with plants.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
11. ^ "parasitic." Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/parasitic
12. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal Life
Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc, 2005. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic-zoology
13. ^ http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007. {c1200 mybn}
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1368 mybn}
16. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 (1513mybn) {1513 mybn}
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c1200) {c1100} {c1100 mybn}
  
1,180,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 		6280) The Protists Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS11 } (ancestor of all Ciliates,
Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS12 }).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagellate
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
6. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
7. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagellate
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
10. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
11. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=alveolates&submit=Submit
12. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagellate
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
15. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
16. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1180 mybn}
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1480 my}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956 my}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1345 my}
20. ^ Emmanuelle J.
Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.springerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1000 my}
21. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c820 my}
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1628}
  
1,100,000,000 YBN
9 10 		75) The oldest extant fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolves.5 6

Microsporidia are obligate (survive only as7 ) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ "obligate." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/obligate
8. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss, "The
microsporidia and microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=SqNvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (>1460mybn)
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c1100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=93911
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle,
"A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full
  
1,100,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		313) The Protist Phylum "Dinoflagellata" evolves (the Dinoflagellates
{DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS9 }).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinoflagellates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinoflagellates&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle,
"A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinoflagellates&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise
of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
13. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.springerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular fossils)1100 my}
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources
and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {DNA)1040 mybn}
15. ^ A. H. Knoll,
E. J. Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470,
Major Steps in Cell Evolution: Palaeontological, Molecular and Cellular
Evidence of Their Timing and Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20209698 {1.8 bybn} {Dinosterane
molecular fossils)1100 my}
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {940 mybn}
17. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7,
2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {430 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch (1600mybn)
[3] Pratt, L. M., Summons, R. E. and
Hieshima, G. B.: 1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers in the Precambrian
Nonesuch Formation, North American Midcontinent Rift, Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta
55, 911–916
[4] J.J. Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 - Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief: Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford, 2003,
Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[5] Moldowan, J. Michael et al. “Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of
biofacies: Molecular evidence linking cyst-forming dinoflagellates with
pre-Triassic ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159 -162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/24/2/159.full.pdf
[6] Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology of Plants", (New York: Worth Publishers,
1992). p98-99
[7] "coenocyte." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/coenocyte
  
1,080,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 		87) The Excavates Discicristates {DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ11 }, trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ12 }, and acrasid
{oKrASiD13 } slime molds).14 15 16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^
"leishmanias." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/leishmanias>.
5. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/trypanosome>.
6. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=acrasiomycetes&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
10. ^
Baldauf, "An overview of the phylogeny and diversity of eukaryotes", Journal of
Systematics and Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
11. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/leishmanias>.
12. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08
Jun. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/trypanosome>.
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=acrasiomycetes&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
17. ^
Baldauf, "An overview of the phylogeny and diversity of eukaryotes", Journal of
Systematics and Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1080 mybn}
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). {1956 mybn}
20. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources
and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1999 mybn}
21. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(1600mybn)
22. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms
with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996). (1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Biorealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
  
1,080,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first three-dimensional response to light.12
13 14

The earliest eye probably evolves from a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular eukaryote.15 16

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open water.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364 (October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
3. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
4. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364
(October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

5. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
6. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
7. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364
(October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

8. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
9. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
10. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
11. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
12. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364
(October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

13. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
14. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
15. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/Labs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
16. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy, Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome Miniaturization and Expansion", * Oxford
Journals * Life Sciences * Annals of Botany * Volume 95, Number
1 *, (2005). http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/1/147.abstract
17. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of phototaxis."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364
(October 2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119.
19. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818. Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract {guess
based on earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410 mybn}
20. ^ Hackett
JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll
A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{guess based on earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410 mybn}
21. ^ my
own estimate based on where euglenozoa genetically appear to evolve {guess
based on earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter Hegemann, "Algal Sensory Photoreceptors", Annual Review of
Plant Biology, Vol. 59: 167 -189 (Volume publication date June 2008)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092847
%40recept.2009.1.issue-1
[2] Trevor D. Lamb, Detlev Arendt, and Shaun P. Collin, "The evolution of
phototransduction and eyes", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B October 12, 2009
364:2791-2793;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0106 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1
531/2791.full
[3] Kreimer, G. (2009) The green algal eyespot apparatus: a primordial visual
system and more? Current Genetics 55:19-43 doi:10.007/s00294-008-0224-8 PMID
19107486 http://www.springerlink.com/content/v54v124mxg52r091/
  
1,050,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		169) The Protists Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ9 } (also called Heterokonts)
evolve (ancestor of all brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu10 )).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
2. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
5. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
6. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
9. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=stramenopiles
10. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
13. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818. Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract {1050
mybn}
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier;
2007, p119. {1180 mybn}
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1480my}
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1345 my}
17.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956my} {Alveolates and Plant split)1956my}
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600 my}
{Chromalveolates)1600 my}
19. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf} {c775my} {c754my}
20. ^
Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and
Interpreting the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.springerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {c1000my}
21. ^ Emmanuel J. P. Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric Bapteste,
Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic evolution:
Does a relaxed molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {872 my}
  
1,000,000,000 YBN
7 		324) The Protists Mesomycetozoea {me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u5 } evolve (also called
DRIPS).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomycetozoea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomycetozoea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomycetozoea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1000 MYBN (end of Mesoproterozoic}

MORE INFO
[1] Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, et al.
2008 Multigene Phylogeny of Choanozoa and the Origin of Animals. PLoS ONE 3(5):
e2098. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098
[2] Leonel Mendoza, John W. Taylor, and Libero Ajello, "THE CLASS
MESOMYCETOZOEA: A Heterogeneous Group of Microorganisms at the Animal-Fungal
Boundary", Annual Review of Microbiology October 2002, Vol. 56:
315-344. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.
160950
  
985,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		309) The Protist Phylum Oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu11 } evolves (ancestor of the
Oomycetes12 ; water molds).13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
10. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomycota&submit=Submit
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
16. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {985}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1973mybn)
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Terms/coeno128.html#coeno128
[2] "Coenocyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocyte
[3]
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Water_Mol
ds
[4] http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1116/16protists.htm
  
900,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		6281) The Protists Rhizaria {rI-ZaR-E-u5 } evolve (ancestor of all Radiolaria,
Foraminifera and Cercozoa).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhizaria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhizaria&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhizaria&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Medlin, L. , Kooistra, W. , Potter, D. ,
Saanders, G. and Wandersen, R. (1997): Phylogenetic relationships of the
'golden algae' (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids , The
origin of the algae and their plastids (D Bhattacharya, ed ) Plant systematics
and evolution (Suppl ) http://epic.awi.de/2100/
AND http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf {900 my}
8. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_a=rhizaria&taxon_b=haptophyta&submit=Sea
rch {900 my}
9. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my} {754 my}
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Moreira D, von der Heyden S, Bass D, López-García P, Chao E,
Cavalier-Smith T (July 2007). "Global eukaryote phylogeny: Combined small- and
large-subunit ribosomal DNA trees support monophyly of Rhizaria, Retaria and
Excavata". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 44 (1): 255–66.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1055-7903(06)00433-7
[2]
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_a=rhizaria&taxon_b=alveolates&submit=Sea
rch
[3] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll
A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
  
850,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		224) The Fungi "Zygomycota" evolves (ancestor of the bread molds, and pin
molds).9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for
the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1250mybn)
14. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2
Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular
Evidence for the Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and Plants", Science 10
August 2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001). (1107mybn)
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary timescales", Trends in Genetics Volume 19,
Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003). (1107mybn)
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c850m)
  
767,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		312) The Protist Phylum "Ciliophora" {SiL-E-oF-R-u7 } evolves (the "Ciliates")
(ancestor of the paramecium).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of
Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
7. ^ "ciliophora."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ciliophora>.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
11. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew
H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1,
75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.springerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {750 my}
12. ^ Emmanuel J. P. Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
13. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of
Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
  
767,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		314) The Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa" {a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su9 } evolves (includes
Malaria and Toxoplasmosis).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicomplexa&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicomplexa&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicomplexa&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
13. ^ Emmanuel J. P. Douzery,
Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The
timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed molecular clock reconcile
proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
14. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
15. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm
Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.springerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {api+dino and ciliate split)1100 my}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1973mybn)
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003, p135
  
680,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 28 29 		326) The Protists "Choanoflagellates" {KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS16 } evolve.17 18 19
20 21 22
Choanoflagellates are the closest relatives to the animals and may be
direct ancestors of sponges.23

There are about 140 species of choanoflagellates. Some are free-swimming,
propelling themselves with a flagellum. Others are attached by a stalk,
sometimes with several together in a colony.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choanoflagellate&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=114293
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&excludeNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(1000 drips and 900 choano)
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choanoflagellate&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=114293
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&excludeNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(1000 drips and 900 choano)
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choanoflagellate&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=114293
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&excludeNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(1000 drips and 900 choano)
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
25. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano) {900 MYBN}
27. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources
and timing of the major events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {900 MYBN}
28. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1020 mybn}
29. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1513 (drips?) and 1450
choano) {1450 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003)
[2] "Ichthyosporea".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyosporea
  
670,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		286) Multicellularity evolves in a free moving Protist.10 11 This allows
larger free moving organisms to evolve.12

This multicellularity is thought to be independently evolved, and not related
to the earlier filamentous multicellularity of prokaryotes like cyanobacteria,
and eukaryotes like algae.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason
L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Shuhai Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll, "Three-dimensional
preservation of algae and animal embryos in a Neoproterozoic phosphorite",
Nature 391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
14. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press, NJ,
1987).
15. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506. (c850my)
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1351my)

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
[2] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, 188-191
  
670,000,000 YBN
297) The diplontic life cycle evolves; this organism is predominantly diploid,
mitosis in the haploid phase does not occur.3 4

All animals are diplontic, and descend from this multicellular organism.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
3. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
4. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
  
660,000,000 YBN
35 36 37 38 39 		81) The first animal and first metazoan, the sponge evolves. This begins the
Animal Kingdom, and the Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are only three
major kinds of metazoans: sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.15 16 17

The word "porifera" means "pore bearing" in Latin18 , and water continuously
flows through the pores in sponges19 .

Metazoans are multicellular and have differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). Sponges have cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile {KunTraKTL20 } cells, cells that digest food,
and other kinds of cell types.21 22 23 24

All sponge cells are totipotent and so are capable of regrowing a new sponge.25


Sponges have two layers, each a single cell thick. The outer surface is called
the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM26 } and is made of cells called pinacocytes
{PiN-o-KO-SITS27 }. On the inner surface is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or
KO-aNo-DRM28 } which is made of flagellated cells called choanocytes
{KOenO-SITS29 or KO-aNo-SITS30 }. Between these two thin cellular sheets is
the jellylike31 mesohyl {mASuHIL32 }33

Some sponges can live for over 1000 years.34
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p497-501.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
17. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
18. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Porifera
19. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 2006, p335.
20. ^ "contractile."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 31 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/contractile>.
21. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
23. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
24. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, 188-191.
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinacoderm&submit=Submit
27. ^ "pinacocyte." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinacocyte
28. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choanoderm&submit=Submit
29. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choanocyte&submit=Submit
30. ^ "choanocyte." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
27 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/choanocyte
31. ^ Meglitsch, P.A., and F.R. Schram. Invertebrate Zoology.
Oxford University Press, USA, 1991, p56.
32. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronunciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
33. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p183.
34. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
35. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of
Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
36. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
37. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {c800my}
38. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1351my)
39. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] Müller, Werner E. G. “The Origin of Metazoan Complexity: Porifera
as Integrated Animals.” Integrative and Comparative Biology 43.1 (2003):
3–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3884834
  
660,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		517) The male gonad (testis {TeSTiS5 } or testicle) evolves in a sponge.6 In
sponges sperm are contained in spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte chambers
transformed by the formation of sperm7 (spermatogenesis), but ova are
distributed throughout the mesohyl {mASuHIL8 } (or middle layer).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p20.
3. ^ "testis." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p20.
5. ^ "testis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p20.
7. ^ "spermatogenesis."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/spermatogenesis>.
8. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronunciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {based on evolution of sponge) c850my}
12. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1351my)
13. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglycan
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p17
  
650,000,000 YBN
41) Start of the 60 million year (Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic
and Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
  
650,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		69) Cells that group as tissues that are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.4

Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa and all later metazoans, cells group as
tissues.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ D.
T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p2-3.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p494.
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks
Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750) {c750MYBN (Ctenophores are first metazoans
with tissues}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
  
650,000,000 YBN
12 13 		79) The Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa" evolves.5 6

Placozoans look like amoebas but are multicellular.7 The only known species is
Trichoplax adhaerens {TriKOPlaKS8 aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax lives in the sea and
feeds on single celled organisms, mostly algae. There are only 4 cell types in
Trichoplax compared to the more than 200 cell types in humans. Trichoplax has
two main cell layers, like a cnidarian or ctenophore. Between these two layers
are a few contractile cells that are similar to muscle cells9 , however
placozoans have no muscle or nerve cells10 11 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ based on "Trichomonas." The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trichomonas
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p494.
10. ^ Grell, K.G., Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.), Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
11. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {780 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Srivastava, Mansi et al. “The Trichoplax genome and the nature of
placozoans.” Nature 454.7207 (2008) :
955-960. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v454/n7207/abs/nature07191.html
[2] Dellaporta, Stephen L. et al. “Mitochondrial genome of Trichoplax
adhaerens supports Placozoa as the basal lower metazoan phylum.” Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 103.23 (2006) : 8751 -8756.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/23/8751.full
  
650,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		223) The Fungi "Chytridiomycota" {KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes all
Chytridiomycetes {KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ}7 )).8 9 10

The chytrids are primitive fungi and are mostly saprobic (feed on dead species,
decomposing chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in
freshwater).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
"Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomycetes-1
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
7. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomycetes-1
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
13. ^ http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
(1460mybn)
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1000mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=71577&tree=0.1
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomycota
[3] http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chytridiomycetes&submit=Submit
[4] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of Fungi", 2008, p142
Northern Russia12   
640,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 18 		83) The first nerve cell (or neuron), and nervous system evolves in the
ancestor of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.9 10 This leads to the first
ganglion and brain.11 This is the earliest touch and sound detection, and
memory.12

As time continues in the evolution of the metazoans, the number of neurons
increases while the size of neurons decreases, just like transistors as
computers improve.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2,30.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
10. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2,30.
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of
Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
15. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {775 MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN (estimate
based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn}
16. ^ S OOta and N Saitou, "Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced
from superimposition of gene trees.", Mol Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {574mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Ghysen, A. (2003). The origin and evolution of the nervous system.
The International journal of developmental biology , 47 (7-8),
555-562. http://view.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14756331
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750mybn)
  
640,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		96) Muscle cells evolve in the ancestor of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.5
Both the earliest known muscle and nerve cells are found in Ctenophores and
Cnidarians.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
2. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
3. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
4. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
5. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
6. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf}
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid, Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and
the origin of triploblasty, Developmental Biology, Volume 282, Issue 1, 1 June
2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN 0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving c750mybn}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750mybn) {775 MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN (estimate
based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
10. ^ S OOta and N Saitou, "Phylogenetic
relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees.",
Mol Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
  
640,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		225) A closeable mouth evolves in the ancestor of all ctenophores and
cnidarians.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
4. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3. {c750MYBN (all metazoans but sponges have a closable
mouth}
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750) {c750MYBN (all metazoans but sponges have a
closable mouth}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
  
640,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 		414) The female gonad (the first ovary) evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p48.
2. ^
http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p48.
4. ^
http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p48.
6. ^
http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p48.
8. ^
http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
{based on evolution of cnidaria) 580my}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
13. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglycan
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p17
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c850my)
[5] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1351my)
[6] Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)
  
640,000,000 YBN
12 13 		523) The animal Phylum Ctenophora {Ti-noF-R-u5 } evolves (comb jellies).6

Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores are diploblastic; they have two embryonic
germ layers- the ectoderm {EKTeDRM7 } and the endoderm {eNDeDRM8 } which become
the adult epidermis and gastrodermis, respectively. The middle mesenchyme
{meSeNKIM9 }, a watery gelatinous fluid, never produces the complex organs seen
in triploblastic Metazoa.10

The main body cavity of the ctenophores is also
the digestive chamber, and they have a simple nerve net.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ctenophore." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ctenophore>.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
3. ^ "ctenophore." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House,
Inc. 02 May. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ctenophore>.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
5. ^ "ctenophora." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ctenophora>.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
7. ^ "ectoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
01 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/ectoderm
8. ^ "endoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
01 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/endoderm
9. ^ "mesenchyme." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc.
31 Dec. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mesenchyme>.
10. ^ {ULSF: Note that this info is taken from cnidaria, but is
the same for ctenophora} Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p225,274.
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493.
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
  
635,000,000 YBN
2 		6413) The start of the Ediacaran Period.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5684/621.short
2. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5684/621.short
  
630,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 36 		82) The Animal Phylum Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea
anemones, sea pens, corals, and jellyfish).19 20 21 22 Cnidaria also evolve
the earliest animal eye.23 24

Cnidaria are primarily radially symmetrical animals with tentacles, have a
single body cavity with only one opening to take in food and to release wastes,
and have specialized stinging cells.25

Cnidarians have two alternate body plans, the polyp and the medusa {miDUSe26
}.27 A sea anemone is an example of a polyp: fixed to the ground with mouth on
top.28 A coral is a polyp that secretes a skeleton29 which it lives inside
of30 . The medusa form is upside down compared to the polyp form31 , and is
free swimming. A jellyfish has a typical medusa form.32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p41.
6. ^ Megan O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie.",
Journal Of Comparative Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory Neural And Behavioral
Physiology (2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/research/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p41.
12. ^ Megan O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie.",
Journal Of Comparative Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory Neural And Behavioral
Physiology (2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/research/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
17. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p41.
18. ^ Megan O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie.",
Journal Of Comparative Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory Neural And Behavioral
Physiology (2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/research/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
22. ^ "Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
23. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p41.
24. ^ Megan O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie.",
Journal Of Comparative Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory Neural And Behavioral
Physiology (2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/research/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
25. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p31.
26. ^ "medusa." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
01 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/medusa
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p477-490.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p477-490.
29. ^ "coral." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/coral
30. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p338.
31. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through Time", 2006, p338.
32. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
33. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
35. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
36. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] Collins, A.G. (2002). "Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the Evolution of
Cnidarian Life Cycles" (PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology 15 (3):
418–432.
doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x. http://cima.uprm.edu/~n_schizas/CMOB_8676
/Collins2002.pdf
[2] Philippe, H. (April 2009). "Phylogenomics Revives Traditional Views on Deep
Animal Relationships". Current Biology 19: 706–712.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.052. PMID
19345102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209008057
[3] doi:10.1038/4631003b; Published online 24 February
2010 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7284/full/4631003b.html
  
600,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 		91) The start of the Ediacaran {EDEoKRiN6 } soft-bodied invertebrate fossils.7


The sudden appearance of Ediacaran fossils may relate to the accumulation of
free oxygen in the atmosphere and sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.8

Because the Ediacaran animals are soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ediacaran." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
3. ^ "Ediacaran." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
6. ^ "Ediacaran." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
7. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
9. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
10. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996). "Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/content/93/10/4990.full.pdf
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Meert, J.
G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.; Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin, A.
(2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser Karatau
Microcontinent, Kazakhstan". Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
13. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996). "Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/content/93/10/4990.full.pdf
14. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative and
Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No. 1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3884845 {Waggoner_200302xx.pdf}
15. ^ H. J. Hofmann, G. M. Narbonne and J. D. Aitken, "Ediacaran remains from
intertillite beds in northwestern Canada", Geology, December, 1990, v. 18, p.
1199-1202. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/18/12/1199.abstract {Hofmann_Edi
acaran_Fossils_1990.pdf}
16. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5684/621.short
17. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5684/621.short
18. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329. {630 mybn}
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). {575 mybn}
20. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
{670 mybn}
21. ^ Meert, J. G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.; Grice, W. C.;
Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin, A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma Ediacara (?)
Fossils from the Lesser Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan". Gondwana Research
19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005

MORE INFO
[1] Ivantsov, A. Yu (2004). "New Proarticulata from the Vendian of the
Arkhangel'sk Region" (PDF). Paleontological Journal 38 (3): 247–253
[2] Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005): 9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.short
Sonora, Mexico10 |Adelaide, Australia11 | Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta12   
600,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 		107) The Animals Bilaterians evolve (metazoans with two sided symmetry).23 24
25
This is the first triploblastic animal; an animal with a third embryonic
layer, the mesoderm {meZuDRM26 }.27 This is also the earliest animal brain.28


In most bilaterians food enters in one end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste detection to be located on the head near the
mouth to help with getting food.29

The earliest brain (ganglion and memory) develop in a bilaterian worm.30 31

This begins the Animal Subkingdom "Bilateria".32
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p69.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396-400.
6. ^ "mesoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p59.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p69.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396-400.
13. ^ "mesoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p59.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p69.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396-400.
20. ^ "mesoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
21. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p59.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p396.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
24. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
"mesoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
27. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p59.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p396-400.
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p396.
30. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p69.
31. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
32. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
33. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
35. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is older)
  
600,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		403) The earliest extant bilaterian: Acoelomorpha (ancestor of acoela flat
worms and nemertodermatida).9 10 11

The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track, anus and coelom.12 13

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and breathe through their skin. With no
circulating blood, their branched gut presumably transports nutrients to all
parts of the body.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476.
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorpha
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^
"Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorpha
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
15. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks
Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p396
  
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		459) An intestine evolves in a bilaterian. Since the gut of this organism has
no anus, undigested food must be regurgitated through the mouth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p61,66-67.
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is older)
  
600,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		532) A cylindrical gut, anus, and through-put of food evolves in a bilaterian;6
 found in all bilaterians except Acoelomorpha7 and Platyhelminthes.8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p4.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p4.
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my) {630my (first bilateral species-acoelomates}
11. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is older) {575
(first bilateral species-acoelomates)(fossil record is older}
  
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		593) The genital pore, vagina, and uterus evolve in a bilaterian.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
5. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa:
Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic
Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is older)
  
600,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		660) The penis evolves in a bilaterian.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
2. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
3. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
4. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my) {based on some Platyhelminthes have a penis)
630my}
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575
(fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
  
590,000,000 YBN
70) The end of the Varanger Ice Age (650-590 mybn).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic
and Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
  
590,000,000 YBN
7 8 		95) The coelom (SEleM) evolves in a bilaterian.3

The coelem is a fluid filled cavity that forms within the mesoderm and exists
between the gut and body wall4 in most triploblastic animals5 .

The advantage of a coelem is that it allows the body wall and gut wall to act
independently, and also that other organ systems can be developed in the
fluid-filled space. In addition, the fluid in the cavity can act as a
deformable skeleton.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, p48.
5. ^ Valentine, J.W. On the Origin of Phyla. University of Chicago Press,
2004. American Politics and Political Economy Series,
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=DMBkmHm5fe4C&pg=PA60
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4-5.
7. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {estimate based on coelom being before protostome-deutostome
division, after acoelomorph) 630-590 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "coelom." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/body-cavity
  
590,000,000 YBN
16 17 		98) The first circulatory system evolves; blood vessels, and blood evolve in a
bilaterian.9 The first blood cells.10 Cnidarians and flatworms are at most
two sheets of tissue thick and so allow gas exchange and nutrient distribution
by diffusion, but larger animals with thicker tissues require a circulatory
system to distribute materials.11 12 13

The circulatory system transports molecules like gases, food, and waste to and
from individual cells.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p81.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
6. ^ Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin. Biology.
Cengage Learning, 2010. Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books?id=itHVNZicPgwC
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
8. ^ Cowen, R. History of Life.
John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p81.
10. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
11. ^ Solomon,
E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin. Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010. Available Titles
CourseMate Series, p938-939. http://books.google.com/books?id=itHVNZicPgwC
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
13. ^ Cowen,
R. History of Life. John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition,
2001, p4.
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on}
  
580,000,000 YBN
31 32 33 34 		93) The Bilaterians Protostomes evolve.21 22 The ancestor of all Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu23 } and Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu24 }.25 26 27 28

The difference between protostomes and deutrostomes arises during embryonic
development. In protostomes, the first indentation of the gastrula (an early
stage of the embryo29 ) develops into the mouth and the second indentation
develops into the anus. The reverse is true for the deuterostomes.30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
3. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE;
Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling
improves resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
4. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
11. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling
improves resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
12. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
15. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
19. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling
improves resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
20. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
23. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
26. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198701
27. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling
improves resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
28. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
29. ^ "gastrula." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gastrula>.
30. ^ Alters, S. Biology: Understanding Life. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2000.
Human and Introductory Biology Series,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=GRDUIbQwGc8C&pg=PA511
31. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (590my) {590 mybn}
33. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins.
“Fossils and phylogenies: integrating multiple lines of evidence to
investigate the origin of early major metazoan lineages.” Integrative and
Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/5/744.full {543 mybn}
34. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {910 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=priapulids
[2] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide
Pisani, "The Ediacaran emergence of bilaterians: congruence between the genetic
and the geological fossil records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April 27, 2008 363
(1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
  
580,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		105) The Bilaterians Deuterostomes evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS 9 }, Hemichordates, and Chordates.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
29 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "echinoderm." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {570 mybn}
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {910 mybn}
15. ^ Cartwright,
Paulyn, and Allen Collins. “Fossils and phylogenies: integrating multiple
lines of evidence to investigate the origin of early major metazoan
lineages.” Integrative and Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/5/744.full {367 mybn}
16. ^ Jun-Yuan
Chen, David J. Bottjer, Paola Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng Gao, Seth
Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei Li, Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian Fossils
from 40 to 55 Million Years Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305, Issue 5681,
218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;305/5681/218

MORE INFO
[1] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide Pisani,
"The Ediacaran emergence of bilaterians: congruence between the genetic and the
geological fossil records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April 27, 2008 363 (1496)
1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
  
580,000,000 YBN
8 9 		131) The first shell (or skeleton) evolves. The first known shell belongs to a
group of ciliates called tintinnids.5 Skeletons evolve independently in
different groups of organisms.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf}
2. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf}
3. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf}
4. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/547371/skeleton>.
5. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf}
6. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/547371/skeleton>.
7. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf}
8. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian
Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580mybn.pdf} {earliest hard shell fossil -
ciliate) 580 mybn}
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). {Euglenozoa -pellicle) 1956 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Hamm, Smetacek, "Armor: Why, When, and How", in Falkowski, Knoll,
"Evolution of Primary Producers in the Sea", 2007, p311-332, p323
[2] Bengtson, S.
(2004), Early skeletal fossils, in Lipps, J.H., and Waggoner, B.M.,
"Neoproterozoic- Cambrian Biological Revolutions" (PDF), Paleontological
Society Papers 10: 67–78, retrieved
2008-07-18 http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson200
4ESF.pdf
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan, Guizhou Province, South China7   
570,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 		311) The Bilaterians Chaetognatha {KE-ToG-nutu14 15 } evolve (Arrow Worms).16

The earliest teeth evolve. Animals start to eat other animals.17 18

The evolution of teeth and animal predation starts an "arms race" that rapidly
transforms ecosystems around the Earth.19 Teeth and shells evolve as
advantages to survival.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
2. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.;
Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from predator arrow worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC 2197202. PMID
17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
3. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognatha
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaetognatha&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
7. ^ Vannier, J.;
Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian
origin of modern food webs: evidence from predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610): 627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
8. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognatha
9. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaetognatha&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
12. ^ Vannier,
J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early
Cambrian origin of modern food webs: evidence from predator arrow worms".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
13. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
14. ^ "arrow worm." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognatha
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaetognatha&submit=Submit
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
18. ^ Vannier, J.;
Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian
origin of modern food webs: evidence from predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610): 627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
19. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(570)
22. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y. (2002). "A possible Lower Cambrian chaetognath
(arrow worm)". Science 298 (5591): 187. doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
23. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", Oxford University
Press, New York., 2009, Chap 24, p224-225. http://timetree.org/book.php

MORE INFO
[1] Gonzalo Giribet, Daniel L. Distel, Martin Polz, Wolfgang Sterrer, and
Ward C. Wheeler Triploblastic Relationships with Emphasis on the Acoelomates
and the Position of Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora, Plathelminthes, and
Chaetognatha: A Combined Approach of 18S rDNA Sequences and Morphology Syst
Biol (2000) 49(3): 539-562 doi:10.1080/10635159950127385
[2] Martin Helmkampf, Iris Bruchhaus, Bernhard
Hausdorf, Multigene analysis of lophophorate and chaetognath phylogenetic
relationships, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 46, Issue 1,
January 2008, Pages 206-214, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.004. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S105579030700317X)
[3] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
[4] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2002, p844
  
565,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		345) The Deuterostome Phylum Hemichordata evolves; The "Hemichordates", the
ancestor of pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS9 }10 and acorn worms).11

Adult Pterobranchs are sessile, fastening to solid structures, but the younger
(or larval) form is free swimming, and is thought to have retained this form
before evolving into tunicates and then the first fish.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterobranchs&submit=Submit
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterobranchs&submit=Submit
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p201.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterobranchs&submit=Submit
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
13. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
14. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J. Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J. Siveter,
Mark Williams, Jan Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch hemichordate zooid
from the lower Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March 2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p383.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=126698
  
565,000,000 YBN
22 23 		347) The Deuterostome Phylum Chordata evolves. Chordates are a very large group
that include all tunicates {TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals,
and birds.15 16 Chordates get their name from the notochord {nOTe-KORD17 },
the cartilage rod that runs along the back of the animal, in the embryo if not
in the adult.18

The ancestor of all chordates evolves "upside-down": unlike earlier
invertebrates who have a ventral nerve cord (near the belly19 ) and a dorsal
heart (near the back20 ), this ancestor and all later vertebrates have a dorsal
nerve cord and a ventral heart.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p399-400.
6. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
7. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
10. ^
"notochord." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p399-400.
13. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
14. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
17. ^ "notochord." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 04 Jun. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381.
19. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01
Apr. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
20. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). p399-400.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p368-p381. {565 MYBN}
23. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208583.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Douzery, E. J. P., Snell, E. A., Bapteste, E., Delsuc, F., &
Philippe, H. (2004). The timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils? Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 101 (43),
15386-15391. URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0403984101
[2] Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho
and Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of
Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science New Series, Vol. 271, No. 5248
(Jan. 26, 1996), pp. 470-477. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2890144
[3] Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Drafting a Tree.” Science
300.5626 (2003) : 1694.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/300/5626/1694.summary
[4] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary Emergence of
Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION: EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.springerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41451
  
565,000,000 YBN
5 6 		348) The earliest extant chordate: Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also called sea
squirts).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381. {565 mybn}
6. ^ Chen, Jun-Yuan
et al. “The First Tunicate from the Early Cambrian of South China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.14 (2003): 8314 –8318.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/14/8314.full
  
560,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 24 		117) The earliest animal shell (or skeleton) evolves.6
This is the earliest
evidence of animals eating other animals (predation).7 8
This begins the
appearance of small shelly fossils and deep burrows correlated with a decline
in stromatolites, possibly from feeding.9

The earliest animal shells are made by tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and Sinotubulites10 11 in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.12

The shell of Cloudina is made of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)13 , and are possibly
made by some kind of worm.14

Predatory bore holes have been found in Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
2. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome: simultaneous origin of protective armour
and infaunal shelters at the Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran
Biota, Special publications, 286, London: Geological Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN 9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511 191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
3. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID 17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345
4. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina Shells:
Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Terminal Neoproterozoic", PALAIOS,
October 2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2 http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
5. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth",
sixth edition, 2002, p210.
6. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome: simultaneous
origin of protective armour and infaunal shelters at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special publications, 286, London: Geological Society,
pp. 405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN 9781862392335, OCLC 191881597
156823511 191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
7. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID 17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345
8. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina Shells:
Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Terminal Neoproterozoic", PALAIOS,
October 2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2 http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
9. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth",
sixth edition, 2002, p210.
10. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", 6th
edition 2002, p212.
11. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p168.
12. ^ Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and James G. Gehling.
“The Advent of Hard-part Structural Support Among the Ediacara Biota:
Ediacaran Harbinger of a Cambrian Mode of Body Construction.” Geology (2012):
n. pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
13. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID 17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345
14. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
15. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID 17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345
16. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina Shells:
Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Terminal Neoproterozoic", PALAIOS,
October 2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2 http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
17. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and distribution of
Cloudina, a potential index fossil for the terminal Proterozoic.",
Source: American journal of science (1990) volume: 290-A (Special volume)
page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
18. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina Shells:
Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Terminal Neoproterozoic", PALAIOS,
October 2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2 http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782
19. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say
and Why It Matters", 2007, p163-170.
20. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", 6th
edition 2002, p212.
21. ^ Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M. Porter, John L. Moore, Frank
Ö. Dudás, Samuel A. Bowring, John A. Higgins, David A. Fike, and Michael P.
Eddy, "The earliest Cambrian record of animals and ocean geochemical change",
Geological Society of America Bulletin, November 2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full

22. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal Proterozoic.", Source: American journal of
science (1990) volume: 290-A (Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
23. ^ http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/neoproterozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran2.htm
24. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2 http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

MORE INFO
[1] Philip W. Signor and Mark A. S. McMenamin "The Early Cambrian Worm
Tube Onuphionella from California and Nevada", Journal of Paleontology , Vol.
62, No. 2 (Mar., 1988), pp. 233-240 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1305228
[2] MATTHEWS, S. C., AND V. V. MISSARZHEVSKY.
1975. "Small shelly fossils of late Precambrian and early Cambrian age: a
review of recent work." Journal of the Geological Society,
131:289-304 http://jgs.geoscienceworld.org/content/131/3/289.abstract
[3] GRANT, S. W. F. 1990. "Shell structure and distribution of Cloudina, a
potential index fossil for the terminal Proterozoic." American Journal of
Science, 290(A):261-294
(Ara Formation) Oman17 |Lijiagou, Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province18
  
560,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		318) The Protostomes Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu8 } evolve. Ecdysozoa are animals
that molt (lose their outer skin) as they grow.9 10 This is the ancestor of
round worms, and arthropods (which includes insects and crustaceans {also known
as "shell-fish"}).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
7. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198710
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdysozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005),p390-394.
11. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=198710
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks
Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c580) {c580 mybn}
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden,
MA: Blackwell, 2005),p388-394. (560) {560 mybn}
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {790 mybn}
16. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and phylogenies: integrating multiple lines of
evidence to investigate the origin of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/5/744.full {530 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008). "Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p390-394
[4] Telford, Maximilian J et al. “The Evolution of the Ecdysozoa.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1529 –1537.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1496/1529.long
  
560,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		331) The Protostomes Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u10 } evolve. Ancestor of
rotifers, phoronids, brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ11 }, entoprocts {eNTuProKS12 },
bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ13 }, platyhelminthes, gastrotrichs, nemertea, molluscs
and annelids.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachiopods&submit=Submit
6. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entoproct?s=t
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozoans&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
11. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachiopods&submit=Submit
12. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entoproct?s=t
13. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozoans&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree", Science,
(2003).
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the
Proterozoic Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547) {c580 mybn}
18. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003). (550) {550 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009, p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {790 mybn}
20. ^
Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins. “Fossils and phylogenies: integrating
multiple lines of evidence to investigate the origin of early major metazoan
lineages.” Integrative and Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/5/744.full {538 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=202032
  
560,000,000 YBN
349) The first fish evolves.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41451
  
560,000,000 YBN
6290) The earliest extant fish, the Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS7 } (also
called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS8 }9 ).10 This is also the first liver and
kidney.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lancelet." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
4. ^ "lancelet." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Feb.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
7. ^ "lancelet." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
11 Feb. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
8. ^ "amphioxus." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc.
01 Jan. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/amphioxus>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p202.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
11. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p205.

MORE INFO
[1] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary
Emergence of Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION:
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.springerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41451
  
550,000,000 YBN
11 		328) The Ecdysozoa Aschelminthes {aSKHeLmiNtEZ7 8 } evolves; the ancestor of
the worms nematodes and priapulids.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=126691
3. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminthes
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschelminthes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=126691
7. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminthes
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschelminthes
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=126691
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c550)
  
547,000,000 YBN
5 		334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu2 } evolves (the
brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).3

The Brachiopods are marine invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal and ventral
shells enclosing a pair of tentacled, armlike structures that are used to sweep
minute food particles into their mouth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Brachiopoda." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2013. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopoda
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "brachiopod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c547)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=202032
  
543,000,000 YBN
11 		101) Segmentation evolves (body parts are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).7 8

Some think that segmentation evolved independently in annelid worms,
arthropods, and vertebrates. But the universality of Homeobox genes, evolved
over a billion years earlier9 , implies that all segmented species may share a
common segmented ancestor.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
9. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA, a novel domain with similarity to PAS
domains, is fused to plant homeodomain-leucine zipper III proteins.", Plant
Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {537 MYBN (based on Annaleda - segmented worns} {543
MYBN (based on arthropods, annelids - segmented worns=537}
  
542,000,000 YBN
9 		53) The end of the "Precambrian". The end of the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK5 } Eon. The end of the Neoproterozoic and start of the
Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK6 } Era, and the end of the Ediacaran and start of the
Cambrian Period.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic
2. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Paleozoic>.
3. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic
and Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic
6. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Paleozoic>.
7. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
8. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
9. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New Period for the Geologic Time
Scale.” Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/305/5684/621.short
  
542,000,000 YBN
15 16 		6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or "Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular animals between 542 and 530 million years ago
that results in the appearance of many (between 20 and 35) of the major phyla
of animals.9 10 11 An increase of animals with shells.12

The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be the result of a major increase in
atmospheric oxygen13 , and animal predation14 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-explosion
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006,
p329-333.
3. ^ "Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
5. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-explosion
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006,
p329-333.
7. ^ "Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
9. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-explosion
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006,
p329-333.
11. ^ "Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
12. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
13. ^ Dott,
Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", 6th edition 2002, p209.
14. ^ Dzik, J (2007),
"The Verdun Syndrome: simultaneous origin of protective armour and infaunal
shelters at the Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN 9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
15. ^ "Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90620/Cambrian-explosion>. {542-530
mybn}
16. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
{535 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A. Fortey, "Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency: Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp. 94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/25482671
  
540,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		104) The Lophotrochozoa {Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u5 } Phylum Platyhelminthes
{PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolves (flatworms).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophotrochozoa&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)
8. ^ Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al. “The
Timing of Eukaryotic Evolution: Does a Relaxed Molecular Clock Reconcile
Proteins and Fossils?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386 -15391.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J et al. “The Ediacaran Emergence of Bilaterians:
Congruence Between the Genetic and the Geological Fossil Records.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1435 -1443.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1496/1435.full
  
540,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		319) The Protist Phylum "Radiolaria" {rADEOlaREo7 } (ocean protists, many with
silica shells8 ).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com
30 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales,
rhizaria, chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com
30 Mar. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-2
8. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10
Aug. 2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/489175/radiolarian>.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^ A. Braun, J. Chen, D. Waloszek and A. Maas,
"First Early Cambrian Radiolaria", Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 2007, v. 286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf {Earliest radiolaria fossils) 540 mybn}
12. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
13. ^ http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_taxon_a=65574
{804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600my)
[2] Keeling, Patrick J. et al. "The tree of eukaryotes." Trends
in Ecology & Evolution 20.12 (2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534705003046
[3] Delsuc, Frederic, Henner Brinkmann, and Herve Philippe. "Phylogenomics and
the reconstruction of the tree of life." Nat Rev Genet 6.5 (2005):
361-375. http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v6/n5/abs/nrg1603.html
[4] http://www.bio.georgiasouthern.edu/Bio-home/Pratt/boo305.htm
[5] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
[6] http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/radiolaria.html
[7] "Polycystine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystine
  
540,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		321) The Protist Phylum "Foraminifera" {FOraMiniFRu7 } evolves, (unicellular
protists with fine pseudopods that extend from a cytoplasm body encased within
a calcium carbonate shell8 9 ).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=foraminifera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=foraminifera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=foraminifera&submit=Submit
8. ^ "foraminiferan." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/212983/foraminiferan>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p165-167. {earliest fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
13. ^ Culver,
S. J. (1991) Science 254, 689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9 and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/254/5032/689.full.pdf {earliest
fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
14. ^ Culver, S. J. (1994) J. Foraminiferal Res.
24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191 {earliest fossils, lower Cambrian) c540 my}
15. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
16. ^ http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_taxon_a=65574
{804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600mybn)
[2] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
[3] http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/foram.html
[4] "Allogromiida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogromiida
[5] "Fusulinid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusulinid
[6] "Globigerinida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globigerinida
[7] "Miliolid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliolid
[8] "Rotaliida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaliida
[9] "Textulariida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textulariida
[10]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P4356&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&excludeNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[11]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protist.php?func=integrate&myID=P2007&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&excludeNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
  
540,000,000 YBN
7 		340) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea {ne-mR-TEu5 } evolves (ribbon worms).6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemertea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemertea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemertea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c541)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201563
  
540,000,000 YBN
7 		341) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada {ToRDiGRiDe5 } evolves (tardigrades).6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "tardigrade." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tardigrade." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Tardigrada." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrada-2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?pos=0
  
540,000,000 YBN
8 		342) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora evolves.6 Onychophorans are a transition
between worms and arthropods: they have segmented worm-like bodies but they
also have jointed appendages, antennae, and shed their cuticle like arthropods
do.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "onychophoran." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "onychophoran." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
05 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?pos=0
  
535,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		114) The first heart evolves in bilaterians.4

Muscles for pumping blood and for maintaining adequate blood pressure can be
divided into three groups: contractile blood vessels (found in nemerteans and
annelids), ostiate {oSTEAT5 } hearts (found in arthropods), and chambered
hearts (found in molluscs and vertebrates).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
2. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University
Press, Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
5. ^ "ostium." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ostium>.
6. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p73, 327.
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p 73.
8. ^ Palmer, et. al., "Prehistoric Life", p66.
9. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa:
Testing Ecological Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic
Fossil Record.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on} {539 MYBN (based on mollusca}
  
533,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca evolves; Mollusks.7

The phylum Mollusca is the second largest animal phylum after the arthropods,
and is divided into seven classes, three of which (Gastropoda {GaSTroPeDu8 }
(snails), Bivalvia (clams and muscles), and Cephalopoda {SeFeloPeDu9 } (squids
and octupuses) are of major importance.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastropoda&submit=Submit
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephalopoda&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastropoda&submit=Submit
9. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephalopoda&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c539)
13. ^ Caron, Jean-Bernard et al. "A soft-bodied mollusc with
radula from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale." Nature 442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201563
  
530,000,000 YBN
5 		338) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida evolves; segmented worms.3

Annelids are various worms or wormlike animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and includes the earthworm and leech.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ "annelid." The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (c537)

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201563
  
530,000,000 YBN
11 12 		339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda evolves; the "Arthropods".7

Arthropods can be compared to a segmented worm encased in a rigid exoskeleton.8


The phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Arthropods
include the trilobites, the crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and lobsters), the
Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes), the Chelicerata (arachnids and horseshoe
crabs) and the insects.9 All arthropods have a segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which serves as both armor and as a surface for
muscle attachment.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
5. ^
Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani2009Chap29.pdf
6. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree, 2009, p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani2009Chap29.pdf
10. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)
12. ^ Palmer, et. al., "Prehistoric Life", p66.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?pos=0
  
530,000,000 YBN
350) The Chordata Vertebrates evolve.4 This Subphylum, Vertabrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.5 This earliest vertebrate skeleton is
made completely of cartilage.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 18
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New Line
Books, 2002, p22.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41579
  
530,000,000 YBN
5 		6637) The Vertebrates Jawless fishes evolve (agnatha).3

The earliest extant jawless fishes, the hagfishes evolve now.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p364-371.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p85.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p364-371.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New Series,
Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19, 1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1655241
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41579
  
520,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		133) The Arthropods Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo6 ) evolve (eight legs, ancestor of
the horseshoe crabs, sea spiders, and the Arachnids: mites, spiders, and
scorpions).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelicerata&submit=Submit
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ J. W. Shultz
(2007). "A phylogenetic analysis of the arachnid orders based on morphological
characters". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 150: 221–265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-3642.2007.00284.x
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelicerata&submit=Submit
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelicerata&submit=Submit
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
8. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
9. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A. Dunlop, "A larval sea spider (Arthropoda: Pycnogonida)
from the Upper Cambrian ‘Orsten’ of Sweden and the phylogenetic position of
pycnogonids", Palaeontology, 45 (2002), pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
11. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p66-67.
13. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.

MORE INFO
[1] Charbonnier, S, J Vannier, and B Riou. “New Sea Spiders from the
Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône Lagerstätte.” Proceedings of the Royal Society
B: Biological Sciences 274, no. 1625 (October 22, 2007): 2555
–2561. http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1625/2555.full
[2] Dunlop and Seldon, "The Early History and Phylogeny of the Chelicerates",
in Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod Relatioinships", 1997, p231
earliest (sea spider) fossils: Orsten, Sweden9   
520,000,000 YBN
3 4 		148) The earliest color vision evolves in arthropods.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh, K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/content/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
2. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh, K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/content/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
4. ^
Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210-211.

MORE INFO
[1] Yokoyama, S., and B. F. Radlwimmer. 2001. The molecular genetics and
evolution of red and green color vision in vertebrates. Genetics Society of
America. 158: 1697-1710
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
  
520,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 		346) The Deuterostome Phylum Echinodermata evolves; the "Echinoderms"
(iKIniDRMS 5 }, the ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars,
and star fishes.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "echinoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "echinoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
29 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Adam M. English, Loren E. Babcock, Census of the
Indian Springs Lagerstätte, Poleta Formation (Cambrian), western Nevada, USA,
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Volume 295, Issues 1–2, 1
September 2010, Pages 236-244, ISSN 0031-0182,
10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.041. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S0031018210003287)
8. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301905
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p66.
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p384.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=126698
  
520,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		6349) The arthropods trilobites evolve.9 10 11 12

Trilobites have a segmented body that is divided into three vertical lobes.13

There is a transition from soft-bodied organisms, to the clam-like shell
organisms, to the segmented calcite and chitin shells of the trilobites.14
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H. Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
2. ^ http://www.nature.com0/nature/journal/v427/n6971/full/427205a.html (here
it is claimed they are trilobite embryos)
3. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
4. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/trilobita/trilobitafr.html
5. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H. Nature 391, 553-558 (1998).
Article ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
6. ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6971/full/427205a.html (here
it is claimed they are trilobite embryos)
7. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
8. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/trilobita/trilobitafr.html
9. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H. Nature 391, 553-558 (1998).
Article ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
10. ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6971/full/427205a.html (here
it is claimed they are trilobite embryos)
11. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
12. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/trilobita/trilobitafr.html
13. ^ "trilobite." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
14. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", sixth edition,
2002, p209-213.
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p168.
16. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
17. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution: insights from studies of
insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my {510 mybn}
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/trilobita/trilobitafr.html {540 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.trilobites.info/biostratigraphy.htm
[2] http://www.trilobites.info/origins.htm
[3] Babcock, L.E., S Peng, G. Geyer, & J.H. Shergold. 2005.
Changing perspectives on Cambrian chronostratigraphy and progress toward
subdivision of the Cambrian System. Geosci. Journal
9(2):101-6. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t7062n5744462260/
[4] Niles Eldredge, "Trilobites and Evolutionary Patterns", p305-332 in Anthony
Hallam, "Patterns of evolution as illustrated by the fossil record, Volume 5",
1977, p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=q7GjDIyyWegC
[5] Hughes, N. 2007. The evolution of trilobite body patterning. Annu.
Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2007.
35:401–34. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.earth.35.0313
06.140258
[6] Richard A. Fortey "Trilobite Systematics: The Last 75 Years", Journal of
Paleontology , Vol. 75, No. 6, 75th Anniversary Issue (Nov., 2001), pp.
1141-1151 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1307082
[7] http://www.palaeos.org/Cambrian_Stage_3
  
513,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 		6351) The Arthropods Crustaceans evolve (the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs,
lobsters, and barnicles).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
4. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with three-dimensionally preserved soft parts from
Shropshire, England", Special Papers in Paleontology, 70, 2003
5. ^ Siveter, David
J., Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek. “A Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.” Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479 –481. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/293/5529/479.abstract
6. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek, "An early
Cambrian phosphatocopid crustacean with three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England", Special Papers in Paleontology, 70, 2003
7. ^
Siveter, David J., Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek. “A Phosphatocopid
Crustacean with Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.” Science 293, no. 5529
(July 20, 2001): 479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/293/5529/479.abstract
8. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009, p66-67.
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p251-253.
10. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1]
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Fossilgroups/Crustacea/fossils.html
[2] http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0719_crustacean.html
earliest fossils: Shropshire, England4 5   
501,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 		6348) The Arthropods Myriapoda {mEREaPeDu5 } evolve; the ancestor of all
centipedes and millipedes.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p251-253.
5. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990): 163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
8. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
9. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from the
Upper Cambrian of East Siberia: Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03022596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
10. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A.
Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and
Myriapods from Shropshire, England.” Science 250, no. 4981 (November 2,
1990): 658 –661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=sci;250/4981/658
11. ^ Robison, Richard A. “Earliest-known Uniramous Arthropod.”
Nature 343.6254 (1990): 163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
12. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
13. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from the
Upper Cambrian of East Siberia: Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03022596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
14. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B.,
Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and
Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern Ontario, Canada.” Geology
30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
15. ^ Budd, G.E., Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like
arthropod from the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia: Paläontologische
Zeitschrift, v. 75p. 37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03022596
16. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W.
Dalrymple, Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First
Steps on Land: Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
17. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods from Shropshire, England.” Science 250,
no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=sci;250/4981/658
18. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
19. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda, Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the Silurian and Devonian of
Britain and the Devonian of North America.", American Museum novitates
3231:1-16 (1998) http://biostor.org/reference/30111
20. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p107-108.
21. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
22. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p111.
earliest possible fossils: (Marine deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA7 8
and (Ust-Majan formation) East Siberia9 |(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England10   
488,300,000 YBN
5 		121) The end of the Cambrian (542-488.3 mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN3 } (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Ordovician." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
488,000,000 YBN
10 		6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN7 } radiation. During the Ordovician the number
of genera {JeN-R-u8 } will quadruple.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genera>.
3. ^ "Ordovician radiation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
4. ^ "Ordovician." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
5. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genera>.
6. ^ "Ordovician radiation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
7. ^ "Ordovician." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
8. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genera>.
9. ^ "Ordovician radiation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
10. ^ "Ordovician radiation." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levine, "The Eath Through Time", 2006, p333
  
475,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 		244) The non-vascular plants evolve, Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo11 }, (the ancestor of
the Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses).12 13

The Bryophytes are the simplest land plants, and reproduce with spores.14 15
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ "Bryophyta."
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Bryophyta>.
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^ "Bryophyta."
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Bryophyta>.
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Peter Robert
Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green Plants: Their Origin and Diversity", 2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
10. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
11. ^ "Bryophyta." Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Bryophyta>.
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
14. ^ Peter Robert
Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green Plants: Their Origin and Diversity", 2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
15. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p82.
17. ^ S26 (c475)
18. ^ S15 (c475)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bryophyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte
[2] "Bryophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyta-1
  
475,000,000 YBN
15 16 		398) Plants live on land. The earliest fossil spores belonging to land
plants.10 11 12

Plants conquer land before animals do, and like animals may move to land not by
sea but by freshwater.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
2. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L. Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin. “Fragments
of the earliest land plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
5. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L. Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin. “Fragments
of the earliest land plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
8. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L. Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin. “Fragments
of the earliest land plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
11. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L. Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin. “Fragments
of the earliest land plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p520-521.
14. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
15. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L. Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin. “Fragments
of the earliest land plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
{475 MYBN}
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p82.
earliest fossils: Caradoc, Libya14   
472,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		402) The first animals live on land, the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
3. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
4. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
6. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
7. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
9. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
10. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
12. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
13. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
14. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone, Southeastern
Ontario, Canada.” Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
15. ^ Heather M. Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of
Paleozoic Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from Scotland",
Journal of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p67.
earliest arthropod tracks: Kingston, Ontario, Canada13   
465,000,000 YBN
5 		6636) The Jawless fishes lamprays evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What the Fossils Have to Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p198.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What the Fossils
Have to Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What the
Fossils Have to Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New Series,
Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19, 1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1655241
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] "ostracoderm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/ostracoderm
  
460,000,000 YBN
13 		353) Jawed vertebrates evolve, Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo8 }.9 This large
group includes all jawed fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. The
first vertebrate teeth.10

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill skeleton.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^ "Gnathostomata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostomata-1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ "Gnathostomata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostomata-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^ "Gnathostomata." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostomata-1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363. {460 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p106,110
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
Oceans12   
460,000,000 YBN
6 7 		404) The Jawed fishes Chondrichthyes {KoN-DriK-tE-EZ4 } (Cartilaginous fishes:
ancestor of all sharks, rays, skates, and sawfishes).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondrichthyes&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondrichthyes&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Miller, Randall F., Richard Cloutier, and Susan Turner.
“The Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from the Early Devonian Period.”
Nature 425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
  
460,000,000 YBN
4 5 		458) The earliest fungi on land. The ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
2. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
3. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
4. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
5. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
  
460,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 		6414) The Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota" {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu11 } evolves
(arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR12 } mycorrhizal {MIKerIZL13 } fungi).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomeromycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomeromycota&submit=Submit
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbuscular&submit=Submit
7. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomeromycota&submit=Submit
12. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbuscular&submit=Submit
13. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex multicellular life",
BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
17. ^
Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the Ordovician".
Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
18. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c750mybn)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1460 to 1210mybn)
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (estimate that between 947 and 968)

MORE INFO
[1] http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomeromycetes&submit=Submit
[2] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of Fungi", 2008, p142
[3] Redecker, Dirk,
and Philipp Raab. "Phylogeny of the Glomeromycota (arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi): Recent Developments and New Gene Markers." Mycologia 98.6 (November):
2006, p885 –895. http://www.mycologia.org/content/98/6/885.abstract
earliest fossils: Wisconsin, USA17   
445,000,000 YBN
6 7 		90) The end-Ordovician mass extinction. This is caused by an ice age.3 4

This is the first of five mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
2. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS EXTINCTION - Annual Review of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 - Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org. 2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
4. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS EXTINCTION - Annual Review of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 - Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org. 2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
5. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, 29(1):331 - Abstract". Arjournals.annualreviews.org. 2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p83.
7. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148 {439 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
[2] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No. 10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3055638
  
443,700,000 YBN
3 		122) The end of the Ordovician (488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of the
Silurian (443.7-416) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
440,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		236) The Vascular plants evolve, the Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu9 }.10 11
12 13

Vascular plants have a specialized conducting system consisting mostly of
phloem (food-conducting tissue) and xylem (water-conducting tissue),
collectively called vascular tissue.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline
for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution,
(2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
8. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K. G.;
Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C. (2002). The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
9. ^ "Tracheophyta." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tracheophyta-botany
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
11. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
12. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
13. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K. G.;
Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C. (2002). The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
14. ^ "vascular plant."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-plant
15. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p96.
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c400)
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
  
440,000,000 YBN
12 13 		360) The Jawed fishes, Bony fishes evolve; Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ3 }),
the ancestor of the ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes.4

Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at least partly ossified or made of bone.5
6

The bony fishes are the ancestors of the tetrapods who will ultimately move
onto land.7

The earliest bony fishes are the ray-finned fishes.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p338-363.
3. ^ "Osteichthyes." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Osteichthyes>.
4. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthyes
5. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthyes
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New Line
Books, 2002, p34.
7. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs
& Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p34.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p338-363.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=42391
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
11. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthyes
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN}
13. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p97.

MORE INFO
[1] "teleost." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
Ocean and fresh water10 11   
440,000,000 YBN
6 		6172) The first lung evolves from the swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some
teleosts still use their swim bladder for breathing out of water.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p338-363.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN (guess based on ray-finned fish evolving}

MORE INFO
[1] Farmer, C.G. 1999. The evolution of the vertebrate cardio-pulmonary
system. Annual Review of Physiology
61:573-592 http://biologylabs.utah.edu/farmer/publications%20pdf/1999%20AnnuRev
Physiol61.pdf
Ocean (presumably)5   
425,000,000 YBN
5 		377) The Jawed fishes, Lobe-fin fishes evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy
lobe at the base of each fin.3 The earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the
coelacanths evolve now.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p335-338.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p335-338.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p335-338.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.

MORE INFO
[1] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=89942
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=42376
  
420,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		6350) The Arthropods Hexapods (arthropods with six legs {3 pairs}, the ancestor
of all insects).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter,
"Insect Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter,
"Insect Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p66,116.
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects,
2005, p146.
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p66,116.
10. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny:
hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic",
Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1] Blaxter, Mark. “Evolutionary Biology: Sum of the Arthropod
Parts.” Nature 413.6852 (2001):
121–122. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v413/n6852/full/413121a0.html
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert) Scotland7   
418,000,000 YBN
4 		6431) The Chelicerata Arachnids evolve (the ancestor of all scorpions, spiders,
mites and ticks1 ).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
2. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE, and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI (WHITFIELD):
INTEGRATING DATA FROM PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.� Palaeontology 51 (2):
303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
3. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE, and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI (WHITFIELD):
INTEGRATING DATA FROM PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.� Palaeontology 51 (2):
303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
4. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE, and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI (WHITFIELD):
INTEGRATING DATA FROM PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.� Palaeontology 51 (2):
303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full

MORE INFO
[1] Shear, W. A. 2000. Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new trigonotarbid
arachnid from the Late Devonian of North America (Chelicerata, Arachinida,
Trigonotarbida). J. Paleont. 74(1): 25-31
[2] Parry, S.F.; Noble S.R., Crowley Q.G. &
Wellman C.H. (2011). "A high-precision U–Pb age constraint on the Rhynie
Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications". Journal of
the Geological Society (London: Geological Society) 168 (4): 863–872.
doi:10.1144/​0016-76492010-043. http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/168/4/
863.abstract
[3] Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p96-97
earliest fossils: ("Bertie Waterlime" of) NY, USA3   
417,000,000 YBN
3 4 		378) The Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1
  
416,000,000 YBN
5 		123) The end of the Silurian (443.7-416 mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN3 } (416-359.2 mybn) Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Devonian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Devonian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
416,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		6352) The Hexapods: insects evolve.7 8

The most primitive extant insects, the Bristletails evolve now.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
2. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
5. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny:
hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic",
Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
8. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny:
hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic",
Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny:
hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic",
Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
12. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p250-254.
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
  
410,000,000 YBN
2 		6363) The Insects Silverfish.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146,150-151,154
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146,150-151,154
  
400,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 		227) The largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu11 } evolves (the
ancestor of yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, and morels {mu-reLZ12 }).13 14 15
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ "morel." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ "morel." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomycota&submit=Submit
12. ^ "morel." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp, "The oldest fossil
ascomycetes", Nature 399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
17. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp, "The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
18. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486): 1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077684
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1009my)
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1140my)
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of Fungi", 2008, p142
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert) Aberdeenshire, Scotland16   
400,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 		237) The Vascular plants ferns evolve (the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and
horsetails).3

Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular plants that have roots, stems, and
fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern4 ), and reproduce by spores.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
{Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ "frond." Taylor's Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1997. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
5. ^ "fern." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p110.
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c390 (360 for living species)
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004). (c390)
9. ^ Taylor, Thomas N.; Edith L. Taylor. (1993). The Biology
and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp.
332–334. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.full
(318mybn)
[2] Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004). (350mybn)
  
400,000,000 YBN
4 		436) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass: "Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I1 2
} evolves, (the ancestor of sharks, dogfishes, skates and rays).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Elasmobranchii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elasmobranchii-1
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=elasmobranchii&submit=Submit
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New Line
Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters. Columbia University Press, 2007
  
395,000,000 YBN
2 		6429) The Green Algae Charophytes evolve (Stoneworts).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p110.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
  
395,000,000 YBN
6 7 		6430) The earliest fungi lichen {lIKiN1 }.2

A lichen is a fungus, usually of the class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS3 }, that
grows symbiotically with algae and cyanobacteria4 , resulting in a composite
organism that characteristically forms a crustlike or branching growth on rocks
or tree trunks.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lichen." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 08 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p110.
3. ^ "Ascomycetes." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Ascomycetes>.
4. ^ Willis and McElwain, "The Evolution of Plants", 2002, p45.
5. ^ "lichen." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p110.
7. ^ Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature 378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html

MORE INFO
[1] "lichen." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lichen>
  
392,000,000 YBN
7 8 		359) The Cartilaginous fishes "Selachii" {SelAKEE4 or I5 } evolve, (the
ancestor of all sharks: includes great white, hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selachii&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selachii&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils Say
and Why It Matters. Columbia University Press, 2007, p198.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selachimorpha&submit=Submit
  
392,000,000 YBN
4 		437) The Cartilaginous fishes: "Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I1 } evolve, (the
ancestor of the chimaeras {KiMERoZ2 } also called rabbit-fishes or ratfishes).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holocephali&submit=Submit
2. ^ "chimaera." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chimaera>.
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New Line
Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters. Columbia University Press, 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361
[3] "Holocephali." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocephali-2
  
385,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		405) The first forests. The earliest large tree fossils.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed Landing2
& Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the
Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma
of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma
of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
6. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
7. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma
of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
8. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
9. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma
of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
10. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed Landing2
& Christopher M. Berry3, "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the
Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
{385 mybn}
11. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p111.
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {380mybn}
earliest fossils: Gilboa, New York, USA9   
385,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		411) The first flying animal, an arthropod insect, the ancestor of all winged
insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu12 }). The earliest extant winged insects are the
Ephemeroptera {eFeMeroPTRo13 }: Mayflies, and the Odonata {ODenoDo14 }:
Dragonflies and Damselflies.15 16 17

Insect wings evolve only once, and all winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.18 19

The development of wings may have helped early insects to escape predators20
and to move over larger distances to find new habitats21 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig,
and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterygota&submit=Submit
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterygota&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
10. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
12. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterygota&submit=Submit
13. ^ "Ephemeroptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeroptera-1
14. ^ "Odonata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/odonata-1
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p148-148. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
16. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig,
and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
17. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
18. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/pterygota.html
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
20. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects" 2002, p81.
21. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA155
22. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., & Benner, J. S. (2011). Late carboniferous
paleoichnology reveals the oldest full-body impression of a flying insect.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 108 (16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015948108
23. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota in
the Lower Carboniferous of the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
24. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146
25. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA163
26. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p142.
27. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous of
the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
28. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {315 MYBN}
29. ^ Regier,
et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and
maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22; 272(1561):
395–401. http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
30. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p142.

MORE INFO
[1] Engel MS, Grimaldi DA (2004) New light shed on the oldest insect.
Nature 427: 627–630
[2] Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005) Evolution of the Insects (Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge)
[3] Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous of the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta: Archoaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
[4] "Orthoptera." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orthoptera-1
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA159
earliest fossils: (Wamsutta Formation) southeastern Massachusetts22 and Upper
Silesian Basin, Czech Republic23   
375,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 15 16 		380) The first tetrapods (Vertebrates with four feet) evolve in fresh water.8
These are the first vertebrate limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.9 This is
also the first amphibian, the ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads, and
salamanders.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
6. ^ Ted
Huntington.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} {375(360+-15) mybn}
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329. {340 mybn}
14. ^ P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod
or near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn (fossil}
15. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
{368 mybn (fossil}
16. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {368 mybn (fossil}
Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)11   
367,000,000 YBN
3 4 		408) The late Devonian mass extinction caused by an ice age.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148 {367
mybn}
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {360 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 98, No. 10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3055638
  
363,000,000 YBN
6 7 		379) The first vertebrates live on land (an amphibian).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
6. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {363mybn}
7. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/tetrafr.html {360mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2] http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
Fresh water, Greenland (on the equator)5   
360,000,000 YBN
26 27 28 29 30 		226) The second largest Fungi phylum, "Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu15 }
evolves (the ancestor of many mushrooms: button, chanterelle {saNTRreL16 },
cremini {KremENE17 }, enoki {inoKE18 }, fly agaric {uGaRiK19 }, oyster, porcino
{PORCEnO 20 }, portabella, psilocybe, puffball, shiitake {sEToKE21 }, woodear,
rusts, and club fungi).22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidiomycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidiomycota&submit=Submit
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chanterelle&submit=Submit
7. ^ "cremini." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
04 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
8. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random
House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/enoki?s=t
9. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric&submit=Submit
10. ^ "porcino." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
04 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
11. ^ "shiitake." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
04 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidiomycota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chanterelle&submit=Submit
17. ^ "cremini." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
18. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/enoki?s=t
19. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric&submit=Submit
20. ^ "porcino." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
21. ^ "shiitake." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
25. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck CB (1985) Studies of
Paleozoic fungi. V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon newberryi from
the Upper Devonian. Am J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.ku.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734
26. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck CB (1985)
Studies of Paleozoic fungi. V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon newberryi
from the Upper Devonian. Am J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.ku.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734
27. ^ Michael Krings, Nora Dotzler, Jean Galtier and
Thomas N. Taylor, "Oldest fossil basidiomycete clamp connections", Mycoscience,
Volume 52, Number 1 (2011), 18-23, DOI:
10.1007/s10267-010-0065-4 http://www.springerlink.com/content/725614321xj0604w/

28. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (968my)
29. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1210my)
30. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Basidiomycota". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomycota
[2] McLAUGHLIN, DAVID J., ALAN BECKETT, and KWON S. YOON. “Ultrastructure and
Evolution of Ballistosporic Basidiospores.” Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society 91.1-2 (1985):
253–271. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb01149.
x/abstract
earliest fossils: Indiana25   
360,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 		6353) The Neoptera, folding wing insects evolve.3

A mechanism to fold the wings against the body after landing has a selective
advantage by making the wings less conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible to
breakage.4

All "higher" orders of insects evolve from the neoptera.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig,
and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig,
and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig,
and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/pterygota.html
5. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/pterygota.html
6. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/5/699.full
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146.
8. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
9. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
10. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p143.
11. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous of
the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
12. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
13. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February
22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1561/395
14. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/5/699.full

MORE INFO
[1] Video: Virtual fossil of Archimylacris eggintoni,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yR-_nq2UsOc
earliest fossils: (Archimylacris eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte)
Staffordshire, UK6   
359,200,000 YBN
3 		124) The end of the Devonian (416-359.2 mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
359,000,000 YBN
30 31 		243) The first plant seed evolves; the ancestor of all seed plants.18 19 20 21


The earliest fossil seed is from a seed fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM22 }).23
24 25 26

Fossils indicate that the first seed evolves from an enclosing ring of
vegetative lobes that fuse together.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler. “The
earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
2. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
3. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64, 29,
201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
4. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
5. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and
Stephen E. Scheckler. “The earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
6. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
7. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64, 29,
201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
8. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
9. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and
Stephen E. Scheckler. “The earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
10. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
11. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64,
29, 201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
12. ^ "Pteridosperms."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
13. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteridospermae
14. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
15. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
16. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64,
29, 201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
17. ^ "Pteridosperms."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
18. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler. “The
earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
19. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
20. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64,
29, 201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
21. ^ "Pteridosperms."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
22. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteridospermae
23. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
24. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
25. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh V64,
29, 201, 261 (1960); ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
26. ^ "Pteridosperms."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
27. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
28. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science,
New Series, Vol. 142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
29. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>.
30. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577 {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
31. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica,
2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>. {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms
[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
[3] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal
of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (c320 (360 for living species)
[4] Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350 (300 for radiation)
[5] Dr. Singh, Dr. Pande & Dr.
Jain, "Diversity and Systematics of Seed Plants",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=GTUgfghg80gC
[6] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
earliest fossils: Scotland28 29   
355,000,000 YBN
2 3 		6410) Hearing in Amphibians adapts to sounds transmitted through the air. This
is the beginning of vertebrates making vocal sounds.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E G Wever and C Gans, "The caecilian ear: further observations", PNAS
1976 73 (10) 3744-3746. http://www.pnas.org/content/73/10/3744.abstract
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
3. ^ Roelants, K., Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M.,
Loader, S. P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau, L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007).
Global patterns of diversification in the history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608378104 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the Early
History of Living Amphibians, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 9,
Issue 3, June 1998, Pages 509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=47210
[3] Peter M. Narins, Albert S. Feng, Richard R. Fay and Arthur N. Popper,
"Hearing and Sound Communication in Amphibians", Springer Handbook of Auditory
Research, Volume 28, 2006, DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.springer.com/life+sciences/animal+sciences
/book/978-0-387-32521-7
  
350,000,000 YBN
4 		361) The Ray-finned fishes, Sturgeons and Paddlefish evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {350 MYBN}
  
350,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 15 		6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera {DiKTEoPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyoptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p143.
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyoptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p143.
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyoptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p143.
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146.
11. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
12. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p143.
13. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous of
the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
14. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol
Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
15. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
  
340,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		384) The first hard-shell egg.14 The Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu15 } evolve;
the ancestor of all reptiles, mammals and birds and the first hard-shell egg.16
 The hard-shell egg is waterproof.17 This is the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate {KoPYelAT18 } so that the sperm can
reach the eggs inside the female.19

All living amniotes lay hard-shelled eggs, except most mammals and some snakes
and lizards, where egg laying has been replaced by live birth.20

The egg shell of amniotes may be flexible (like the eggs of many lizards) or
mineralized and hard (like the eggs of birds).21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=amniota&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p234.
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=amniota&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p234.
9. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=amniota&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p234.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=amniota&submit=Submit
16. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ "copulate." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
03 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/copulate
19. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
20. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function and Behavior in the
Fossil Record. PLoS Biol 8(3): e1000321. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
21. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
22. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
23. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil Reported Found in Scotland",
NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
24. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
25. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678 (07
December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
26. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil Reported
Found in Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338 MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
28. ^
"Eryops". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
{295 MYBN (verify}
29. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree", 2009.
30. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood, Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest vertebrate
egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+vertebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2] Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of Paleontology, Vol.
53, No. 5 (Sep., 1979), pp. 1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304086
[3] Robert R. Reisz, Johannes Müller, Molecular
timescales and the fossil record: a paleontological perspective, Trends in
Genetics, Volume 20, Issue 5, 1 May 2004, Pages 237-241, ISSN 0168-9525,
10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.007. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952504000757)
[4] "fenestrae." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fenestrae>
[5] "orbit." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/orbit>
earliest fossils: Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland22 23   
335,000,000 YBN
15 16 		6331) The Amniota divide into the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu9 } and the Synapsida
{Si-naP-Si-Du10 }.11

The Sauropsids have two major lineages: the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds).12 The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which are sail-backed amniotes) and the
therapsids (which are mammal-like amniotes).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sauropsida&submit=Submit
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synapsida&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sauropsida&submit=Submit
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synapsida&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sauropsida&submit=Submit
10. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synapsida&submit=Submit
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119.
14. ^ Carroll, R.L., 1964, The ear1iest
reptiles: Jour. Linn. Soc (Zool.), v. 45, p.
61-83. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/ab
stract
15. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
16. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53. Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p271
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p263
[3] Reisz RR. Pelycosaurian reptiles from the Middle
Pennsylvanian of North America. Bull Mus Comp Zool Harv
1972;144:27-62. http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object
_id=47789&local_base=GEN01-MCG02
[4] "reptile." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
earliest possible Synapsid fossils: (Cumberland group, Joggins formation)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada14   
330,000,000 YBN
7 		6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria {PeLiKuSOREu4 } evolve (the ancestor of
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS5 } and Dimetrodon).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Pelycosaur>.
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edaphosaurus&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119-122.
4. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Pelycosaur>.
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edaphosaurus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119-122.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
  
325,000,000 YBN
4 5 		381) The earliest extant Amphibians: Caecilians evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
5. ^
Roelants, K., Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S. P., Biju, S. D.,
Guillaume, K., Moriau, L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global patterns of
diversification in the history of modern amphibians. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608378104 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the Early
History of Living Amphibians, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 9,
Issue 3, June 1998, Pages 509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
  
320,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 		238) The seed plants: Gymnosperms evolve.10 Gymnosperms are the most primitive
extant seed plants, and ancestor of all Cycads, Ginkgos and the Conifers11 12
).13 14

The most primitive extant Gymnosperms, the Cycads evolve now.15

Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed".16 A gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that
is in direct contact with the environment, as opposed to an angiosperm whose
seeds are enclosed by fruits.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
2. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
6. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
10. ^ "gymnosperm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
11. ^ "spermatophyte." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophyte-1
12. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosperms
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
16. ^ "gymnosperm." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
17. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
18. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
19. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science, 2008.
20. ^ Norstog K, Nicholls TJ.
1997.The biology of cycads. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
21. ^ Pant, D.D., R.
Osborne, and Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany. An Introduction to
Gymnosperms, Cycas, and Cycadales. Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
2002. BSIP Monograph. http://books.google.com/books?ei=twN6UJqpA5D2qQGvhYHoAQ
22. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The
plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf} (c320 (360 for
living species)
23. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350 (300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms
[2] Gillespie, William H., Gar W. Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler. “The
earliest seeds.” Nature 293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
[3] Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142, No.
3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp. 925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711577
[4] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Overview/3213.htm
  
320,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		6356) The Neoptera: Orthoptera evolve (the ancestor of crickets, grasshoppers,
locusts, and walking sticks).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p208.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[2] http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/orthopteroids.html#A
  
317,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		385) The Sauropsids Reptilia {reP-TiL-E-u10 } evolve, the Reptiles; the
ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds11 .12 13

Reptiles are a group of air-breathing amniotes with internal fertilization and
scales covering part or all of their body.14 15 16 All reptiles are
cold-blooded, except for birds17 , and possibly some or all pterosaurs18 and
dinosaurs19 .20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Benton, Michael
J., and Philip C. J. Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence to Date the Tree of
Life.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract
6. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498684/reptile>.
7. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
8. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
9. ^ Douglas Palmer, "The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs
and Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p59.
10. ^ "reptilia." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 30 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/reptilia>.
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract
14. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498684/reptile>.
15. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
16. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p163.
17. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p110-111.
18. ^ Peter Wellnhofer,
"Pterosaurs", 1991, p163-164.
19. ^ Robert Bakker, "The Dinosaur Heresies", 1986.
20. ^
"reptile." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
21. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract
22. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2009,
p232.
23. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678 (07
December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
{338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
24. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
26. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J. Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence to
Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/26.abstract
earliest fossils: (Joggins Formation) Nova Scotia, Canada21   
314,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		240) The Gymnosperms Pinophyta {PInoFiTu6 } evolve (the ancestor of the
Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce, Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock, Larch,
Yew, and Cypress.7 8 ).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinophyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
3. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinophyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
8. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^
SCOTT, ANDREW. “The Earliest Conifer.” Nature 251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
12. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science, 2008, p806.
13. ^ SCOTT, ANDREW. “The
Earliest Conifer.” Nature 251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
14. ^ Lyons, Paul C. et al. “Radiometric Ages of the Fire Clay Tonstein
Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous), Westphalian, Duckmantian. ^: A Comparison
of U–Pb Zircon Single-crystal Ages and 40Ar/39Ar Sanidine Single-crystal
Plateau Ages.” International Journal of Coal Geology 67.4 (2006):
259–266. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166516206000140
15. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science, 2008, p806.
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.abstract (c270 (290 for
living species)
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350 (300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] Burleigh J. G. S. Mathews 2004 Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide data
from seed plants: implications for resolving the seed plant tree of life.
American Journal of Botany 91:
1599-1613 http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1599.abstract?ijkey=b60985db66551
09e270893676c522743d400bc1e&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha
earliest fossils: Wakefield, Yorkshire, England11 12   
310,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 14 		6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera evolve (the ancestor of bark lice, true lice,
thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu5 }. The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking and include:6 Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such
as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/hemipteroids.html
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemiptera&submit=Submit
3. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/hemipteroids.html
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p261.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemiptera&submit=Submit
6. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
7. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/hemipteroids.html
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p261.
9. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p146.
10. ^ Labandeira,
Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late Carboniferous Divergence Time and
the Early Larval Ecology and Diversification of Major Holometabola Lineages.”
Entomologica Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1664/10-RA-011.1
11. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/hemipteroids.html
12. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol
Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p286.
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p321.
  
310,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		6359) The Neoptera Holometabola {HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu7 8 } evolve:
Holometabolous insects: (insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the
ancestor of beetles, bees, true flies, and butterflies).9

The holometabolous insects account for nearly 85% of all insects.10

The Holometabola are insects that have complete metamorphosis (or
holometabolous development). Unlike hemimetabolous insects in which the
immature structures (legs, eyes, antennae, etc.) must also serve the adults,
holometabolous insects have a morphologically reduced larval stage11 and
acquire a completely new body during the pupal stage.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/holometabolous>.
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holometabolous+&submit=Submit
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146,331.
4. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House,
Inc. 05 Jan. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/holometabolous>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holometabolous+&submit=Submit
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p146,331.
7. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/holometabolous>.
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holometabolous+&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p146,331.
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p331.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p331.
12. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/holometabola.html
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p146.
14. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/holometabola.html
15. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
16. ^ Labandeira,
Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late Carboniferous Divergence Time and
the Early Larval Ecology and Diversification of Major Holometabola Lineages.”
Entomologica Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1664/10-RA-011.1
  
305,000,000 YBN
8 		242) The Amphibians: Anura {unRu5 } evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and
Toads).6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ "frog." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "frog." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Neil H. Shubin and Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
[2] "Pliensbachian Stage." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>
  
300,000,000 YBN
5 6 		1310) The Stramenopiles Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu3 } evolve (Golden algae).4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chrysophyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chrysophyta&submit=Submit
4. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
5. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
6. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/chrysophyta.html
  
299,000,000 YBN
3 		125) The end of the Carboniferous (359.2-299 mybn), and start of the Permian
(299-251 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
299,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 		6360) The Holometabola: Coleoptera {KOlEoPTRu7 8 } evolve (the ancestor of the
Beetles).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-2
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleoptera&submit=Submit
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-2
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleoptera&submit=Submit
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-2
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleoptera&submit=Submit
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ Béthoux, Olivier.
“The Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1666/08-158.1
11. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1664/10-RA-011.1
12. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal of
Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1666/08-158.1
13. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p146.
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
earliest fossils: (Pennsylvanian deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois, USA10   
290,000,000 YBN
5 6 		239) The Gymnosperms: Ginkgos evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c290 (300 for living species)
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004). (c350 (300 for radiation)
  
290,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 		6358) The Holometabola: Hymenoptera evolve (the ancestor of all bees, ants, and
wasps).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p260-263.
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p146.
5. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1664/10-RA-011.1
6. ^ http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/holometabola.html
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
10. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text02/holometabola.html
  
287,000,000 YBN
1 		6308) The Synapsid Therapsids evolve (Cynodonts).[2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p119-122.
  
274,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		307) The Stramenopiles: Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu9 } evolve (the ancestor of all
Brown Algae, includes many seaweeds like the giant kelps10 ).11 12 13

Note that brown algae are not plants but are protists.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle,
"A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeophyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle,
"A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeophyta&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
14. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p117. timetree.org
15. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae' (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and
their plastids", Plant Systematics and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf {genetic) 274 mybn}
16. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7,
2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 200 mybn}
17. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the 1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi Formation in
the Jixian Area, North China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct.
27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Fossil) 1600-1800 mybn}
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). {Alveolates) 1956mybn} {Alveolates and
Plants) 1956mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009.
http://www.timetree.org/book.php {1345 my}
20. ^ Cécile Gueidan, Constantino
Ruibal, G.S. de Hoog, Harald Schneider, Rock-inhabiting fungi originated during
periods of dry climate in the late Devonian and middle Triassic, Fungal
Biology, Volume 115, Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 987-996, ISSN 1878-6146,
10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.002. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S1878614611000675) {822.5 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data", Science,
Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
[2] Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al. “The
timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed molecular clock reconcile
proteins and fossils?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386.long
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary producers in
the sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
[5] "Phaeophyta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeophyta
[6] Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)
[7] "Brown algae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae
[8] http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30.html
  
266,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		308) The Stramenopiles: Diatoms evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A reconstruction of their age from small subunit rRNA
coding regions and the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A reconstruction of their age from small subunit rRNA
coding regions and the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790396900883
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A reconstruction of their age from small subunit rRNA
coding regions and the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790396900883
4. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin, L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A reconstruction of their age from small subunit rRNA
coding regions and the fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790396900883 {no
earlier than) 266 MYBN}
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf} (1973mybn) {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/4/2
  
260,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		232) The earliest endothermic (or "warm-blooded") and hair growing animal, a
therapsid.7 8

Endothermy is the physiological maintenance, by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.9

Both birds and mammals are endothermic (also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates (like amphibians and crocodiles10 ) which are ectothermic
(or "cold blooded") and cannot internally generate heat.11

Endothermy allows birds and mammals to maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during a wide range of external environmental
conditions.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
2. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
3. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
4. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian
Origins of Mammalian Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp.
207-229. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
5. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360838/mammal>.
6. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian
Origins of Mammalian Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp.
207-229. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
7. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in
mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
8. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian
Origins of Mammalian Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp.
207-229. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
9. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360838/mammal>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for
Late Permian Origins of Mammalian Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr.,
1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
12. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in
Therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian Origins of Mammalian Endothermy",
Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
13. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for Late Permian
Origins of Mammalian Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp.
207-229. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
14. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in
mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441 {c250 MYBN (Late Permian}
15. ^ Ted Huntington. {230 MYBN (between crocodilia
240mybn and pterosaur 220mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Schweitzer, Mary Higby, and Cynthia Lee Marshall. “A molecular
model for the evolution of endothermy in the theropod-bird lineage.” Journal
of Experimental Zoology 291.4 (2001) :
317-338. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jez.1132/abstract
  
256,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 		6362) The Holometabola: Diptera7 {DiPTRe8 } evolve, true flies, having a
single pair of wings: the ancestor of the mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, and house
fly)9 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
3. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 07
May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
6. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
9. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 07
May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
11. ^ Labandeira,
Conrad C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late Carboniferous Divergence Time and
the Early Larval Ecology and Diversification of Major Holometabola Lineages.”
Entomologica Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1664/10-RA-011.1
12. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
13. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M. et al. “Episodic Radiations in the Fly Tree of
Life.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2011): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/03/15/1012675108.full.pdf+html
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p197
  
251,400,000 YBN
4 5 6 		102) The largest mass extinction of history, the End-Permian mass extinction.
82% of all genera are observed extinct.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the
Fossil Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences, Vol. 344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks
Anniversary Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
4. ^ Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W, Shang QH, Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000).
"Pattern of Marine Mass Extinction Near the Permian–Triassic Boundary in
South China". Science 289 (5478): 432–436. Bibcode 2000Sci...289..432J.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID 10903200. {251.4 MYBN}
5. ^ Bowring SA, Erwin
DH, Jin YG, Martin MW, Davidek K, Wang W (1998). "U/Pb Zircon Geochronology and
Tempo of the End-Permian Mass Extinction". Science 280 (5366): 1039–1045.
doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1039. {251.4 MYBN}
6. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148 {245 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
[2] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/06/060601174729.htm
[3] http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?pkey=1073
  
251,000,000 YBN
3 		54) The end of the Paleozoic and start of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
251,000,000 YBN
452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe) forms.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
  
235,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 		304) The Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta" {HaPTuFITu11 } evolves, the
Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ12 }.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptophyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=coccolithophores&submit=Submit
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptophyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=coccolithophores&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptophyta&submit=Submit
12. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=coccolithophores&submit=Submit
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe,
"A molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based
on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972, (2000).has
heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
16. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor,
and M. Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants.
Elsevier Science, 2008, p145. http://books.google.com/books?id=_29tNNeQKeMC
17. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and Evolution
21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract {c1050 mybn}
18. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {920 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.php {genetic)1382 mybn}
20. ^ De
Vargas, Aubry, Probert, Young, "Origin and Evolution of Cocolithophores: From
Coastal Hunters to Oceanic Farmers", Chapter 12, p251. in: Paul G. Falkowski,
Andrew H. Knoll, "Evolution of primary producers in the sea",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=5tRSAr1JMhwC {DNA)1900mybn}
{genetic)1900mybn}
21. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf {DNA)1750 mybn} {genetic)1750
mybn}
22. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/prymnesiophyta.html {possible
fossil) 318mybn}
23. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with the continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 920 mybn}
24. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/
{possible fossil) 318mybn}
25. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/prymnesiophyta.html {certain fossil)
201mybn}
26. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/ {certain fossil) 201mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of
Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). (has heterkonts before ciliophora and apicomplexa branch)
[4]
http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/PSlife/lectures/Haptophyta.html
  
228,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		412) The Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and
the early evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
4. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
6. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
7. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and
the early evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
8. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
10. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
11. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and
the early evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
12. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
14. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
15. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and
the early evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
16. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and
the early evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
17. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
18. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
19. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {228 MYBN}
20. ^ Benton,
"Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220 MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto
Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina16 17   
228,000,000 YBN
9 		6282) Dinosaurs divide into two major lines: the Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ5
} (Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and the Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ6 } (Lizard-hipped
dinosaurs).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ornithischian>.
2. ^ "saurischian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
3. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K. Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
4. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
5. ^ "ornithischian."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ornithischian>.
6. ^ "saurischian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
7. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K. Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
8. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through Time", 2006, p417.
9. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C {Carnian:
average of) 235-228 mybn}
  
228,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		6283) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN9 } Dinosaurs split into two major lines: The
Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu10 } and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu11 }.12

The Sauropodomorphs are divided into prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large, long-necked dinosaurs like Apatosaurus.13


The Theropod {tERePoD14 } dinosaurs are bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and Velociraptor. All birds descend from a Therapod
ancestor.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "saurischian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
2. ^ "sauropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=theropoda
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115-116.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p115-116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115-116.
9. ^ "saurischian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
10. ^ "sauropod." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=theropoda
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115-116.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
14. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
15. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115-116.
17. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al. “Primitive
dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria.”
Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
18. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154.
19. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
20. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {228 MYBN}
21. ^ Benton,
"Vertebrate Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sauropodomorpha&submit=Submit
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto Formation) Valley of the Moon, Ischigualasto
Provinvial Park, northwestern Argestina17 18   
225,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		126) The Synapsids Mammals evolve.6 The first mammary gland.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic of
West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Vol. 13,
No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on
behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic of
West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Vol. 13,
No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on
behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper
Triassic of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis,
Ltd. on behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper
Triassic of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis,
Ltd. on behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper
Triassic of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis,
Ltd. on behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
9. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic of
West Texas: The Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Vol. 13,
No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp. 309-334 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on
behalf of The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 {225 MYBN}
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197.
11. ^ Palmer, Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Shedlock2009Chap52.pdf

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/article/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

earliest fossils: (Dockum Formation) Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA8   
225,000,000 YBN
6 7 		369) The Ray-Finned Fishes Teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolve.3

Teleosts are a large group of fishes with bony skeletons, including most common
fishes.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "teleost." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 26 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009,
p197.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A mitogenomic perspective on the phylogeny of
the ldquoancient fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790302003317
  
220,000,000 YBN
9 10 		387) The most primitive extant reptiles5 , the Testudines {TeSTUDinEZ6 }
evolve: the ancestor of all Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testudines&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "turtle." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue. Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testudines&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
8. ^ "turtle." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p196.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262. {300
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "terrapin." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
  
220,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		389) The reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ} evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301.
3. ^ "tuatara." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
4. ^ "tuatara." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/608113/tuatara>.
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue. Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {255 MYBN}
(Islands of) New Zealand3   
220,000,000 YBN
11 12 		428) The first flying vertebrate, the Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve.9 10
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and palaeobiology of pterosaurs", Geological
Society, 2003, p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=8CKYxcylOycC
2. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System History", Third edition,
2009, p390.
3. ^ Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to the traditional model?”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534799016055
4. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and palaeobiology of pterosaurs", Geological
Society, 2003, p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=8CKYxcylOycC
5. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System History", Third edition,
2009, p390.
6. ^ Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to the traditional model?”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534799016055
7. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and palaeobiology of pterosaurs", Geological
Society, 2003, p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=8CKYxcylOycC
8. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System History", Third edition,
2009, p390.
9. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003, p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=8CKYxcylOycC
10. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System History",
Third edition, 2009, p390.
11. ^ Peter Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991, p59-60,166.
{220MYBN}
12. ^ http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm {215 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] http://dipbsf.uninsubria.it/paleo/dvecchia.htm
[2] Eberhard Frey, Helmut Tischlinger, Marie-Céline Buchy, and David
M. Martill, "New specimens of Pterosauria (Reptilia) with soft parts with
implications for pterosaurian anatomy and locomotion ", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, 217:233-266;
doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.217.01.14
  
210,000,000 YBN
4 		390) The Reptiles Iguania evolve: (the ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and
spiny lizards).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301. {210
MYBN}
  
210,000,000 YBN
4 		391) The Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve (the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and
geckos).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {210 MYBN}
  
210,000,000 YBN
3 		6313) The earliest extant Teleosts: Bonytongues evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A mitogenomic perspective on the phylogeny of
the ldquoancient fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790302003317
  
201,600,000 YBN
4 5 6 		127) The End-Triassic mass extinction. 53% of all genera are observed extinct.2


Many terrestrial vertebrates and large amphibians go extinct.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the
Fossil Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences, Vol. 344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks
Anniversary Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
3. ^ Palmer, et, al., "Primitive Life" 2009, p197.
4. ^ The geological Society of
America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E. Olsen, Timothy Eglinton, Michael E.
Brookfield, and Raymond N. Sambrotto (March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific
carbon isotopes from Earth's largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to
the end-Triassic mass extinction". PNAS 107 (15): 6721–5.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC 2872409. PMID 20308590. {201.4 MYBN}
6. ^ David
Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148 {208 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 98, No. 10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3055638
  
201,600,000 YBN
3 		228) The end of the Triassic (251-201.6 mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] USGS "Divisions of Geologic Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
  
201,600,000 YBN
10 11 		6372) The Ornithischians Thyreophora {tIrEoFeru5 } evolve; the ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ6 } and the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ7 }.8
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreophora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosaurus
3. ^ "stegosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p271.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreophora&submit=Submit
6. ^ "ankylosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosaurus
7. ^ "stegosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p271.
9. ^ Colbert, "A primitive
ornithischian dinosaur from the Kayenta Formation of Arizona", Bulletin (Museum
of Northern Arizona), No 53, 1981.
10. ^ Colbert, "A primitive ornithischian dinosaur
from the Kayenta Formation of Arizona", Bulletin (Museum of Northern Arizona),
No 53, 1981, p56-57.
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall Editions. pp. 134–135.
ISBN 1-84028-152-9
(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA9   
200,000,000 YBN
4 		370) The Teleosts: eels and tarpons evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {200 MYBN}
  
200,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		392) The Reptiles: Crocodilia {KroKoDiLEu4 } evolve (the ancestor of
Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans {KAmeNS}).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocodilia&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocodilia&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
6. ^ "crocodile." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia
Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143679/crocodile>.
7. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue. Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {245 MYBN}
  
195,000,000 YBN
17 18 		246) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN8 } Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ9 } evolve; the ancestor
of the large, long-necked dinosaurs like Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS10 },
Brachiosaurus {BrAKEuSORuS11 }, and Diplodocus {DiPloDiKuS12 }.13 14 15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Sauropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus
3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaurus
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplodocus&submit=Submit
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116, 2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative
Life", 2009, p224.
8. ^ "saurischian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
10 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian
9. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14
Jun. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Sauropod>.
10. ^ "apatosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus
11. ^ "brachiosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaurus
12. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplodocus&submit=Submit
13. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116, 2002.
15. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primative Life", 2009, p224.
16. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
17. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life", 2009, p224.
18. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {150 MYBN}
western USA16   
195,000,000 YBN
7 		6373) The Ornithischian Ornithopoda {ORnitoPiDu4 } evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornithopoda
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornithopoda
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
6. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", p115-116, 2002.
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
  
190,000,000 YBN
4 		371) The Teleosts: herrings and anchovies evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=201773&tree=0.1
  
190,000,000 YBN
5 		6289) The Supercontinent Pangea splits into Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern
part, Laurasia will form North America and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana
will form South America and Africa.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
2. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
3. ^ Harold Levin, "The
Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375. {190 mybn}
Pangea4   
190,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 16 		6347) The Holometabola Lepidoptera {lePiDoPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
moths, butterflies, and caterpillars).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepidoptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol
Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
3. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386.abstract
4. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepidoptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol
Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386.abstract
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepidoptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol
Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
9. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386.abstract
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p556.
11. ^ Palmer, et al,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p224.
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p556.
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
14. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009, p262.
15. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/43/15386.abstract
16. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
earliest fossils: Dorset, England10   
180,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		456) The earliest extant mammals, Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ5 } evolve.6

Monotremes are an order of primitive egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The Monotremes consist of only the platypus
and the echidna.7 8

Monotremes are also the most primitive extant warm blooded and hair growing
species.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "monotreme." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
3. ^ "monotreme." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), 238-260.
5. ^ "monotreme." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), 238-260.
7. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
8. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {180 MYBN}
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
13. ^
Hedges, Tree of Life, 2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009Chap68.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Monotremata". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremata
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea10   
170,000,000 YBN
4 		372) The Teleosts: carp, minnows, and piranhas evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {170 MYBN}
  
170,000,000 YBN
4 		373) The Teleosts: salmon, trout, and pike evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
  
170,000,000 YBN
4 5 		383) The Amphibians: Salamanders evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {305 MYBN}
  
165,000,000 YBN
9 10 		358) The Cartilaginous fishes: batoidea {BuTOEDEu5 } evolve, the ancestor of
all rays, skates, and sawfishes.6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoidea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
3. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
4. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al. “Molecular
Phylogenetic Evidence Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea (rays and Skates) as
Derived Sharks.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoidea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
7. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
8. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al. “Molecular
Phylogenetic Evidence Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea (rays and Skates) as
Derived Sharks.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363. {190
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?name=Elasmobranchii
  
150,000,000 YBN
5 6 		330) Stegosaurus, an armored, plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN1 }
dinosaur lives around this time.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreophora&submit=Submit
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115-116.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {150 MYBN}
6. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
western USA4   
150,000,000 YBN
4 		374) The Teleosts: Lightfish and Dragonfish evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {150 MYBN}
  
150,000,000 YBN
10 		393) The Therapods {tERePoDZ4 } Birds evolve. The first feather.5

Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from China indicate that feathers may have
originally evolved on non-flying reptiles for insulation (or courting6 ) and
not for flight.7

At least one known feathered dinosaur can probably glide, which suggests that
flapping flight evolves as an extension of gliding from trees.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and Christopher A Brochu.
“Phylogenetic Context for the Origin of Feathers.” American Zoologist 40.4
(2000) : 486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/4/486.abstract
7. ^ Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A. Norell, and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two feathered
dinosaurs from northeastern China. Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
8. ^ Xu, Xing et al. “Four-winged dinosaurs from China.” Nature 421.6921
(2003) :
335-340. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6921/abs/nature01342.html
9. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age for the Jehol Group, northeast China.”
Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9 (2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {245 MYBN} {245 MYBN (bird and croc split}

MORE INFO
[1] Xu, X., Z. Tang, and X. Wang. 1999a. A therizinosauroid dinosaur with
integumentary structures from China. Nature, 399350-354
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II. Analysis and discussion.”
Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their
Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
[4] Hedges, S. Blair et al. “Continental breakup and the ordinal
diversification of birds and mammals.” Nature 381.6579 (1996) :
226-229. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v381/n6579/abs/381226a0.html
[5] Ivanov, M., Hrdlickova, S. & Gregorova, R. (2001) The Complete Encyclopedia
of Fossils. Rebo Publishers, Netherlands. pp. 312
[6] Zhang, Z., Gao, C., Meng, Q.,
Liu, J., Hou, L., & Zheng, G. (2009). Diversification in an early cretaceous
avian genus: evidence from a new species of Confuciusornis from china. Journal
of Ornithology , 150 (4), 783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-0399-x
[7] Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H (1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new Late
Jurassic sauriurine bird from China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
  
145,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 25 		245) The Seed plants angiosperms evolve. The first flowering plant.15 16 17

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our clothing comes from flowering plants too, for
example: cotton and linen are made from "fibers" of flowering plants, as are
rope and burlap. Many commercial dyes and drugs also come from flowering
plants.18

Angiosperms represent approximately 80 percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are vascular seed plants in which the ovule (or
egg) is fertilized and develops into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The
ovary is usually enclosed in a flower, the part of the angiosperm that contains
the male or female reproductive organs or both.19 The fruit is the ovary of a
plant which encloses seeds.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.short
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html
13. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"angiosperm", Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
14. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/221056/fruit
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
17. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html
19. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"angiosperm", Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
20. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"angiosperm", Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
22. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
23. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.short (175mybn) {Gymno-angio spilt)
320 mybn (radiation at 180my}
24. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution,
(2004). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/5/809.abstract (c100mybn)
{320-290 mybn (radiation at 100 mybn}
25. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009,
p135. http://timetree.org/pdf/Magallon2009Chap11.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP. “An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group Classification for the Orders and Families of Flowering Plants: APG
III.” Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 161.2 (2009):
105–121. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339
[3] Kumar, Hedges, "Time Tree of Life", 2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly China  
144,000,000 YBN
128) The end of the Jurassic (201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
  
143,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 		6288) The earliest extant Angiosperm "Amborella".9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline
for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and Evolution,
(2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^
Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (175mybn) {179mybn}
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(175mybn)
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes",
Molecular Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/content/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
  
140,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		247) The Angiosperms Nymphaeales {niM-FE-A-lEZ7 } evolve, the Water Lilies.8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ based on: http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nymphaeaceae
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal
of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nymphaeaceae
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nymphaeaceae
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p612.
11. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (171mybn)
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points
of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (165mybn)
  
140,000,000 YBN
6 7 		421) The Ornithiscian3 Ceratopsian dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of
Triceratops).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116, 2002.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116, 2002.
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {80 MYBN}
Mongolia, China5   
140,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		457) The Mammals Marsupials evolve.9 The first nipple and breast.10 11
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p230-237.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Williams, W.R. A Monograph
on Diseases of the Breast: Their Pathology and Treatment, with Special
Reference to Cancer. Bale, 1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link: The Astonishing Role of the Placenta. OUP
Oxford, 2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p230-237.
7. ^ Williams, W.R. A Monograph on Diseases of the
Breast: Their Pathology and Treatment, with Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894, p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
8. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link: The Astonishing Role of the
Placenta. OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
10. ^ Williams, W.R. A Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with Special Reference to Cancer. Bale, 1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
11. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link: The Astonishing Role of the Placenta. OUP
Oxford, 2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
12. ^ Rincon, Paul (2003-12-12). "Rincon, P., Oldest Marsupial Ancestor
Found, BBC, Dec 2003". BBC News. Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3311911.stm
13. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003". News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
14. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology: Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/vp/sinodelphys.html
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237. {140 MYBN}
16. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and divergence of marsupials and placentals", Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {165MYBN}
17. ^ Hedges, Tree of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009Chap68.pdf
18. ^ van Rheede, T. et al. The platypus is in its place: nuclear genes and
Indels confirm the sister group relation of monotremes and therians. Mol.
Biol. Evol. 23, 587–597 (2006). {143-178MYBN}
19. ^ Phillips, M. J., Bennett, T. H. & Lee,
M. S. Y. Molecules, morphology, and ecology indicate a recent, amphibious
ancestry for echidnas. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 17089–17094 (2009).
{193-186}
20. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
China12 13 14   
136,000,000 YBN
5 		460) The Birds Enantiornithes {iNaNTEORNitEZ3 } evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enantiornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enantiornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
{136 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/Protopteryx-fengni
ngensis.htm
  
134,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		250) The Angiosperms: "Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and white pepper, camphor, bay (or
laurel) tree, and magnolia.10 11 ).12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/magnoliid>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/1437.short
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
Inc. "magnoliid." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/magnoliid>.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088868/
6. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). entire group is called magnoliids
9. ^ "magnoliid>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. "magnoliid." The
American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/magnoliid>.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088868/
11. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). entire group is called magnoliids
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
15. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called magnoliids {179 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
133,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		253) The Angiosperms Eudicots {YUDIKoTS8 } evolve (the largest lineage of
flowers).9 10

The two main groups of the Eudicots are the "rosids" and the "asterids".11

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates" which refers to the structure of the
pollen.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eudicot>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc. "eudicot." The American Heritage® Science
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eudicot>.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. "eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eudicot>.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points
of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree",
2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153mybn) {155 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=eudicot&submit=Submit
  
132,000,000 YBN
3 		462) The Birds Hesperornithiformes {HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ1 } evolve.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Hesperornithiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 04 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hesperornithiformes
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
  
130,000,000 YBN
7 		375) The Teleosts: Perch, seahorses, flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda
evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
  
130,000,000 YBN
4 		376) The Teleosts: cod and anglerfish evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
  
125,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		163) The Mammals Eutheria evolve: Placental mammals.4

The Eutheria are mammals that have a placenta. The placenta is an organ that
forms in the uterus to aid in the exchange of food and wastes between the blood
of the mother and fetus through an umbilical cord.5 6

Placental mammals include all living mammals except marsupials and monotremes.
The placenta allows for a longer developmental period within the womb which may
give the placentals a selective advantage.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms
with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon
Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major
Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
3. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
5. ^ "placental mammal".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
6. ^ "placenta." The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 25 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/placenta
7. ^ "placental mammal". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
8. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
9. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {160MYBN}
10. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen
Cho, Elizabeth Little, "Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of
Living Organisms with a Protein Clock", Science, (1996). {130MYBN}
11. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

MORE INFO
[1] Nature. "Ji, Q., et al., The Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal, Nature,
416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002". Nature.com.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6883/full/416816a.html
earliest fossils: (Daxigou) Jianchang County, Liaoning Province, China8   
125,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		395) The bird beak evolves.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H (1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new Late
Jurassic sauriurine bird from China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
2. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang,
Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous age for
the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning, China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
3. ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/birdfr.html
4. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang,
Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous age for the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning, China".
Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
5. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning, China". Nature
400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html {125 MYBN}
6. ^
Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age for the Jehol Group, northeast China.”
Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9 (2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115 {145 MYBN}
7. ^ "Jurassic." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jurassic {145 MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Yixian Formation) Liaoning Province, northeastern China4
  
120,000,000 YBN
7 		463) The birds Neornithes {nEORnitEZ5 } evolve (modern birds: the most recent
common ancestor of all extant birds).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=neornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
3. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=neornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
5. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=neornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {120 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny
of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II.
Analysis and discussion.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149.1
(2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their
Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
[3] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA support for a Cretaceous origin of modern
avian lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/6/6
  
112,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 		252) The Angiosperms Monocotyledons (or "Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed leaf) in the embryo.9 10 11

Monocots are the second largest lineage of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and grasses.12 13

The two main orders of Monocots are "Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".14
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
3. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyledon
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyledon
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
11. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry, http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyledon
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal
of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
16. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (154mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
108,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		254) The Basal Eudicots evolve (the ancestor of the buttercup, clematis, poppy,
macadamia, lotus, and sycamore).9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (145mybn) {147 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] wiki
  
106,000,000 YBN
16 17 		267) The "Core Eudicots" evolve (the ancestor of the cactus, caper, buckwheat,
rhubarb, venus flytrap, old world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa, spinach, and
grape plants).11 12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An
update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An
update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
15. ^ wiki
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract (145my)
{124 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (128mybn)
  
105,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		491) The Eutheria Afrotheres evolve.5

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are the earliest extant placental mammals.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p224-229.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p224-229.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p224-229.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p224-229.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p224-229. {105 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
Africa7   
100,000,000 YBN
7 		465) The Birds "Ratites" evolve (the ancestor of the ostrich, emu, cassowary
{KaSOwaRE5 }, and kiwi).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=cassowary&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=cassowary&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=cassowary&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (estimate from) {100 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/350Aves/350.900.html#Ratites
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and discussion.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean
Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their
Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
  
95,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		498) The Eutheria "Xenarthrans" {ZeNoRtreNZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of Sloths,
Anteaters, and Armadillos).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenarthran
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p219-223.
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
4. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenarthran
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
7. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
8. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenarthran
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
11. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
12. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
13. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p219-223.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),219-223. {95 MYBN}
15. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy,
Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
16. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Cornelis, Guillaume et al. “Ancestral Capture of syncytin-Car1, a
Fusogenic Endogenous Retroviral Envelope Gene Involved in Placentation and
Conserved in Carnivora.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
109.7 (2012): E432–E441. http://www.pnas.org/content/109/7/E432.abstract
[2] Delsuc, Frédéric et al. “Molecular Phylogenetics Unveils
the Ancient Evolutionary Origins of the Enigmatic Fairy Armadillos.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 62.2 (2012):
673–680. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790311004799
[3] Shattuck, Milena R., and Scott A. Williams. “Arboreality Has Allowed for
the Evolution of Increased Longevity in Mammals.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 107.10 (2010): 4635–4639.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/10/4635.abstract
South America13   
93,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		256) The Angiosperms: "Rosids" evolve (Basal Rosids include: the pomegranate,
clove, guava, allspice, and eucalyptus).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating
the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (122mybn) {117} {109}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		261) The Rosids "Fabales" {FoBAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of beans, pea,
peanut, soy, and lentil).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabaceae
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabaceae
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
93,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		265) The Monocots "Base Monocots" evolve (the ancestor of vanilla, orchid,
asparagus, onion, garlic, agave, aloe, and lily).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p612.
9. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (153my) {141 MYBN} {154 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards), Angiosperm
Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/welcome.html
  
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		266) The Monocots "Commelinids" {KomelIniDZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of palms,
coconut, corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo, grass,
pineapple, papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK10 }, banana, and ginger).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinidae
2. ^ "turmeric." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
5. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinidae
6. ^ "turmeric." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinidae
10. ^ "turmeric." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005,
p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153my) {94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
93,000,000 YBN
16 17 		275) The Basal Asterids "Ericales" {AReKAlEZ11 12 } evolve (the ancestor of the
kiwifruit, ebony, persimmon, blueberry, cranberry, brazil nut, new world
pitcher plant, and tea).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericaceae&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericaceae&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericaceae&submit=Submit
12. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {113 MYBN} {100 MYBN} {114 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		283) The Asterids "Apiales" {APEAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of dill, celery,
cilantro, carrot, parsnip, fennel, parsley, and ivy).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiaceae+&submit=Submit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiaceae+&submit=Submit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiaceae+&submit=Submit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn) {95 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 		285) The Asterids "Asterales" {aSTRAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of tarragon,
daisy, artichoke, sunflower, lettuce, and dandelion).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
"Asterales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ wiki

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
91,000,000 YBN
15 16 		259) The Rosids: "Malpighiales" {maLPiGEAlEZ10 } evolve 11 12 13 (the ancestor
of coca, rubber tree, cassava, poinsettia, willow, poplar, and aspen).14
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiaceae-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Malpighiaceae."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiaceae-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ wiki
10. ^ "Malpighiaceae."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiaceae-1
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ wiki
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {90 MYBN} {81
MYBN} {91 MYBN}
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
90,000,000 YBN
16 		270) The Rosids "Brassicales" {BraSiKAlEZ11 } evolve (the ancestor of
horseradish, mustard, cabbage, broccoli, radish, and papaya).12 13 14 15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassicacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ wiki
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassicacea
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^ wiki
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassicacea
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^ wiki
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {88 MYBN} {90
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
  
89,000,000 YBN
13 14 		262) The Rosids "Rosales" {ROZAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of hemp, hop,
jackfruit, fig, strawberry, rose, raspberry, apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach,
and almond).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
"Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN} {76 MYBN} {89 MYBN}
14. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
89,000,000 YBN
14 		279) The Asterids "Gentianales" {JeNsinAlEZ9 } evolve10 11 12 (the ancestor of
oleander, and coffee).13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
"Gentianales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ wiki
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN} {89
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
  
86,000,000 YBN
13 		278) The Asterids "Solanales" {SOlanAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of bell
pepper, tomato, tobacco, potato, and eggplant).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solanacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solanacea
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solanacea
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN} {86 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
Americas  
85,000,000 YBN
13 14 		263) The Rosids "Cucurbitales" (KYUKRBiTAlEZ9 } evolve (the ancestor of melon,
cucumber, pumpkin, squash, and zucchini).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cucurbit." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An
update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "cucurbit." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating
the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {85
MYBN} {65 MYBN}
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
Americas  
85,000,000 YBN
15 16 		264) The Rosids "Fagales" {FaGAlEZ10 } evolve (the ancestor of many flowers
that produce edible nuts: for example Birch, Hazel {nut}, Chestnut, Beech
{nut}, Oak, Walnut, Pecan {PEKoN11 }, and Hickory).12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
6. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 04 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
11. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree
of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
{85 MYBN} {61 MYBN}
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
  
85,000,000 YBN
7 		466) The Birds "Galliformes" {GaLliFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of the
Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant, Peacock, and Quail).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=galliformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=galliformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=galliformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/360Galloanserae/360.100.html#Galloanser
ae
  
85,000,000 YBN
7 		467) The Birds "Anseriformes" {aNSRiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of ducks,
geese, and swans).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriformes-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anseriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriformes-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anseriformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriformes-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anseriformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/360Galloanserae/360.500.html#Anseriform
es
  
85,000,000 YBN
8 9 		499) The Eutheria "Laurasiatheres" evolve.4

The Laurasiatheres are a major line of placental mammals5 that originate in
the northern continent Laurasia.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p200. {85 MYBN}
9. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
Laurasia7   
84,000,000 YBN
454) The Rocky mountains start to form.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
  
82,000,000 YBN
20 		271) The Rosids "Malvales" {moLVAlEZ13 } evolve (the ancestor of okra, marsh
mallow {malO14 }, durian {DUREiN15 }, cotton, balsa, and cacao {KoKoU16 }.17 18
19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
2. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
7. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mallow>.
8. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian?s=ts
9. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
14. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 13 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mallow>.
15. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian?s=ts
16. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {83 MYBN} {68 MYBN} {82 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
[3] wiki
Americas  
82,000,000 YBN
16 		272) The Rosids "Sapindales" {SaPiNDAlEZ11 } evolve (the ancestor of the maple,
lychee, mahogany, cashew, mango, pistachio, and the citrus trees: orange,
lemon, and grapefruit).12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sapindaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ "Sapindales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sapindaceae
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ "Sapindales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=sapindaceae
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ wiki
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {80 MYBN} {61
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution
of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
Americas  
82,000,000 YBN
420) The Ornithopods {ORnitePoDZ3 } Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithopod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ "ornithopod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
  
82,000,000 YBN
7 8 		500) The Laurasiatheres "Insectivora" evolves (the ancestor of shrews, moles,
and hedgehogs).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree
of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
{82 MYBN}
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
  
80,000,000 YBN
7 		422) The Therapods {tERePoDZ4 } Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ5 } evolve: Raptors.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromaeosaur&submit=Submit
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
4. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromaeosaur&submit=Submit
6. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
7. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {80 MYBN}
  
80,000,000 YBN
8 		482) The Marsupials: New World Opossums evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2009Chap70.pdf
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2009Chap70.pdf
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2009Chap70.pdf
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p230-237. {80 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Didelphimorphia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didelphimorphia
Americas7   
75,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		492) The Afrotheres: Aardvarks evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {75 MYBN}
6. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4
2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
7. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
Africa4   
74,000,000 YBN
15 		280) The Asterids "Lamiales" {lAmEAlEZ10 } evolve (the ancestor of many spices:
mint, basil, marjoram {moRJ uruM11 }, oregano, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme,
teak, sesame, olive, ash, lilac and jasmine).12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
6. ^ "marjoram." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci.
2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of
flowering plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141
Page 399 - April 2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and
some points of view", American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^
"Lamiales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
11. ^ "marjoram." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and
Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree", Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my) {74 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some points of view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (128mybn)
  
73,000,000 YBN
8 		484) The Marsupials: Bandicoots and Bilbies {BiLBEZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bilby&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bilby&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bilby&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {73 MYBN}
Australia7   
70,000,000 YBN
10 		424) Two of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs known are common (both Therapods
{tERePoDZ5 }): Tyrannosaurus rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS6 } is the top predator in
North America and Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS7 } is the top predator in South
America.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrannosaurus+rex&submit=Submit
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giganotosaurus&submit=Submit
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ "theropod." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
15 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrannosaurus+rex&submit=Submit
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giganotosaurus&submit=Submit
8. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
9. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
10. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {70 MYBN}
Americas9   
70,000,000 YBN
4 		425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ1 } Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ2 } evolve (the
shield back and/or club tail dinosaurs).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreophora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosaurus
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {70 MYBN}
  
70,000,000 YBN
426) The Marine reptiles Mosasaurs {mOSeSORZ4 } evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mosasaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
4. ^ "mosasaur." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
6. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
  
70,000,000 YBN
7 		469) The Birds "Podicipediformes" {PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ4 } evolve (grebes {GreBS5
}).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipediformes-1
2. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
4. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipediformes-1
5. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {70 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
  
70,000,000 YBN
8 9 		507) The Eutheria Lagomorpha {loGomORFo5 } evolve: the ancestor of Rabbits,
Hares, and Pikas {PIKuZ6 }.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "pika." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "pika." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lagomorpha&submit=Submit
6. ^ "pika." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}
9. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
  
70,000,000 YBN
7 		516) The Eutheria Tree Shrews and Colugos {KolUGOZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] "Colugo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugo
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[6] "Colugos". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugos
  
66,000,000 YBN
5 		120) The largest Pterosaur and largest flying animal ever known, Quetzalcoatlus
{KeTZLKWoTLuS3 }.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetzalcoatl
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetzalcoatl
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991, p142.
  
65,500,000 YBN
9 		129) The End-Cretaceous mass extinction. 47% of all genera are observed
extinct.3

Made extinct are: 60% of plant species, and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs,
pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ4 } and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ5 }.6

A comet or meteor collides with the Earth in what is now the Yucatan {YUKoTaN7
} Peninsula of Mexico and huge amounts of lava erupt from India. No large
animals survive on land, in the air, or in the sea.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the
Fossil Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences, Vol. 344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks
Anniversary Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G. Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil Record (and
Discussion)", Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 344, No.
1307, Estimating Extinction Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary Meeting (Apr.
29, 1994), pp. 11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/56148
4. ^ "plesiosaur." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
05 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/plesiosaur
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pliosaur&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p283.
7. ^ "Yucatán."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yucat-n
8. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
9. ^ http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1116/16macro.htm {65.5 MYBN}
  
65,500,000 YBN
4 		397) The end of the Mesozoic and start of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn)
Period.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
  
65,000,000 YBN
3 4 		429) The start of the rapid diversification of mammals.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {65 MYBN}
4. ^
Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
  
65,000,000 YBN
8 		468) The Birds "Gruiformes" {GrUiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of cranes,
rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ6 }).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
5. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-1
6. ^ "bustard." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bustard>.
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
  
65,000,000 YBN
5 		485) Marsupial moles evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia4   
65,000,000 YBN
8 		486) The Marsupials Tasmanian Devil and Numbat {nuMBaT5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=numbat&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=numbat&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=numbat&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia7   
65,000,000 YBN
8 		488) The Marsupials "Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu5 } evolve (the ancestor of
Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, and Koalas).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprotodontia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprotodontia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprotodontia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia7   
65,000,000 YBN
18 19 		508) The Eutheria "Rodentia" evolve; rodents.
The Rodents: "Myomorpha" {MIemORFu13 }
evolve (the ancestor of rats, mice, gerbils, voles {VOLZ14 }, lemmings, and
hamsters).15 16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
4. ^ "vole." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ "Myomorpha."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2
9. ^ "vole." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
13. ^ "Myomorpha."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2
14. ^ "vole." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
18. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
{65 MYBN}
19. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
  
63,000,000 YBN
7 		587) The Primates evolve.4 The opposable thumb.

The Order primates contains more than 300 species, including monkeys, apes, and
humans.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "primate." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=63my) {63 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/first_primates.htm
[2]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html
Africa or India6   
60,000,000 YBN
10 11 		470) The Birds "Strigiformes" {STriJiFORmEZ7 } evolve (owls).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiformes-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiformes-1
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiformes-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {65 MYBN(need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II.
Analysis and discussion.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149.1
(2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
  
60,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		504) The Laurasiatheres "Carnivora" {KoRniVRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of Cats,
Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, and Walruses).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/carnivora?s=t&ld=1089
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/carnivora?s=t&ld=1089
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/carnivora?s=t&ld=1089
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
Laurasia10   
58,000,000 YBN
7 		524) The Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarsier." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tarsier." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "tarsier." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "Tarsier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsier
  
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 		471) The Birds "Apodiformes" {oPoD-i-FORmEZ7 } evolve (hummingbirds, and
swifts).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apodiformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apodiformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apodiformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
  
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 		476) The Birds "Piciformes" {PESiFORmEZ7 } evolve (woodpeckers, and toucans).8
9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piciformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piciformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piciformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
  
55,000,000 YBN
16 17 		477) The Birds "Passeriformes" {PaSRiFORmEZ9 } evolve (perching songbirds).
This order includes many common birds: for example crows, jays, sparrows,
warblers, mockingbirds, wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ10 },
larks, swallows, and finches.11 12

More than half of all species of birds are passerines.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=passeriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
3. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriformes
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
5. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=passeriformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
7. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriformes
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
9. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriformes-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=passeriformes&submit=Submit
10. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
11. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriformes
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
13. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriformes
14. ^ Boles, Walter E. (1997): Fossil Songbirds
(Passeriformes) from the Early Eocene of Australia. Emu '97'(1): 43–50.
doi:10.1071/MU97004
15. ^ L. Christidis, A. Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A Gondwanan origin of
passerine birds supported by DNA sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens"
Proceedings of the Royal Society B, February 2002:235–241.
16. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
17. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)

MORE INFO
[1] Ericson, Per G. P. et al. “A Gondwanan Origin of Passerine Birds
Supported by DNA Sequences of the Endemic New Zealand Wrens.” Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 269.1488 (2002):
235–241. http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/269/1488/235.abstract

earliest fossils: Australia14 |Gondwana15   
55,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		495) The Afrotheres Elephants evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4
2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
6. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^
Delmer, C., Mahboubi, M., Tabuce, R. & Tassy, P. 2006. "A new species of
Moeritherium (Proboscidae, Mammalia) from the Eocene of Algeria: new
perspectives on the ancestral morphotype of the genus." Palaeontology 49 (2),
421-434. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00548.x/ab
stract
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
10. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003). {62
MYBN}
11. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
12. ^ Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall Editions. p. 238. ISBN
1-84028-152-9.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
Algeria, Africa7 |Africa8   
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		497) The Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong evolve.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {59 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003).
10. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
  
55,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 		502) The Laurasiatheres "Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu17 } evolve (the
ancestor of all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu18 } also called "even-toed
ungulates"19 : camels, pigs, ruminants {includes deer, giraffe, cattle, sheep,
and antelope20 }, hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu21 }: Whales, and
Dolphins).22 23 24

Hippos are the closest living land relative of the whales and dolphins.25
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetartiodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiodactyla&submit=Submit
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetacea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
6. ^ "Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. © 1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetartiodactyla
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetartiodactyla&submit=Submit
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiodactyla&submit=Submit
9. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungulate&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ungulate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
11. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyla-1
12. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyla-1
13. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetacea&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
15. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^ "Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary for
Scientific Writers and Editors. New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers
and Editors. © 1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetartiodactyla
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetartiodactyla&submit=Submit
18. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiodactyla&submit=Submit
19. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyla-1
20. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyla-1
21. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetacea&submit=Submit
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
23. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
24. ^ "Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary for
Scientific Writers and Editors. New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers
and Editors. © 1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetartiodactyla
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
27. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218. {78 MYBN}
29. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
Laurasia26   
55,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 		503) The Laurasiatheres "Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu12 } evolve (also called
"odd-toed ungulates"13 ) {uNGYUlATS14 or uNGYUliTS15 } (the ancestor of all
Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ 16 }, and Rhinos).17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodactyla-2
2. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree
of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodactyla-2
6. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungulate&submit=Submit
8. ^ "ungulate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
9. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com
30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodactyla-2
13. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
14. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungulate&submit=Submit
15. ^ "ungulate." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
16. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
18. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
20. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218. {76 MYBN}
22. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
Laurasia19   
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		509) The Rodents: Beavers.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). {65 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
  
55,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		511) The Rodents: Dormouse, Mountain Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT4 }
evolve.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}
8. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
  
55,000,000 YBN
7 8 		585) The Birds Psittaciformes {SiTaS-iFORmEZ4 } evolve (Parrots).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittaciformes-1
2. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA support for a Cretaceous origin of modern
avian lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/6/6
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
4. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/psittaciformes-1
5. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime G.
Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA support
for a Cretaceous origin of modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January
2008): 6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/6/6
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
7. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
8. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime G. Moreno,
Michael Sorenson, and David Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA support for a
Cretaceous origin of modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/6/6

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny
of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II.
Analysis and discussion.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149.1
(2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their
Evolutionary History.” Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5884/1763
[3] "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
  
55,000,000 YBN
3 		6381) Horses evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {55 MYBN}
  
55,000,000 YBN
2 		6387) The first Giraffes evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
08 Jan. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
  
54,000,000 YBN
4 5 		810) The last common ancestor between hippos with dolphins and whales.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (=54) {54 MYBN}
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4
2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003). (=53) {53 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
  
53,500,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 		812) The earliest marine mammal and whale "Himalayacetus".3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene archaeocete (Mammalia,
Cetacea) from India and the time of origin of whales. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/content/95/26/15464.abstract
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
3. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D.
Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and
the time of origin of whales. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/content/95/26/15464.abstract
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
5. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/10_10_98/fob3.htm
6. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene archaeocete (Mammalia,
Cetacea) from India and the time of origin of whales. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/content/95/26/15464.abstract
7. ^ http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/10_10_98/fob3.htm (=53.5) {53.5
MYBN}
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=50) {50 MYBN}
9. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003). (=52)
{52 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
earliest fossils: (Subathu Formation) Northern India5   
52,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		501) The Laurasiatheres "Chiroptera" {KIroPTRu7 } evolve (the ancestor of fruit
bats, and echolocating bats).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and
Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {80 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
Laurasia10   
51,000,000 YBN
4 		513) The Rodents: Old World Porcupines evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {51 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
  
50,000,000 YBN
6 		438) The Himalayan {HiMolAYeN3 } mountains start to form.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Himalayan>.
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Himalayan>.
4. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
6. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {50 MYBN}
Himalyia Mountains, India5   
50,000,000 YBN
3 		816) The early whale Ambulocetus evolves.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
  
49,000,000 YBN
7 8 		474) The Birds "Falconiformes" {FaLKoNiFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of
falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiformes-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiformes-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
5. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiformes-1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
  
49,000,000 YBN
8 		515) The Rodents: New World porcupines, guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ5 }, and
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ6 } evolve.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capybara." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capybara." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "agouti." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
6. ^ "capybara." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
  
40,000,000 YBN
9 		525) The Primates "New World Monkeys" evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis,
Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ5 }, and Tamarins).6


The ancestor of all extant New World monkeys may have reached the Americas from
Africa by crossing the early Atlantic Ocean, perhaps on fallen trees over a
chain of islands.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capuchin." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "capuchin." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p147 (guess is in Africa).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
{40 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_monkey
Africa8   
37,000,000 YBN
3 4 		442) Dogs evolve.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {37 MYBN}
4. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
  
37,000,000 YBN
7 		475) The Birds: Cuculiformes {KUKUliFORmEZ5 } evolve (the ancestor of cuckoos,
and roadrunners).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculiformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculiformes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculiformes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2)
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record 2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
  
34,000,000 YBN
7 		813) Toothed and Baleen whale lines split.4

Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm, and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray whales.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "toothed whale." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-whale
3. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whale
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "toothed whale." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-whale
6. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whale
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=34) {34 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
  
30,000,000 YBN
5 6 		444) Cats evolve.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
  
30,000,000 YBN
4 		520) The Primates: True Lemurs evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
{30 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhini
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70 mybn)
(=70 mybn)
  
30,000,000 YBN
2 		6385) The first pigs evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.
  
25,000,000 YBN
8 		531) The Primates "Old World Monkeys" evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques,
Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus {KoLiBeS5 } monkeys).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-white-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-white-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colobus monkey." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-white-colobus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {25 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[3] Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages R582-R588,
(1998) . see image
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[5] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa7   
25,000,000 YBN
2 		6386) The first deer evolves.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
08 Jan. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
  
24,000,000 YBN
5 		662) The ancestor of all Hominoids (Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). (based on Aegyptopithecus=22my)
{24 MYBN (based on Aegyptopithecus=22my}
  
23,000,000 YBN
5 		478) The Monotreme: Echidna evolves.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea4   
23,000,000 YBN
5 		479) The Monotreme: Duck-Billed Platypus evolves.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ "platypus." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Jul. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/platypus
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia and Tasmania4   
22,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 		559) The Hominoid Proconsul evolves in East Africa.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July
1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16,
30 July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998). (c22-c16mybn)
7. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes/proconsul/ 22-10 mybn (22-10 mybn)
8. ^
"Proconsul (genus) 27-17 mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%28genus%29 27-17 mybn (27-17mybn)
  
18,000,000 YBN
8 		537) The Hominoids: Gibbons evolve in South-east Asia.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July
1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998) .
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and out of Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998) .
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {18 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontoglires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_monkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia
[7] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
South-East Asia7   
15,000,000 YBN
2 		6388) The first Kangeroos evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
Australia  
15,000,000 YBN
4 		6389) The first bovids {BOViDZ1 } evolve (hollow-horned ruminants: oxen,
antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bovid>.
2. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bovid>.
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p388.
4. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiatheria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
08 Jan. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
  
14,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		542) The earliest extant Hominids: Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.5 6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews, "Phylogeny
of the Neogene hominoid primates of Eurasia", p232.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Begun, "African
and Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de
Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews, "Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian Miocene hominoids
and the origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter
Andrews, "Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid primates of Eurasia", p232.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {14 MYBN}
9. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C, et al.
(2010) Mitochondrial Genome Sequences Effectively Reveal the Phylogeny of
Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
10. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009, p442.
11. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution among Primates inferred from a supermatrix
of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume
53, Issue 3, December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
South-East Asia7   
10,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 9 10 		543) The Hominids: Gorillas evolve in Africa.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P. Douzery,
Patterns of macroevolution among Primates inferred from a supermatrix of
mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume
53, Issue 3, December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
6. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009, p442.
7. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species of
Great Ape from the Late Miocene Epoch in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
8. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and Its
Implications for the Origins of African Great Apes and Humans." Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/49/19220.abstract
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {7 MYBN}
10. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome Sequences Effectively Reveal the Phylogeny
of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
[3] "Gorilla".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
[4] Prothero, "Bring Fossils To Life", Second
Edition, 2004, p34
Africa4   
6,000,000 YBN
10 11 		544) The Hominids: Chimpanzees evolve in Africa. This is the last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 6mybn
2. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
4. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
6. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
8. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn (6mybn) {6 MYBN}
11. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/Toumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4) (8mybn) {8 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
Africa9   
4,400,000 YBN
30 31 		546) The Hominid: Ardipithecus evolves.22 23 24 25 26 27 The earliest bipedal
primate.28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015282
2. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
3. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001). "Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
4. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane; Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie, Yohannes;
Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen; WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009). "Ardipithecus ramidus
and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids.". Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.abstract
5. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B. (1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a new
species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495): 306.
Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W. doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.abstract
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
7. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and
Y. Coppens , First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
8. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The geological and faunal context of Late Miocene
hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332, 145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015282
9. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
10. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001). "Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
11. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane; Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie, Yohannes;
Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen; WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009). "Ardipithecus ramidus
and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids.". Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.abstract
12. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B. (1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495): 306.
Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W. doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.abstract
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
14. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and
Y. Coppens , First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
15. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015282
16. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
17. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001). "Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
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First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
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Human Ancestor". National Geographic News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
25. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane; Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie, Yohannes;
Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen; WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009). "Ardipithecus ramidus
and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids.". Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.abstract
26. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B. (1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495): 306.
Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W. doi:10.1038/371306a0.
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27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
28. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and
Y. Coppens , First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
29. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
30. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino, Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015282 {6
MYBN}
31. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
{6 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Haile-Selassie, Y. Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash,
Ethiopia. Nature 412, 178-181 (2001).
http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.1038/35084063
Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya, Africa29   
4,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		547) The Hominid: Australopithecus (x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS9 } evolves.10 11 12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopithecus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/269/5223/521
4. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp. pp.
607–612.
5. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopithecus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/269/5223/521
8. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp. pp.
607–612.
9. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopithecus
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/269/5223/521
12. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp. pp.
607–612.
13. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot bones of
the oldest South African hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/269/5223/521
14. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp. pp.
607–612.
15. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp. pp.
607–612. {4MYBN}
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {4MYBN}
17. ^ "Australopithecus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus {3.9 to 3my}
18. ^ "Australopithecus
afarensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis (3.9 to 3my)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
Sterkfontein, South Africa13 14   

SCIENCE
3,390,000 YBN
5 		269) Hominids use stones as tools.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
2. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
3. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
4. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
5. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
{3.39 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
[2] "Stone Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age
[3] "Paleolithic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic
Dikika, Ethiopia4   
3,000,000 YBN
2 		446) North and South America connect.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {3 MYBN}
  
2,700,000 YBN
8 		564) The Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN tru PuS5 } evolves; a line of extinct
early bipedal hominids.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=paranthropus&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=paranthropus&submit=Submit
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=paranthropus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
7. ^ "Paranthropus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropus
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.

MORE INFO
[1] Thure E. Cerling, Emma Mbua, Francis M. Kirera, Fredrick Kyalo
Manthi, Frederick E. Grine, Meave G. Leakey, Matt Sponheimer, and Kevin T. Uno.
Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the early Pleistocene of East Africa; PNAS 2011;
published ahead of print May 2, 2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/04/27/1104627108.full.pdf+html?sid=71bf86
4d-bcc2-420e-9c3d-6c390c4a31c3
[2] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage To the Dawn of
Life. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 90. ISBN 0-297-82503-8
Africa7   
2,500,000 YBN
9 		455) The oldest formed stone tools.4 The start of the Paleolithic or "Old
Stone Age".5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
2. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
3. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
4. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
5. ^ "Paleolithic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic
6. ^ Fagan, Brian M, and Charlotte Beck. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Internet resource.
7. ^ "Paleolithic."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic
8. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
9. ^ Semaw, S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona,
Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336 (1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html {2.5 MYBN}
Gona, Ethiopia8   
2,200,000 YBN
19 		447) The first humans.12 The Hominid: Homo habilis evolves (the earliest
member of the genus "Homo"13 ).14

This is when the human brain begins to get bigger.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "human." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
4. ^ "human." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
8. ^ "human." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
12. ^ "human." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
04 May. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
13. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
16. ^ F. Spoor, M. G. Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S. C.
Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F. K. Manthi & L. N. Leakey (2007-08-09).
"Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana,
Kenya". Nature 448 (7154): 688–691. doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
17. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T. Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White, Robert
C. Walter, William H. Kimbel, Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper Ndessokia &
Gen Suwa (21 May 1987). "New partial skeleton of Homo habilis from Olduvai
Gorge, Tanzania". Nature 327 (6119): 205–209. doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID
3106831
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
19. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
(Kenya16 and Tanzania17 ) Africa18   
2,000,000 YBN
8 		545) The Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
10 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {2 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
[3] "Bonobo".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo
Africa7   
1,800,000 YBN
130) The end of the Tertiary {TRsEARE4 } (65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE5 } (1.8 mybn-now) Period.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ "quaternary." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
3. ^ The geological Society of America
4. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
5. ^ "quaternary." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ The geological Society of America
  
1,800,000 YBN
10 11 12 		563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS7 } evolves in Africa.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). p68-71
3. ^ "Homo erectus." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston,
MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p68-71
5. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
7. ^ "Homo erectus." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
10 Sep. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectus
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p68-71
9. ^ Brown, Frank et al. “Early Homo Erectus
Skeleton from West Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Nature 316.6031 (1985):
788–792. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v316/n6031/abs/316788a0.html
10. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
11. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p445.
12. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergaster 1.9-1.4
mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
[2] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p416
[3] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa
again and again.” Nature 416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
[4] Vekua, Abesalom et al. “A New Skull of Early Homo from Dmanisi,
Georgia.” Science 297.5578 (2002): 85–89. Print. New Series
Lake Turkana, East Africa9   
1,700,000 YBN
12 		449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia from Africa.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
3. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa and the
Emergence of More Modern Humans", Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 47,
No. 2, A Quarter Century of Paleoanthropology: Views from the U.S.A. (Summer,
1991), pp. 177-191 Published by: University of New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
6. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa and the
Emergence of More Modern Humans", Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 47,
No. 2, A Quarter Century of Paleoanthropology: Views from the U.S.A. (Summer,
1991), pp. 177-191 Published by: University of New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
9. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa and the
Emergence of More Modern Humans", Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 47,
No. 2, A Quarter Century of Paleoanthropology: Views from the U.S.A. (Summer,
1991), pp. 177-191 Published by: University of New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
10. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus
11. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa and the
Emergence of More Modern Humans", Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 47,
No. 2, A Quarter Century of Paleoanthropology: Views from the U.S.A. (Summer,
1991), pp. 177-191 Published by: University of New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1.7 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p69-77
[2] Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble,
2001.
  
1,500,000 YBN
6 		583) The controlled use of fire by Hominids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for
the earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
2. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the
earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
3. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the
earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
4. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the
earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
5. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the
earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5 MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
6. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent. “Evidence from the Swartkrans
cave for the earliest use of fire.” Nature 336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5 MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South Africa5   
1,000,000 YBN
5 6 		589) Homo erectus evolves far less body hair, except on the head, face, airpit,
chest, and groin.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275 {1 MYBN}
6. ^ Rogers AR, Iltis D, Wooding S, "Genetic variation at the
MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair." Curr Anthropol
2004;45:105-108. http://www.jstor.org/pss/10.1086/381006 {1.2 MYBN}
  
970,000 YBN
10 11 12 		200) Humans wear clothing.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human Occupation
at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466 (2010),
229-233 . http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html
2. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10531419
3. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human Occupation
at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466 (2010),
229-233 . http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html
4. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10531419
5. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human Occupation
at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466 (2010),
229-233 . http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html
6. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10531419
7. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human Occupation
at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466 (2010),
229-233 . http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html
8. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10531419
9. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human Occupation
at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466 (2010),
229-233 . http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html
10. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature, 466
(2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7303/full/nature09117.html {970,000}
11. ^
Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen, Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed, "Origin
of Clothing Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in
Africa", Mol Biol Evol (2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published online September 7,
2010 doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234 {83,000-170,000YBN}
12. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser, Mark
Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing,
Current Biology, Volume 13, Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages 1414-1417, ISSN
0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074) {72,000YBN +/- 42,000years}
Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK9   
400,000 YBN
7 8 9 		615) The earliest evidence of spears.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
2. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
3. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
4. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
5. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
6. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from Germany’,
Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
7. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting
Technology.” Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/942
8. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from Germany’,
Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Hartmut Thieme.
Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 - 810 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385807a0
Kathu Pan 1, South Africa5 |(Schöningen, Germany.6 )  
302,000 YBN
5 		6517) There are 1 million humans on Earth, all hunter-gathering people.3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
  
200,000 YBN
20 21 22 		548) Homo sapiens evolve in Africa.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
2. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
3. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human Emergence
Back To 195,000 Years Ago." ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct. 2011.
4. ^ Tim D.
White, Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa
& F. Clark Howell, "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia",
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
5. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
6. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
7. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human Emergence
Back To 195,000 Years Ago." ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct. 2011.
8. ^ Tim D.
White, Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa
& F. Clark Howell, "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia",
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
9. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
10. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
11. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago." ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
12. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell, "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
13. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
14. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
15. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago." ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
16. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell, "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
17. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
18. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
19. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown, and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II, Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248408001024
20. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown, and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II, Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248408001024
21. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown & John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
{200,000 YBN}
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p65. (165,000 YBN) {200,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary", PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061, (2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life", Science, (2003)
Ethiopia, Africa17 18 19   
200,000 YBN
590) The Human language of thirty short sounds begins to develop.6 All words
are single syllable.7

This is the beginning of the transition from the verbal language of chimpanzees
and monkeys, to the language humans use now, which has shorter sound duration
and a larger number of sounds.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of
one-syllable words) Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words) Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
  
130,000 YBN
6 7 		450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in Europe and Western Asia.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
2. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p464.
3. ^ Donald Johanson,
"Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?",
ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
4. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
5. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
6. ^Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html {000}
7. ^
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals

MORE INFO
[1] "Neanderthal". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal
Europe and Western Asia5   
120,000 YBN
572) The start of the Wurm glaciation, which connects a land bridge between
Asia and America.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec04/b65lec04.htm
  
101,000 YBN
[99000 BC] 8 9 10 		594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa into Eurasia.6 This is the beginning of
differences in race within the human species.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
2. ^ http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
3. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al. “Reconstruction of human
evolution: bringing together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/16/6002.short
4. ^ http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
5. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al. “Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data.” Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/16/6002.short
6. ^ http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
7. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al. “Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data.” Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/16/6002.short
8. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer,
J.-L. Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2,
March 1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
9. ^ http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html {000 YBN}
10. ^
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al. “Reconstruction of human evolution: bringing
together genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/16/6002.short {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.html
[2] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6876/abs/416045a.html
  
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 4 5 		257) The oldest Homo sapiens skull outside of Africa; in Israel.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
3. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
4. ^ N. Mercier, H.
Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel,
Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March 1993, Pages
169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
5. ^ http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)

MORE INFO
[1] Bar-Yosef, O. in The Geography of Neandertals and Modern Humans in
Europe and the Greater Mediterranean (eds Bar-Yosef, O. & Pilbeam, D.)
107−156 (Peabody Museum, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2000)
[2]
Mellars, Paul. “Neanderthals and the modern human colonization of Europe.”
Nature 432.7016 (2004) :
461-465. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v432/n7016/full/nature03103.html
[3] Bar-Yosef, O., B. Vandermeersch, B. Arensburg, A. Belfer-Cohen, P.
Goldberg, H. Laville, L. Meignen, Y. Rak, J. D. Speth, E. Tchernov, A. M.
Tillier, S. Weiner, G. A. Clark, A. Garrard, D. O. Henry, F. Hole, D. Roe, K.
R. Rosenberg, L. A. Schepartz, J. J. Shea, F. H. Smith, E. Trinkaus, N. M.
Whalen and L. Wilson. 199. The Excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel (and
Comments and Replies). Current Anthropology
33(5):497-550. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2743915?uid=3739256&uid=21
29&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101120105141
[4] "Skhul remains". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[5] McCown, Keith, "The Stone Age of Mount Carmel", Vol II, 1939
[6] Stringer, C. B.
et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.”
Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel3   
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 5 6 7 		597) The earliest human burial, Skhul {SKuL?} cave in Israel.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
2. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
3. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer,
J.-L. Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2,
March 1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
4. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human: the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
5. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for the
Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
6. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer,
J.-L. Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2,
March 1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
7. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human: the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, et al, "The Stone Age of Mount Carmel", 1939
(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel, Israel2 3 4   
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 7 8 9 		6333) The theory that Gods control the universe.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates
for the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
6. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer,
J.-L. Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2,
March 1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
7. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human: the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
8. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for the
Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
9. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C. Stringer,
J.-L. Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the Mousterian Burial Site of
Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 20, Issue 2,
March 1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
(Es-Skhul) Mount Carmel, Israel5 6   
61,000 YBN
[59000 BC] 11 12 13 14 15 		614) Humans use a bow and arrows.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News, University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

2. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008). "Middle
Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South
Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
3. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News, University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

4. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008). "Middle
Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South
Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
5. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News, University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

6. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008). "Middle
Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South
Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
7. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News, University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

8. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008). "Middle
Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South
Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
9. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News, University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

10. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
11. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307002142
12. ^ "Modern culture emerged in Africa 20,000 years earlier than thought", LA
Times,
07/30/2012 http://www.latimes.com/news/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-modern-cult
ure-africa-20120730,0,4412702.story?track=rss
13. ^ Paola Villa, et al, "Border Cave and the beginning of the Later Stone Age
in South Africa", PNAS, July 30,
2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/07/23/1202629109.abstract
14. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect. {10,000YBN}
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention
: from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000
YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jim Hamm, "The Traditional Bowyer's Bible", Volume 2, 2000,
p86. books.google.com/books?id=D9yQiKTtprAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86
[2] Collins, Desmond (1973). Background to archaeology: Britain in its European
setting (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521201551
Sibudu Cave, South Africa9 10   
53,300 YBN
[51300 BC] 4 		557) Homo Erectus goes extinct.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294 (1996)
: 1870 -1874. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
2. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294 (1996)
: 1870 -1874. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
3. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294 (1996)
: 1870 -1874. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
4. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294 (1996)
: 1870 -1874. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688 {300 YBN}
Ngandong, Indonesia3   
50,000 YBN
[48000 BC] 3 		6399) The start of the mass extinction of large mammals due in part to human
impact.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D. Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions :
State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
2. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D. Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions :
State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
3. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D. Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions :
State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
  
46,000 YBN
[44000 BC] 9 10 11 		577) The earliest water ship. Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach Australia by
water ship.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages for human occupation and
climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia", Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
3. ^ http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages for human occupation and
climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia", Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February
2003)
5. ^ http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1169905,00.html
6. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages for human occupation and
climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia", Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February
2003)
7. ^ http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1169905,00.html
8. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages for human occupation and
climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia", Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February
2003)
9. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia", Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
10. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1169905,00.html
11. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009, p471.

MORE INFO
[1] David B. Goldstein and Lounès Chikhi, "HUMAN MIGRATIONS AND
POPULATION STRUCTURE: What We Know and Why it Matters", Annual Review of
Genomics and Human Genetics, Vol. 3: 129 -152 (Volume publication date
September
2002) http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.genom.3.022502.10320
0
[2] Peter A. Underhill and Toomas Kivisild, "Use of Y Chromosome and
Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure in Tracing Human Migrations", Annual
Review of Genetics, Vol. 41: 539 -564 (Volume publication date December
2007) http://www.annualreviews.org/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1146%2Fannurev.
genet.41.110306.130407
[3]
doi:10.1038/nature01383 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nat
ure01383.html
[4] http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.html
  
43,000 YBN
[41000 BC] 8 9 10 		1187) The earliest known mine: "Lion Cave" in Swaziland, Africa.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources - Malolotja
Archaeology, Lion Cavern," Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarch.asp
2. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance." Republic of
South Africa: Author. Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.php?mid=168&pid=148
3. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources - Malolotja
Archaeology, Lion Cavern," Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarch.asp
4. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance." Republic of
South Africa: Author. Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.php?mid=168&pid=148
5. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources - Malolotja
Archaeology, Lion Cavern," Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarch.asp
6. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance." Republic of
South Africa: Author. Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.php?mid=168&pid=148
7. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9WyyamT93REC&pg=PA1
8. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources - Malolotja
Archaeology, Lion Cavern," Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarch.asp
9. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance." Republic of
South Africa: Author. Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.php?mid=168&pid=148
10. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9WyyamT93REC&pg=PA1
Swaziland, Africa5 6 7   
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		598) The earliest sapiens fossils in Europe (Romania).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11231
2. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11231
3. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11231
4. ^ Benazzi, Stefano et al. “Early Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe and
Implications for Neanderthal Behaviour.” Nature 479.7374 (2011):
525–528. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10617.htm
l
5. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “The Earliest Evidence for Anatomically Modern Humans
in Northwestern Europe.” Nature 479.7374 (2011):
521–524. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10484.htm
l
6. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “Revised Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the Vindija G1
Upper Paleolithic Neandertals.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/3/553.abstract
7. ^ Tool to convert C14 age to calendar
age: ht41264tp://radiocarbon.ldeo.columbia.edu/cgi-bin/radcarbcal?id=0&fig=1&en
try_type=0&add=1&age=34000&std=100
8. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than
Thought", NY Times, November 2,
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-euro
pe-earlier-than-thought.html
9. ^ http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
10. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html
11. ^ Palmer, "primtive Life", 2009, p472.
Peştera cu Oase, Romania3 (and baby tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy4 , jaw:
Kent's Cavern, UK5 )  
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 8 		604) The earliest oil lamp.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
6. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf} {40,000YBN}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
{79,000BCE}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient oil lamp". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_oil_lamp
Southwest France5   
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 11 12 		1262) The earliest known human-made painting.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-18459492
2. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in
Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
3. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-18459492
4. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in
Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
5. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-18459492
6. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in
Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
7. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-18459492
8. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in
Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
9. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in
Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
10. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cave
11. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6087/1409.abstract
12. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cave
(The Panel de las Manos) El Castillo Cave, Spain9 |Southern France10   
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 18 19 20 		5871) The earliest musical instrument, a flute, made from the wing bone of a
vulture.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
2. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8117915.stm
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
4. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
5. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
6. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8117915.stm
7. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
8. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
9. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
10. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8117915.stm
11. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
12.
^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
13. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
14. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8117915.stm
15. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
16.
^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
17. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
18. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2 {40000YBN}
19. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
{35000BCE}
20. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
{34000BCE}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany17   
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 5 6 		6483) Humans catch fish.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern
humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6 July 2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.html
2. ^ First direct evidence of substantial
fish consumption by early modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6 July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.html
3. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106.38 (2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/16034.abstract
4. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11231
5. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 106.38 (2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/16034.abstract
6. ^ First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern
humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6 July 2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.html

MORE INFO
[1] Higham, Tom et al. “Revised Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic Neandertals.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/3/553.abstract
Peçstera cu Oase3 , Romania4   
39,000 YBN
[37000 BC] 8 9 10 11 12 		599) Sapiens reach China.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
2. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in China". BBC news. April 2, 2007. Retrieved
February 26, 2011.
3. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human from Tianyuan
Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
4. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in China". BBC news. April 2, 2007. Retrieved
February 26, 2011.
5. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human from Tianyuan
Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
6. ^ Shen, G et al. “U-Series Dating of Liujiang Hominid Site in Guangxi,
Southern China.” Journal of human evolution 43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6
7. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=sP-PN2StH2cC
8. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
9. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in China". BBC news. April 2, 2007. Retrieved
February 26, 2011.
10. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p473.
11. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/billings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
12. ^ Shen, G
et al. “U-Series Dating of Liujiang Hominid Site in Guangxi, Southern
China.” Journal of human evolution 43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6

MORE INFO
[1] Hu, Y. .; Shang, H. .; Tong, H. .; Nehlich, O. .; Liu, W. .; Zhao, C.
.; Yu, J. .; Wang, C. . et al. (Jul 2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis of
the Tianyuan 1 early modern human". Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106 (27): 10971–4. Bibcode 2009PNAS..10610971H.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2706269. PMID 19581579
(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China5 (Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang6 7 )  
32,000 YBN
[30000 BC] 10 11 12 13 14 		602) Humans weave textiles from flax and use coloring dyes.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old Wild
Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
2. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946), 1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1329.1
3. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta
Boaretto, Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani,
"30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
4. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946), 1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1329.1
5. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta
Boaretto, Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani,
"30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
6. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946), 1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1329.1
7. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta
Boaretto, Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani,
"30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
8. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946), 1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1329.1
9. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta
Boaretto, Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani,
"30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
10. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old Wild
Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359 {32,000 YBN}
11. ^ ADOVASIO
J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {000 YBN} {26,000 YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}
13. ^ {9000YBN}
14. ^ E. J. W. Barber, "Prehistoric Textiles: The
Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=HnSlynSfeEIC {7000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile>
Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia9   
31,700 YBN
[29700 BC] 6 7 		42) Humans raise dogs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
2. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
3. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
4. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
5. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
6. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V. Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert E.M.
Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil dogs
and wolves from Palaeolithic sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable isotopes, Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 36, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380) {31,700 YBN}
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7. {10,000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication
Goyet cave, Belgium5   
29,000 YBN
[27000 BC] 6 7 		6215) The earliest ceramic objects, the Venus figurines.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4 (August/October 2000), pp. 511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/317381
2. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4 (August/October 2000), pp. 511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/317381
3. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/4933/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
4. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/4933/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
5. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/4933/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
6. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4 (August/October 2000), pp. 511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/317381 {29,000}
7. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA
SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The Origins of Ceramic Technology
at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24 November 1989: 246 (4933),
1002-1008. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/4933/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937 {26,000}
Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia5   
28,000 YBN
[26000 BC] 4 5 		451) The Neanderthals go extinct.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
2. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm
3. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG, Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3. doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
4. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG, Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October 2006). "Late
survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe" (PDF). Nature
443 (7113): 850–3. doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
{000 YBN}
5. ^ http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timeline2.htm {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L. H. D., Elliot Smith, G. & Bate, D. M. A.
Excavation of a Mousterian Rock-shelter at Devil's Tower, Gibraltar. J. R.
Anthropol. Inst. 58, 91–113 (1928) http://www.jstor.org/stable/4619528
[2] Busk, G. On a very ancient cranium from
Gibraltar. Report of the 34th Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science (Bath, 1864) 91–92 (1865)
Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain3   
26,000 YBN
[24000 BC] 6 		6224) The earliest "fired" clay (clay dried and hardened by fire).3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
3. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: Interlaced
woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70:
526–534.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
5. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B.,
1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov
I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
6. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: Interlaced
woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70:
526–534. {26000 YBN}
Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech Republic5   
25,000 YBN
[23000 BC] 7 8 9 		724) Woven baskets.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534. {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
2. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
3. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation and technological knowledge in the Upper
Paleolithic of Northern Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News,
and Reviews 14.5 (2005) : 186-198.
4. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996:
Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70:
526-534. {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
5. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
6. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation and technological knowledge in the Upper
Paleolithic of Northern Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News,
and Reviews 14.5 (2005) : 186-198.
7. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996:
Upper Paleolithic fibre technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
8. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
9. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation and technological knowledge in the Upper
Paleolithic of Northern Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News,
and Reviews 14.5 (2005) : 186-198.

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile>
[2] Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old Wild
Flax Fibers", Science 11 September 2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/325/5946/1359
[3] ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534
[4] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from
stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000)
[5] E. J. W. Barber,
"Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze
...", 1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=HnSlynSfeEIC
Pavlov, Czech Republic 4 5 6   
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 5 		6231) The earliest human-made structure. A stone wall.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
2. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
3. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
4. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
5. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html {23,000 YBN}
(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece4   
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 5 6 		6175) Cereal gathering.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short {19000 YBN}
6. ^
Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World:
The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile
Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67.
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia)4
  
18,000 YBN
[16000 BC] 9 10 11 12 		603) The earliest pottery.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8077168.stm
6. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner, "Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone
collagen associated with early pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;" published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/9595.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
7. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8077168.stm
8. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner, "Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone
collagen associated with early pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;" published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/9595.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
9. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu,
Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul
Goldberg, and Steve Weiner, "Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China PNAS
2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;" published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/9595.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
10. ^ "pottery." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pottery {17,500YBN}
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8077168.stm {17,500YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan Province, China7 8   
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 13 		6225) The earliest rope.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
3. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47 (1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/handle/10366/71521
4. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J.
ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
6. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/handle/10366/71521
7. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
9. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47 (1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/handle/10366/71521
10. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J.
ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
12. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/handle/10366/71521
13. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/handle/10366/71521 {17000 YBN}
Lascaux, France10 11 12   
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 3 4 		6516) There are 10 million humans on Earth, all hunter-gathering people.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^ Parker, G.
Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
4. ^ Kremer, Michael.
“Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990.” The
Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
  
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 9 		6227) The earliest known map.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0. "Mammoth Bone Dwellings
on the Russian Plain." Scientific American (1984): 251.
2. ^ Bibikov, S. N.
(Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones). Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents also in English and French.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
4. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
5. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii Muzykalnyi
Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta: Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p7.
8. ^ http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventions/
9. ^ http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventions/ {12,000 BC (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1998) Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of mammoth
bones in the Ukraine: Kiev-Kirillovskii, Gontsy, Dobranichevka, Mezin and
Mezhirich, Oxford: J. and E. Hedges. ISBN 0-86054-949-6
[2] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1978) The
Mezhirich mammoth-bone houses, U.S. Geological Survey. ISBN B0006WZGIS
[3] (Ukrainian)
(1972). Icтopiя мicт i ciл Укpaїнcькoї CCP - Черкаськa
область (History of Towns and Villages of the Ukrainian SSR - Cherkasy
Oblast), Kiev
[4] "Mezhyrich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezhyrich
Mezhirich, Ukraine7 8   
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 7 		6439) Lime cement is used as an adhesive on small stone tools.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East." Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2 (1988):
219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Neolithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
2. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N. Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L. Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of the
Institute of Archaeology Jerusalem: The Hebrew University, 331-368.
3. ^ Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology,
Part Ii: Production and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the Pre-Pottery
Neolithic Near East." Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2 (1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Neolithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
4. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N. Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L. Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of the
Institute of Archaeology Jerusalem: The Hebrew University, 331-368.
5. ^ Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology,
Part Ii: Production and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the Pre-Pottery
Neolithic Near East." Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2 (1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Neolithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
6. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N. Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L. Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of the
Institute of Archaeology Jerusalem: The Hebrew University, 331-368.
7. ^ Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology,
Part Ii: Production and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the Pre-Pottery
Neolithic Near East." Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2 (1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Neolithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
Geometric Kebaran site Lagama North VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai, Egypt5
6   
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 15 16 17 		578) Sapiens reach America. The oldest human bones in America.10 11 12
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
2. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm
3. ^ http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/ancient.woman/
4. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
5. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm
6. ^ http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/ancient.woman/
7. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
8. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm
9. ^ http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/ancient.woman/
10. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
11. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm
12. ^ http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/ancient.woman/
13. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm
14. ^ Michael Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology: Marine
bioregions and the destruction of the Southern California Bight, Futures,
Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN
0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382)
15. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2538323.stm {13000 YBN}
16. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/ancient.woman/ {13000 YBN}
17. ^ Michael
Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology: Marine bioregions and the destruction of
the Southern California Bight, Futures, Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of
Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN 0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382) {13000 YBN}
Mexico City13 and Arlington Canyon on Santa Rosa Island, California, USA14
  
12,000 YBN
[10000 BC] 2 		6522) Humans transform from hunting and gathering to agriculture, from a
migratory to a sedentary life, building the first cities.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p16-17.
2. ^ Ted
Huntington.
  
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 4 5 		827) The end of the Pleistocene (PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene {HoLoSEN
or HOLoSEN1 } epoch.2 This is the end of the last Ice Age.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Holocene." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Holocene>.
2. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ "Holocene." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/holocene
4. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia
Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic//>.
5. ^ http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] 1999 Geologic Time Scale, Geological Society of America
[2] "Mesolithic".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
  
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 3 4 5 6 7 		828) The start of the Neolithic or "New Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a
region of the Middle East arching from the Nile Valley to the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fertile Crescent." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/fertile-crescent
2. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithic/qt/Neolithic.htm
3. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia
Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic//>.
4. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithic/qt/Neolithic.htm
5. ^ "Neolithic." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/neolithic
6. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/mesolithicarchaic/qt/Mesolithic.htm
7. ^ "Neolithic" in Timothy Darvill, "The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology (2 ed.)", Oxford University Press, 2008.

MORE INFO
[1] "Mesolithic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
  
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 11 12 13 14 		829) Humans shape metal objects from native copper.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
2. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy as a human experience", Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerlink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
3. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
4. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy as a human experience", Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerlink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
5. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
6. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research , No. 282/283, Symposium:
Chalcolithic Cyprus (May - Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
7. ^ http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonacobre/pasado.asp
8. ^ Linda Braidwood and Robert Braidwood, "Prehistoric Village
Archaeology in south-eastern Turkey: The eight-millennium B.C> site at
Çayönü, its chipped and ground stone undustries and faunal remains:, 1982,
p4,10-11.
9. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
10. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
11. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
12. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research , No. 282/283, Symposium:
Chalcolithic Cyprus (May - Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
13. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
14. ^ http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonacobre/pasado.asp {700 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Iran%20information/iranian_copper_iran_exports.htm
(Shanidar Cave) North East Iraq5 |(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern Turkey)6
|Northern Iraq7 8 9 |Eastern Anatolia10   
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 7 8 		606) The oldest city, Jericho.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
6. ^
"Jericho." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jericho
7. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
8. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {000 YBN} {8,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations at Jericho", 1981,
p6. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_1981.pdf}
Jericho, (modern West Bank5 ) Palestine6   
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 10 11 		608) The oldest saddle quern {KWRN5 } (a flat stone and rounded stone used to
grind grain into flour).6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quern." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
4. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
5. ^ "quern." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
8. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
9. ^ British Museum: The oldest
known tool for making flour found in the Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
10. ^ British Museum: The oldest known tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Abu Hureyra, Syria9   
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 4 5 6 		617) Goats are kept, fed, milked, and killed for food.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
4. ^ Hirst,
K. Kris. "The History of the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
5. ^ Breeds of Livestock;
Goats: (Capra hircus). Oklahoma State University Board of Regents
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008.
Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin: Origins,
diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori, Turkey| (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh (10,000).3   
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 5 		1292) The earliest stone buildings and temple; in Turkey.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary Report
on the 1995-1999 Excavations.� Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
2. ^ "The World's First Temple". Archaeology magazine. Nov/Dec 2008. p.
23. http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html
3. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary Report
on the 1995-1999 Excavations.� Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
4. ^ "G�bekli Tepe." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1498811/Gobekli-Tepe
5. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary Report
on the 1995-1999 Excavations.� Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
[2] "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe (=9000bce)
Göbekli Tepe, near Sanliurfa, Southeastern Turkey3 4   
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 3 4 		6509) Rye is grown in Syria.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye, Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J. Legge.
Village on the Euphrates: from foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra. Oxford:
Oxford University Press xvii, 2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euphrates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
2. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye, Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J. Legge.
Village on the Euphrates: from foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra. Oxford:
Oxford University Press xvii, 2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euphrates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
3. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye, Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J. Legge.
Village on the Euphrates: from foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra. Oxford:
Oxford University Press xvii, 2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euphrates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
4. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/489449.stm
Abu Hureyra, Syria2   
10,870 YBN
[8870 BC] 4 		6438) The earliest settlement in Mesopotamia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of Mesopotamia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 03 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/history-of-Mesopotamia/55
488/The-emergence-of-Mesopotamian-civilization>.
2. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin, "Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq", Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No. 3312
(Jun. 20, 1958), p. 1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756030
3. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin, "Dating of Zawi
Chemi, an Early Village Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq", Science , New Series,
Vol. 127, No. 3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756030
4. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin, "Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq", Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No. 3312
(Jun. 20, 1958), p. 1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1756030
Zawi Chemi, Shanidar, Northern Iraq3   
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 4 5 		610) Flax is grown.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf. Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The
Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile
Valley. Oxford University Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
4. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf. Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The
Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile
Valley. Oxford University Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria3   
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 5 6 		6315) Sheep are raised for wool, skins, meat and dung (which is used for
fuel).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of domestic animals: an introductory
text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKSEgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKSEgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
4. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of domestic animals: an
introductory text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKSEgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of domestic animals: an
introductory text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKSEgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific
Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3
Northern Zagros to southeastern Anatolia3 |(Middle East) Eastern Mediterranean4
  
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 7 8 		205) Pigs are raised and killed for food.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V, Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154 (4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10747069
2. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V, Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L
(April 2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154 (4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10747069
3. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V, Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L
(April 2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154 (4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10747069
4. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U. Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T. Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005). "Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication". Science 307 (5715): 1618.
doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
5. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U. Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith, J. Robins,
S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T. Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy, L.
Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005). "Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication". Science 307 (5715): 1618.
doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the
Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
8. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V, Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154 (4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10747069
(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean3 4 and Island South East Asia5 |southeastern
Anatolia6   
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 9 10 11 12 		1259) Clay tokens with different shapes that represent products are used in
Mesopotamia.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25.
2. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
3. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing:
Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M.
Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25.
5. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
6. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing:
Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M.
Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25.
8. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
9. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25.
10. ^ Nissen,
et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
11. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
12. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex
Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel, Sumer (modern Iraq)7 |Babylonia8 |Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran  
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 6 7 		6316) Cows are raised for milk, for meat and eventually for plowing.3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
2. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/cattle.htm
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the
Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
4. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/cattle.htm
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the
Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/33/11597
7. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/cattle.htm
upper Euphrates Valley5   
9,800 YBN
[7800 BC] 7 8 9 		607) The earliest flint sickle.3 4

A sickle is used for cutting grain.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000): 16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.summary
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000): 16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.summary
5. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
6. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July 1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955
7. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000): 16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.summary
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
9. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July 1985).
"Microscopic Striations on Flint Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results". World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/124680

MORE INFO
[1] Banning, E.B. (1998). "The Neolithic Period: Triumphs of
Architecture, Agriculture, and Art". Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (4):
188–237. doi:10.2307/3210656. JSTOR
3210656. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3210656 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210656
Tell Aswad (modern Syria)|Palestine6   
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 8 9 10 11 		612) Wheat is grown in modern Syria.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
3. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
5. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
6. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?"� Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short
7. ^ Which came first, monumental building projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
8. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000): 1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5471/1602.full
9. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?" Science 311.5769 (2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1886.short {9300 YBN}
10. ^ Which
came first, monumental building projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
11. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/489449.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Diamond, Jared. "Evolution, Consequences and Future of Plant and
Animal Domestication." Nature 418.6898 (2002):
700�707. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01019.htm
l
[2] Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye, Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J. Legge.
Village on the Euphrates: from foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra. Oxford:
Oxford University Press xvii, 2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euphrates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
[3] Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A; Sch�fer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F (October 2002).
"AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of
emmer and hard wheat domestication in southeast Turkey". Molecular Biology and
Evolution 19 (10): 1797�801. PMID 12270906
[4] Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated
Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University
Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria5 |southeastern Turkey and northern Syria6 (Nevali
Cori, Turkey7 )  
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 6 7 8 9 		613) Common millet is grown in China.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N; Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East
Asia extended to 10,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC 2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2678631/
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N; Li,
Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al. (2009). "Earliest domestication of common
millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
106 (18): 7367–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC 2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2678631/
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
5. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N; Li,
Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al. (2009). "Earliest domestication of common
millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
106 (18): 7367–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC 2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2678631/
6. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N; Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East
Asia extended to 10,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC 2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2678631/
7. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=sP-PN2StH2cC
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
9. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated
Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University
Press. pp. 83-88. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Cishan, North China5   
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 4 5 		6185) Barley is grown in modern Syria.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 59-69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 59–69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
4. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria3   
9,240 YBN
[7240 BC] 6 7 		1478) The earliest domesticated plants in America. Squash is grown in Peru.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract {9240}
7. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/28/science/28cnd-squash.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=s
login&adxnnlx=1183057296-Up92joKUeK1fZr+Wt4cXsQ (10000ybn)
Paiján, Peru5   
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 5 		1288) Mehrgarh {mARGoR}, an Indus Valley city is founded.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford Companion to Archaeology", Oxford University
Press, (Print) 1996, 9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm
3. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford Companion to Archaeology", Oxford University
Press, (Print) 1996, 9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm
5. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford Companion to Archaeology", Oxford University
Press, (Print) 1996, 9780195076189, (electronic) 2012

MORE INFO
[1] "Indus Valley Civilization". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization
Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan3 4   
8,800 YBN
[6800 BC] 3 		6511) Lentils are grown in Israel.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Yifta'el, North Israel2   
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 3 		6512) Peas are grown in Turkey.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the
Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Çayönü, Turkey2   
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 4 5 		605) The oldest known boat, a dug-out boat.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant. ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10.html
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Netherlands3   
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 5 		6220) The earliest drum.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172045/drum>.
2. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172045/drum>.
3. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172045/drum>.
4. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172045/drum>.
5. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172045/drum>. {6000 BC}
Moravia, Czeck Republic4   
7,700 YBN
[5700 BC] 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 		719) Rice is grown in China.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
2. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
3. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
4. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
5. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
6. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin. Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
7. ^ Normile, Dennis.
“Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.” Science 275.5298 (1997)
: 309. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
8. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
9. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin. Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
10. ^ Domestication
and the origins of agriculture: an appraisal Progress in Physical Geography 1
March 1999: 37-56.
http://ppg.sagepub.com/content/23/1/37.short {Mannion_Agriculture_1999.pdf}
11. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/275/5298/309.full {11500}
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {3500 YBN}
13. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria
Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 91. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA91
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
14. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Kuahuqiao, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang Province5 6 |Yangtze (in Hubei and Hunan
provinces), China7   
7,100 YBN
[5100 BC] 6 7 		720) Corn is grown in Mexico.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520 (2001):
1370�1373. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/292/5520/1370.abstract
2. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin and Environmental Setting of
Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520 (2001):
1370�1373. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/292/5520/1370.abstract
3. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin and Environmental Setting of
Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520 (2001):
1370�1373. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/292/5520/1370.abstract
4. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin and Environmental Setting of
Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520 (2001):
1370�1373. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/292/5520/1370.abstract
5. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V. Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their implications.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 98.4 (2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4/2101.short
6. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520 (2001):
1370�1373. Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/292/5520/1370.abstract
7. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V. Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their implications.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 98.4 (2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4/2101.short {6250}

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000)
San Andrés, Mexico4 |(Oaxaca, Mexico5 )  
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 7 8 9 10 		627) The first metal to be smelted and casted (copper).4 Smelting is
separating a metal from its ore by using heat and a reducing or oxidizing
material.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar,
Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new
evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 11,
November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
2. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar,
Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new
evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 11,
November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
3. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar,
Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new
evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 11,
November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
4. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar,
Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new
evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 11,
November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
5. ^ "smelt." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/smelting
6. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren,
Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
7. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar,
Michael Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new
evidence from Europe, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 37, Issue 11,
November 2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) {c7000 YBN}
8. ^ P.t., Craddock. “From hearth to furnace :
evidences for the earliest metal smelting technologies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.” Paléorient (2000) : 151-165.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_2_4716 {8000BCE} {article_paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2_4716.pdf}
{5500BCE}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
10. ^ "Copper (5000
BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper (5000
BCE) (=5000bce) {5000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Metals and Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period Noël H.
Gale Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May - Aug., 1991), pp. 37-61 Published by: The
American Schools of Oriental Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
Belovode, Eastern Serbia6   
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 4 5 		727) The earliest reed boats.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002). "Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296 (5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID 12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792. doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID 12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
4. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002). "Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes". Science (AAAS) 296 (5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID 12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Kuwait3   
6,900 YBN
[4900 BC] 7 8 9 		648) The sail boat.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative geochemical study of bituminous
boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman).”
Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
2. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g/h3sabiyah.htm
3. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz
(Oman).” Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
4. ^ http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g/h3sabiyah.htm
5. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz
(Oman).” Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p9.
7. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative
geochemical study of bituminous boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and
RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} {5300-4900 BC}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p9. {5000-4001 BC}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
Mesopotamia5 6   
6,800 YBN
[4800 BC] 3 		6527) The first fruit trees, olives are grown in Israel and Jordan.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
(Chalcolithic) Tuleilat Ghassul (north of the Dead Sea)2   
6,500 YBN
[4500 BC] 5 6 		6437) The earliest settlement in Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo
SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20156681
2. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
3. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20156681
4. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
5. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20156681
6. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml

MORE INFO
[1] Vasil Nikolov, Kiril Maslarov, "Ancient Settlements Near Eleshnitsa",
Sofia Press, 1987
(near) Provadia, Bulgaria3 4   
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 5 6 		665) Wine making.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical Evidence for Wine Production Around 4000
BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
2. ^ Meg Sullivan, "Chemical analysis confirms discovery of oldest wine-making
equipment ever found", January 10,
2011. http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/chemical-analysis-confirms-discovery
-188683.aspx
3. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical Evidence for Wine Production Around 4000
BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
5. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around 4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(Areni-1 cave complex in) southeastern Armenia3 |Egypt4   
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 5 		6232) The earliest Sun-dried mud bricks and mud-brick house.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>. {4000 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)4   
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 3 		6540) The earliest nut crops, almond trees are grown in the eastern part of the
Mediterranean basin.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin2   
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 12 13 14 15 16 		233) The earliest writing (on clay objects in Mesopotamia). The first numbers.
The first stamp (or seal).6

The first writing begins as symbols for numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens). These symbols represent the quantity and
kind of tokens inside the bulla.7 8 9
Hollow bullae are eventually replaced
by solid clay tablets with the same impressions.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
4. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
5. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25-27.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
8. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
9. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing", 2001, p25-27.
10. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
11. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
12. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm {5500 YBN}
13. ^ Denise
Schmandt-Besserat, "Reckoning Before Writing", Archaeology. May/June 1979, Vol.
32, No. 3, p. 22-31. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoning_before_writing
14. ^ "writing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web.
20 Nov. 2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/649670/writing>. {3500
BC}
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {for stamp)3500BC}
16. ^ Schmandt-Besserat,
Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins
of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020117/02a00010/0
(sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria Centre of Learning
in the Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_system#History
Mesopotamia (Babylonia)11 |Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran)  
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 7 8 9 		294) The sundial, the earliest timekeeping device.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>.
2. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>.
3. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>.
4. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>.
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
6. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica
Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>.
7. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
8. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic
Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
9. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10. {2600-2501 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993,
p15
China4 5 and Chaldea6   
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		621) The earliest plow. Plows are used to break up soil2 .3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Lal, R., D.C. Reicosky, and J.D.
Hanson. “Evolution of the Plow over 10,000 Years and the Rationale for
No-till Farming.” Soil and Tillage Research 93.1 (2007):
1–12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198706002522
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).

MORE INFO
[1] M. Green/H. J. Nissen, Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus Uruk
(ATU 2; Berlin 1987)
Mesopotamia4   
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		622) The earliest irrigation (supplying water to crops2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Middle east (eastern part of Mediterranean)4   
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 3 		625) Donkeys are raised and used for transport.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
  
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 5 		634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months of 30 days, plus 5 extra days3 ).4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume 2",
p1975, 1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume 2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 15 16 		646) The earliest known wheel, a pottery wheel.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500BCE)
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
4. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
6. ^ http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm
(3500BCE)
7. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
8. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500BCE)
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
10. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
12. ^ http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm
(3500BCE)
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500BCE)
14. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
15. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500BCE) (=3500BCE) {35000BCE}
16. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE) (=3500BCE)
{35000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Margaret Sax, Nigel D. Meeks and Dominique Collon , "The Early
Development of the Lapidary Engraving Wheel in Mesopotamia", Iraq, Vol. 62,
(2000), pp. 157-176 Published by: British Institute for the Study of
Iraq Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200487
[2]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/image_archive/ue/uea.html
[3] Stuart Piggott, "The earliest wheeled transport : from the Atlantic Coast
to the Caspian Sea", Thames and Hudson, 1983
[4] "WORLD'S OLDEST WHEEL FOUND IN
SLOVENIA" March
2003 http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_relations/background_information/culture/w
orlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/
Mesopotamia13 14 (and a similar pottery wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)  
5,490 YBN
[3490 BC] 6 7 		702) Cotton is grown in Peru.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C. Andres, and David E. Williams,
"Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru", Science
29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas
C. Andres, and David E. Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and
Cotton in Northern Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5833/1890.abstract {5490 YBN}
7. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips
", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {4000 YBN}
Northwestern Peru4 |Indus valley5   
5,350 YBN
[3350 BC] 24 25 26 27 		1261) Writing on clay tablets.14 15 16

Symbols that represent a product (such as cows, sheep, and cereals17 ), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.18 19

The training of scribes is an early school.20

These tablets contain a record of objects owned or traded21 , and contain no
stories.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
2. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
3. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex
Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^ http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
5. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
6. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex
Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^ http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
8. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex
Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
10. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
11. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of
Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne
M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
12. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The Earliest Precursor of Writing", Scientific
American. June 1977, Vol. 238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/The_earliest_precursor_of_writing
13. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p105.
14. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
15. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
16. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and Complex
Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
17. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
18. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two Precursors of
Writing: Plain and Complex Tokens", in The Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne
M. Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_precursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
19. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The Earliest Precursor of Writing", Scientific
American. June 1977, Vol. 238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/The_earliest_precursor_of_writing
20. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, p105.
21. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
22. ^ Ted
Huntington
23. ^ "Sumerian writing>.". Encyclopedia wrBritannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 15 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/649670/writing/53659/Sumerian-wr
iting>.
24. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The Earliest Precursor of Writing", Scientific
American. June 1977, Vol. 238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/The_earliest_precursor_of_writing
25. ^ http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm (3300bce)
26. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in
the Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press,
1994. http://books.google.com/books?id=YBAzXV4YtQ8C&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false
27. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

MORE INFO
[1] http://cdli.ucla.edu:16080/wiki/index.php/The_Late_Uruk_period
[2] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000)
[3] Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14
Uruk23   
5,310 YBN
[3310 BC] 8 9 10 		704) Ox pulled vehicles with wheels.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
7. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
8. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63. {c3530-3310 BC}
9. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63. {Standard of Ur) 2600-2400 BC}
10. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips
", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {4000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Zettler, Richard L.; Horne, Lee; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly.
Treasures from the royal tombs of Ur, pp. 45-47. UPenn Museum of Archaeology,
1998. ISBN 9780924171543
[2]
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_stand
ard_of_ur.aspx
(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture) Bronocice, Krakow, Poland7   
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 4 		641) The earliest record of a belief in Gods and Goddesses.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of
Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
2. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
3. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East.
University of Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
4. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the
Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
Uruk3   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 8 9 		569) The earliest stringed musical instrument (the lyre and the harp).5 6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
2. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
3. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
5. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17.
7. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
8. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
{-3000 BC}
9. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17. {-3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal Cemetery.",
1934 {Ur_Excavations_Royal_Cemetary_1934.pdf}
[2] http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibits/267-iraq.html
Sumer (modern Iraq)7   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 		596) Written symbols are combined to form words;4 there is a transition from
word-writing to sound-writing in Sumarian5 .6

The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words.7 This
suggests that all earlier spoken languages contained only single-syllable
words.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series. p47-48.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
5. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series. p47-48.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, 9.
10. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993 (during writing phase Uruk III 3000bce)
11. ^ "Sumer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer (3200bce)

MORE INFO
[1] encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/Alphabet.html
Jemdet Nasr9   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 12 		628) Bronze (copper and tin) are smelted and casted.5 6

The start of the Bronze Age.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on Fertile Crescent", University of Chicago
News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
2. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7SFScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
3. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on Fertile Crescent", University of Chicago
News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
4. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7SFScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
5. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on Fertile Crescent", University of Chicago
News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
6. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7SFScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
7. ^ "Bronze Age." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 14 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bronze-age
8. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on Fertile Crescent", University of Chicago
News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
10. ^ "Artifacts provide
insights on Fertile Crescent", University of Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
12. ^ "Bronze (late 3000
BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze (late
3000 BCE) (late 3000bce) {Late 3000 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
[2] V. Gordon Childe, "The Bronze Age", Cambridge University Press, 2011
http://books.google.com/books?id=Fxb9brYSPVYC
[3] "Bronze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE)
[4] "Bronze Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age
[5] http://www.asa3.org/archive/ASA/199604/0288.html
Tell Judaidah, Turkey8 |Egypt9   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		650) Cuneiform writing.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
2. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/cuneiform.htm
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
5. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/cuneiform.htm (=3200BCE)
Uruk3   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 6 7 8 		664) Soldering of metals.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p12.
2. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working
in the Ancient World", American Journal of Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p114. http://www.jstor.org/stable/500498 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
3. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related
Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq , Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring,
1982), pp. 13-38; p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200150
4. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter. Handbook of Lead-Free
Solder Technology for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel Dekker, 2004.
Mechanical Engineering. http://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
5. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy
and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq , Vol. 44,
No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp. 13-38; p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200150
6. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter.
Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel
Dekker, 2004. Mechanical
Engineering. http://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p12.
8. ^ Singer, Charles Joseph, and
Trevor Illtyd Williams. "A history of technology." (1954,1965). p640-641,653.
Tell al-'Ubaid2 3 |Mesopotamia4   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 6 7 		672) The earliest dam.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jul.,
1954), pp. 424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256869
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ Hellstrom, B. (1951). The
oldest dam in the world. Bull. Inst. Hydraulics, Roy. Inst. Tech., Stockholm,
no. 28.
4. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jul.,
1954), pp. 424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256869
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam,
"Habitat and Plant Communities in the Egyptian Desert: III. The Wadi Bed
Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256869
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Wadi Gerrawi, Egypt4 5   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		675) The earliest silver objects.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p72.
2. ^ Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutopedia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p72.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p72.
5. ^ "silver (Ag)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/544756/silver-Ag>.
Ur2 3   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		676) Metal casting where wax is melted in a clay mold.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 		1276) The first recorded political assembly.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp29-31.
2. ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild Jacobsen.
“Gilgamesh and Agga.” American Journal of Archaeology 53.1 (1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501208
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p29.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981, p30.
5. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959),
p29.
Sumer, Uruk, Kish3   
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 5 6 		6222) The inclined plane (or ramp).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p9.
2. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p9.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p9.
4. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p11. {2900
BCE (based on Pyramid of Giza}
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p9. {2.4 Million BC}
Egypt?  
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 3 		6226) The abacus; a counting and calculating device.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
2. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p16. {3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Ifrah, Georges (2001), The Universal History of Computing: From the
Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0471396710
Mesopotamia2   
4,980 YBN
[2980 BC] 6 		654) The earliest pyramid in Egypt, designed by the earliest known scientist,
Imhotep.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
2. ^ "pyramid". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/484720/pyramid>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
4. ^ "pyramid". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/484720/pyramid>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1. {flourished 2980-2950 BCE}
Sakkara, Egypt5   
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 4 5 		6565) Musical reed instruments.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An Illustrated History. Hermes House, 2002,
p34-35.
2. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An Illustrated History. Hermes House, 2002,
p34-35.
3. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An Illustrated History. Hermes House, 2002,
p34-35.
4. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An Illustrated History. Hermes House, 2002,
p34-35.
5. ^ Landels, J.G., and J.G. Landels. Music in Ancient Greece and Rome. Taylor
& Francis, 2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=NIJCJ1acjisC&pg=PA25
Greece3   
4,750 YBN
[2750 BC] 6 		320) The earliest metal saw.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au IIe
millénaire)", Librairie orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
2. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete
in the History of Tool Making", Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.html
3. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au IIe
millénaire)", Librairie orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
{Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete
in the History of Tool Making", Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.html
5. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete
in the History of Tool Making", Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.html
6. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete
in the History of Tool Making", Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.html {2750 BC}
Mesopotamia5   
4,700 YBN
[2700 BC] 4 		1052) The earliest arch.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
2. ^"Ancient Mesopotamia:Architecture". The Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/architecture.html
3. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
Nippur, Mesopotamia3   
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		635) Iron is smelted and casted.10 11 12

The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
2. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The Beginnings of
Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973): 875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
3. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
4. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
5. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973): 875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
6. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
7. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
8. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973): 875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
9. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
10. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
11. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973): 875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
12. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
13. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
14. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
15. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The Beginnings of
Metallurgy: A New Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973): 875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
16. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
17. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar. British School of Archaeology in Egypt,
1928. Egyptian Research Account.
18. ^ Rickard, T. A. “The Primitive Smelting of
Iron.” American Journal of Archaeology 43.1 (1939): 85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
19. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T , "Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006), (Proceedings) 34th International Symposium
on Archaeometry, Zaragoza, 3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250). Institucion 'Fernando
el Catolico' (CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11494/
20. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3 (Sep.,
1999), pp. 195-199 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
21. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583. http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191
22. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
23. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar. British
School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1928. Egyptian Research Account, p14-16, Plate
25-32. {Petrie_Gerar_1928.pdf}
24. ^ Rickard, T. A. “The Primitive Smelting of Iron.” American Journal of
Archaeology 43.1 (1939): 85–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
25. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T , "Iron
Smelting Slag Formation at Tell Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza, 3-7 May
2004. (pp. 245 - 250). Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico' (CSIC) Excma.
Diputacion de Zaragoza: Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11494/ {930/910
BCE}
26. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 YBN)
27. ^
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptable/fe.htm (3000 YBN) (3000)
28. ^ "Iron (3500
YBN)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN) (3500)
29. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
30. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron, Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934): 555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191

MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia (modern Turkey)14 15 16 |Palestine17 18
|Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan19 20 |Central Europe and north Assyria21   
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 4 5 		637) Scribes change from writing right to left in columns to writing left to
right in rows.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion,
2001. Globalities Series. p49-50.
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History
of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series. p49-50.
5. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
Sumer3   
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 5 		6230) The earliest dice and boardgame.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur Excavations, vol. II: The Royal Cemetery
(London, The British Museum Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
3. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur Excavations, vol. II: The Royal Cemetery
(London, The British Museum Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
5. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx {2400-2600 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal Cemetery.",
1934
Ur, Mesopotamia3 4   
4,450 YBN
[2450 BC] 3 4 		708) Animal skin is used for writing (the earliest parchment).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of publishing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
2. ^ "history of publishing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
3. ^ "history of publishing". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "vellum." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vellum>
Egypt2   
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 4 		1277) The earliest recorded written history.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp37-38.
2. ^ Nies, James Buchanan, Clarence Elwood Keiser, and
Albert Tobias Clay. "Historical, religious and economic texts and antiquities."
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybrook.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981, p43.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981, p38.
Lagash3   
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 4 5 6 7 		800) Writing on papyrus.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards, "Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs, fellahs
and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
2. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards, "Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs, fellahs
and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
3. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards, "Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs, fellahs
and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
4. ^ "papyrus." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford University
Press, 2002, 2003. Answers.com 25 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/papyrus
5. ^ http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egerton/BellSkeat2.html
6. ^
http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archives/2005/07/prisse_davennes.html (=3300)
7. ^
"Djedkare Isesi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi (=2407 or 2419)
Egypt3   
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 5 6 		629) The Akkadian language, the earliest known semitic language. The earliest
verb tense, and noun gender.1 2 The first dictionary.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akkadian language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11690/Akkadian-language>.
2. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of
Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p117.
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 5.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 5.
5. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in
the Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press, 1994, p5.
6. ^ "Akkad".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11671/Akkad>.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series
Agade, Mesopotamia4   
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		667) The earliest glass making; glass beads.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
2. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
3. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
4. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
5. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
6. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.
1‐24. 2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
{4300 YBN}
7. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994,
p190. {Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Industries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
AND {Moorey-Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Industries-1994.pdf} {c4000YBN}
8. ^ James
Owen, "Ancient Egyptian City Yields World's Oldest Glassworks", National
Geographic News June 16,
2005 http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/06/0616_050616_egyptglass.htm
l {35000 YBN}
9. ^ Thilo Rehren and Edgar B. Pusch, "Late Bronze Age Glass
Production at Qantir-Piramesses, Egypt", Science New Series, Vol. 308, No. 5729
(Jun. 17, 2005), pp. 1756-1758 Published by: American Association for the
Advancement of Science Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3841666
{35000 YBN}
10. ^ http://glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html {5500YBN}
11. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New
York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {5000YBN}
Mesopotamia5   
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 11 12 13 14 15 		1271) The earliest written stories. These consist of epics and myths, hymns and
laments, proverbs and wisdom.6

These writings record a belief in Gods, Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under
World.7

There are clear similarities between the Sumerian and the later Greek stories,
for example stories about the creation of the universe, good and bad deeds of
the gods, and of a flood.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
2. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
3. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
4. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
5. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
6. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
7. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
8. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
9. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian grammar and texts, 1990, p270.
10. ^ Kramer, S.N.
Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American Philosophical Society, 1944.
Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
11. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian grammar and texts, 1990, p270. (there is
also a 2000 edition {Hayes_Sumerian_2000.pdf})
12. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual
and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ...
American Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?id=77aDgCLAZS8C
13. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
14. ^ Thomson, G.A. First Writers-The Sumerians: They Wrote on Clay. iUniverse,
2011, p xi.
15. ^ Alexander, T.D., and D.W. Baker. Dictionary of the Old Testament:
Pentateuch: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. InterVarsity
Press, 2002. The IVP Bible Dictionary Series, p608.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient literature". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_literature
[2] Arno Poebel, "Historical and grammatical texts", vols 1-5, 1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAAAYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAAAYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[3] Jeffrey H. Tigay, "The evolution of the Gilgamesh epic",
http://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuHTH6I2sC
[4] Kramer, S. N. "Sumerian Literature; A Preliminary Survey of the Oldest
Literature in the World." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
85.3 (1942): 293�323. http://www.jstor.org/stable/985008
Lagash9 |Nippur10   
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 4 		6446) Egyptian writing becomes completely phonetic.1 The first alphabet.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p84.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series,
p39.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p84.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p84.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47
Egypt3   
4,130 YBN
[2130 BC] 5 		6234) The earliest musical horn.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
2. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
3. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
5. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx {around) 2130 BCE}
Lagash, Mesopotamia4   
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 4 5 		1279) The earliest Health science text.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p60.
4. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959),
p60. (=toward the end of the 3rd millenium) (=toward the end of the 3rd
millenium)
5. ^ http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/11_1OldestPrescription.htm (The
tablet was inscribed toward the end of the dynasty founded by Sargon the Great,
some time during the last quarter of Third Millennium B.C)
Nippur3   
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 4 		6376) The first place value number system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60 and 1/3600 are also in use.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp5,142-143.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993, pp5,142-143.
4. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020117/02a00010/0
(sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria Centre of Learning
in the Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_system#History
[7] http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablets.htm
[8] "writing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/649670/writing>
[9] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000)
Babylonia3   
4,050 YBN
[2050 BC] 4 		1278) The earliest recorded laws.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959),
p52.
Ur3   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 5 		706) Humans ride horses.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking.”
Science 323.5919 (2009): 1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/25471639
2. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking.”
Science 323.5919 (2009): 1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/25471639
3. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking.”
Science 323.5919 (2009): 1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/25471639
4. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking.”
Science 323.5919 (2009): 1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/25471639
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Kazakhstan3   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		711) The earliest spoked wheel.1 Spokes make the wheel lighter in weight.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia of
Indian Archaeology. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
  
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 11 12 		733) The earliest lock and key.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-4263
2. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
3. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-4263
4. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
5. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-4263
6. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
7. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-4263
8. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
9. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh)
10. ^ "Nineveh." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nineveh
11. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh) {4000 YBN(nineveh}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(=1200bce/egypt) {1200 BCE (egypt}
Nineveh,9 Assyria on the Tigris River10   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 6 		1283) The earliest library catalog.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p217.
2. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum05.htm
3. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum05.htm
4. ^ "Nippur." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 05 May. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/nippur
5. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum05.htm (2000BCE)
6. ^ Ted Huntington. (find more
exact if possible)
Nippur3 an ancient city of Babylonia on the Euphrates River southeast of
Babylon4   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 		6236) Metal is traded as money.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>. {older than) 2000 BCE}
Babylonia3   
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 3 		6542) The vegetables leek, garlic and onion are grown around the fertile
crescent.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe,
and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Mesopotamia2   
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 3 		1280) The earliest agricultural science text.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
2. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66.
Nippur2   
3,650 YBN
[1650 BC] 3 		716) The earliest mathematical text.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/r/rhind_ma
thematical_papyrus.aspx
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
Egypt2   
3,531 YBN
[1531 BC] 10 11 		639) The first planet, Venus, is recognized in Babylon.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford
University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford
University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20greek%20astronomy&f=false
5. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
6. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford
University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20greek%20astronomy&f=false
7. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
8. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford
University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20greek%20astronomy&f=false
9. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
10. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM
B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish
Studies. University of Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
11. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20greek%20astronomy&f=false
Babylon9   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 6 		624) The earliest oven-baked mud brick (or "burned brick").3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick-1
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick-1
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick>. {1500 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)5   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 6 7 		723) The earliest pulley.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Sir Austen Henry Layard, "Nineveh and its remains: with an account of a
visit to the Chaldean ...", 1850,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=-J5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {1500 BC}
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p21. {before 260 BC}
Nimroud, Assyria4 5   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 3 		1516) The "Vedas", four ancient Indian collections of poems or hymns, originate
as an oral tradition.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda>.
2. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda>.
3. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Veda". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074939/Veda (1500-1200BCE)
[2] "Vedas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas (1500-1200BCE)
[3] Salomon,
Richard. “On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts.” Journal of the
American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995): 271–279.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/604670
India2   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 7 8 		6228) The water clock (or Clepsydra {KlePSi-Dru3 }).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quaternary." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
3. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
5. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p27. {1500 BC}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
{1450-1401 BC}
Egypt5 6   
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 5 6 		6456) The earliest American city, an Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs - America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
2. ^ "Olmec." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec
3. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs - America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
4. ^ "Olmec." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answer.jsp#ixzz2BngsyQSh
5. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs - America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
6. ^ Christopher A. Pool, "Olmec Archeology And Early
Mesamerica", 2007, p I.
(El Manati shrine, near modern) San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico3 4   
3,450 YBN
[1450 BC] 3 		6449) The first letters that represent vowel sounds.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p56,87.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p87.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p87.
Ugarit (modern Ra's Shamra on Syria's north coast)2   
3,400 YBN
[1400 BC] 3 		6454) The earliest Chinese writing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p166-171.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p166-171.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p166-171.

MORE INFO
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p124-133. http://books.google.com/books?id=sP-PN2StH2cC
near Anyang, north-central China2   
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 3 		6561) Welding of metals using heat and hammering.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/500498 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
2. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/500498 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
3. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/500498 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "welding". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 02 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/639223/welding>
Egypt2   
3,348 YBN
[1348 BC] 3 4 		2727) Monotheism, the theory that only one God exists.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
2. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005276/Akhenaton
3. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20 (5th year in reign 1365bce)
4. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005276/Akhenaton (reign: BCE
1353�1336)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great Hymn to the Aten". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hymn_to_the_Aten
[2] "Amen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen
[3] "Psalm 104". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm_104
[4] "amen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9006072/amen
Amarna, Egypt2   
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 3 		736) Two piece mold metal casting.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p74.
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
Mesopotamia2   
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 4 5 		5862) The earliest written musical notation and musical composition.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest Musical Notation", Music & Letters , Vol.
52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp. 365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/734711
2. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest Musical
Notation", Music & Letters , Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/734711
3. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/398976/Western-music>.
4. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest Musical Notation", Music & Letters , Vol. 52,
No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp. 365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/734711
5. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/398976/Western-music>. {800
BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] West, M. L., 'The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic
Texts', Music & Letters, Vol. 75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
[2] A. D. Kilmer and
M. Civil, "Old Babylonian Musical Instructions Relating to Hymnody", Journal of
Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1359953
Ur, Babylonia2 |Mesopotamia3   
3,150 YBN
[1150 BC] 3 		6447) The Phoenician alphabet, the ancestor of the Greek alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p88-90.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p88-90.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p88-90.
(coastal centers) Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Beurut, and Ashkelon2   
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		746) Complex pulleys.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1000 BC}
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 6 		6237) The earliest lens.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01). "World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved 2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/380186.stm
2. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account of a rock-crystal lens and
decomposed glass found in Niniveh" (in German). Die Fortschritte der Physik
(Deutsche Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20lens&f=false
3. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01). "World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved 2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/380186.stm
4. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account of a rock-crystal lens and
decomposed glass found in Niniveh" (in German). Die Fortschritte der Physik
(Deutsche Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20lens&f=false
5. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01). "World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved 2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/380186.stm
6. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01). "World's oldest telescope?". BBC
News. Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/380186.stm {3000YBN}
Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)5   
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 2 		6448) The Aramaic alphabet, the ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and probably the
alphabets of India.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p122-123.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p122-123.
  
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 4 5 6 		6450) The earliest Hebrew writing.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem. "Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081103091035.htm
2. ^ http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
3. ^ http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
4. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem. "Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081103091035.htm
5. ^ http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p95.
Khirbet Qeiyafa near the Elah valley, Israel3   
2,850 YBN
[850 BC] 3 4 		751) The Greek alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p122-123.
2. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion,
2001. Globalities Series. p122-123.
4. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1993). {2850 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts to
Write. Putnam, 1969, p452
Greece2   
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 5 6 		6452) The Indian alphabets of India and South-East Asia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p105-120.
2. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts to
Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p105-120.
4. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and Script: An Account of
Man’s Efforts to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
5. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series. p105-120.
6. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and
Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
India3 4   
2,785 YBN
[785 BC] 4 		771) Eclipses are predicted by Babylonian astronomers.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit
Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?",
(San Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
  
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 6 7 		1066) The earliest aquaduct, a channel to move water from one place to another3
 near Nineveh.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aqueduct>.
2. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
3. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aqueduct>.
4. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
5. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
6. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
7. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct (7th cent)
Jerwan, Nineveh5   
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 6 7 		6378) The earliest concrete (lime cement mixed with limestone); used in an
aqueduct.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
2. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries:
The Archaeological Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331 {Moorey
_plaster_1999.pdf}
3. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
4. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries:
The Archaeological Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331
{Moorey_plaster_1999.pdf}
5. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
6. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf
7. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct (7th cent)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sennacherib". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534613/Sennacherib/6562/Building
-and-technological-achievements>
[2] "cement". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/101833/cement>
Jerwan, Nineveh5   
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 7 8 		6337) All planets visible to the naked eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from stars in Babylonia.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp. 43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
2. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary
astronomy-astrology", 2000, p55-56.
3. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian Observational
Astronomy", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000, p55-56.
5. ^ A.
Sachs, "Babylonian Observational Astronomy", Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences , Vol.
276, No. 1257, The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000, p55-56.
7. ^ A.
Sachs, "Babylonian Observational Astronomy", Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences , Vol.
276, No. 1257, The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000, p55-56.
Babylonia5 6   
2,650 YBN
[650 BC] 3 4 		6458) The Etruscan {iTruSKeN1 } alphabet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Etruscan." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/etruscan-civilization
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p137-141.
3. ^
http://www.scalarchives.com/web/dettaglio_immagine.asp?idImmagine=0080832&posizi
one=27&numImmagini=332&SC_Luogo=Archaeological+Museum%2C+Florence%2C+Italy&prmse
t=on&SC_PROV=RA&SC_Lang=eng&Sort=9&luce=
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p137-141.
  
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 5 6 7 		826) The Old Testament (The Torah, The Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and
The Story of Genesis).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "biblical literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
2. ^ "biblical literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
3. ^ "biblical literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit
Books, 1987).
5. ^ "biblical literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
6. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit
Books, 1987).
7. ^ "Hebrew Bible". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259039/Hebrew-Bible>.
Judah3 |(Israel4 )  
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 4 		630) Metal coin money.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>. {7th Century BC}
Lydia, Anatolia3   
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 8 		762) The Universe is explained without using the theory of Gods by Thales.4 5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^
"Thales". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
6. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
7. ^ "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan
8. ^ estimate on guess of 30 years old when realizes to remove Marduct

MORE INFO
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of Philosophy: From Thales to the
Present Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A History of Philosophy: From
Thales to the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
Miletus, Greece7   
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 3 		6455) The earliest Native American writing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p211-236.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p211-236.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p211-236.
San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico2   
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 5 		764) The Earth-centered Universe theory, and the theory that humans evolved
from fish.2

The Earth-centered theory will dominate until the 1500s.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria Centre of Learning in
the Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ estimate on guess of 30 years old when makes science
contributions

MORE INFO
[1] "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Miletus4   
2,550 YBN
[550 BC] 3 4 		1036) The Latin alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p151-152.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p151-152.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p151-152.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p151-152.

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the Latin language". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Latin_language
[2] http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html
[3] "Latin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin (9th or 8th century)
Rome2   
2,529 YBN
[529 BC] 10 		772) The Earth is described as a sphere.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pythagoras." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pythagoras." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Pythagoras." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Pythagoras." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {529 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Polycrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates
[2] "Pythagorean theorem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem
Croton, Italy9   
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 5 		6518) There are 100 million humans on Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
  
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 3 4 5 		840) That the brain controls the body is understood, and the first human
dissection.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Alcmaeon". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13331/Alcmaeon>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=500bce) {500 BCE}
4. ^
"Alcmaeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon
(=450bce) {450 BCE}
5. ^ "alcmaeon". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter
2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmaeon/ (=500-450bce) {500-450 BCE}
(academy at Croton, now:) Crotone, southern Italy2   
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 11 12 		836) That stars are other Suns and made of red-hot metal is recognized.7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D. Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers Books
I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/books?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D. Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=ok4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D. Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers Books
I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/books?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D. Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=ok4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
5. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D. Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers Books
I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/books?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
6. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D. Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=ok4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
7. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D. Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers Books
I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/books?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
8. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D. Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=ok4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs estimate for science contributions)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras (=490?-430?)
Clazomenae (75 miles/120 km north of Miletus)|Athens9 |Did not move to Athens
until around 462 bce10   
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 16 		1894) The earliest particle (or wireless) communication. The optical
telegraph;10 11 12 using fire signals.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth,
Ph. D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
2. ^ "Optical telegraph#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_telegraph#History
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
4. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
5. ^ "Optical telegraph#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_telegraph#History
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
7. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
8. ^ "Optical telegraph#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_telegraph#History
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
10. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
11. ^ "Optical telegraph#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_telegraph#History
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
13. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
14. ^ http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communication.htm
15. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
16. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus {467 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke
[4] http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=technology
[5] http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfour/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8] http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/cyclopaedia.html
[9] "Optical telegraph#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_telegraph#History (1684)
Argos, Greece15   
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 9 10 		841) The theory that all matter is made of atoms.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^
"Leucippus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
10. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
(=500-450bce)
  
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 2 3 		842) The theory that the universe is made of only four elements: water, air,
fire and earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
3. ^ "Empedocles". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles (=500-450bce)
  
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 4 5 		843) The theory that the Earth moves through space.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853, p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p11.
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The
lives and opinions of eminent philosophers", H. G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~480bce)
5. ^ "". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/philolaus/ (=470-385bce)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.neo-tech.com/zero/part2.html
Croton, Italy3   
2,432 YBN
[432 BC] 6 7 8 		849) The Metonic {miToNiK1 } calendar: 12 years of 12 months and 7 years of 13
months.2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Metonic cycle." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/metonic-cycle
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ James Evans, "History and
practice of ancient astronomy", 1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000, p245.
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^
James Evans, "History and practice of ancient astronomy", 1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000, p245.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)
[2] "Meton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meton
Athens, Greece (presumably)5   
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 5 6 7 8 		845) The Universe is explained as being filled with many other worlds, and the
Milky Way as a large group of stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/democritus/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/democritus/
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~470-~380bce)
6. ^ "Democritus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus (=~450-~370bce)
7. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/democritus/ (=~460-)
8. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/36.html (=460-370)
Abdera, Thrace3 4   
2,424 YBN
[424 BC] 5 6 		6533) Grafting of plants in Greece.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of grafting." Horticultural Reviews, Volume
35 (2009): 437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss. Domestication of Plants in
the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin. OUP Oxford, 2012,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of grafting." Horticultural Reviews, Volume
35 (2009): 437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
4. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastus
5. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of grafting." Horticultural Reviews, Volume
35 (2009): 437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
6. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastus
Greece3 |(presumably for Theophrastus) (The Lyceum) Athens, Greece4   
2,387 YBN
[387 BC] 4 		851) Plato's Academy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Plato". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
[2] "plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/
Athens, Greece3   
2,358 YBN
[358 BC] 4 		856) The theory that the Earth rotates around its own axis, and that some
planets rotate around the Sun.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.

MORE INFO
[1] "Heracleides". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides (=387 - 312 BCE)
(Academy) Athens, Greece3 (presumably)  
2,335 YBN
[335 BC] 6 		859) Aristotle's Lyceum {LI SEuM or lU-KEoN}).1
A fifth element "aether" is
added.2 3
The concept of gravity.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Aristotle, John Leofric Stocks,
�On the Heavens� (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922), Book 1, Chapter
3. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/heavens/index.html
3. ^ Wildberg, C. John Philoponus� Criticism. De Gruyter, 1988. Peripatoi
(Berlin), p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=af3XzdAvB_cC&pg=PA12
4. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p302.
5. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352514/Lyceum>.
6. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352514/Lyceum>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Faustus (I) Cornelius Sulla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustus_%28I%29_Cornelius_Sulla
Athens, Greece5   
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 3 4 5 6 		887) The theory that the Moon influences the tides.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~300bce+30-??)
4. ^ "Pytheas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas (=~380-~310)
5. ^
"Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%9C%
CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82 (=~380-~310)
6. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas (voyage
325BCE 320-330BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/pytheas.html
[2] "Pytheas". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/485262/Pytheas>
Massalia (now: Marseille France)2   
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 4 		6482) The earliest chain-drive, and automatic repeating crossbow.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley: "Ancient Catapults", Scientific American,
Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American_197903xx.pdf}
2. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery, Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6XOUC&pg=PA8
3. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley: "Ancient Catapults", Scientific American,
Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American_197903xx.pdf}
4. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery, Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6XOUC&pg=PA8
Rhodes, Greece3   
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 3 4 5 6 		902) The Museum and Library of Alexandria.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p79.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p79.
3. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScience/Students/Ellen/Museum.html (=297bce)
4. ^
"article 29287". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29287 (=late 200s by P1)
5. ^ "Museum of
Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9372871/Museum-of-Alexandria (=280 by
P2)
6. ^ http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=9 (= 283 BCE by
P2 Soter)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009440". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009440
[2] http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/letteraristeas.html
[3]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/aristeas.htm (translated letter)
[4] "Letter
of Aristeas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Aristeas
[5] http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm has sources for LofA
[6] "Timon
(philosopher)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_%28philosopher%29
[7] "Herodas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodas
[8] http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3707641.stm
  
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 3 		878) Euclid's "Elements" compiles all known mathematics.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c325-c270bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Euclid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid (=325-265bce)
(Mouseion) Alexandria, Egypt2   
2,285 YBN
[285 BC] 4 5 6 		1028) Compressed air is used for a catapult and for the earliest musical
keyboard instrument, an organ, by Ctesibius.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

2. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

3. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c300bce) (=c300bce)
5. ^ "Ctesibius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius (=(working
285 - 222 BCE)
6. ^ http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/31.html (flourished285-222bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Water clock". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock
[2] "Pipe organ". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ
Alexandria, Egpyt3   
2,274 YBN
[274 BC] 3 4 		886) The cerebrum and cerebellum of the brain are identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~304bce+30-~250BCE)
4. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Erasistratus.html (~304bce-~250bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasistratus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus (=330?-250?BCE)
Alexandria, Egpyt2   
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 8 		663) The earliest lever.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
2. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
4. ^ Pappus, Collection,
Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p16.
6. ^ Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
7. ^
Asimov, I. Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology: The
Lives and Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the
Present Chronologically Arranged. 1982, p29
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p16. {before) 260 BC}
Syracuse, Sicily7   
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 5 6 7 		822) The earliest screw.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254115/hand-tool>.
2. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254115/hand-tool>.
3. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254115/hand-tool>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982).
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p22.
{260 BC}
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (=500)
7. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nineveh (=600)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/hanging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44, Number 1, January 2003 (PDF)
Dalley, Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter. "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
Syracuse, Sicily4   
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 6 		882) The rotation of the Earth around its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood by Aristarchus.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {c260 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009438". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009438
[2] "Cleanthes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanthes
(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria, Egpyt5   
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 4 5 		890) The earliest known escapement1 , a device that controls the rotation of a
toothed gear to provide periodic impulses2 3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Freely, J. Flame of Miletus: The Birth of Science in Ancient Greece (and
How It Changed the World). I. B. Tauris, 2012,
p119. http://books.google.com/books?id=e4ye9m3EflQC&pg=PA119
2. ^ "escapement." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
3. ^ "escapement." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=Byzanteum 300 bce - ??)
5. ^
http://www.philonnet.gr/about/index.html (265-202 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9025907". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9025907
[2] http://books.google.com/books?id=bCA9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73
  
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 15 16 17 		898) The size of Earth is correctly calculated10 11 12 by using the angle of
the Sun's shadow and the distance between two cities.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982). (276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
2. ^ "Eratosthenes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the
lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the
present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
5. ^ "Eratosthenes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes
6. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the
lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the
present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
8. ^ "Eratosthenes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes
9. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the
present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
11. ^ "Eratosthenes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes
12. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the
present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
16. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990). (c276-194BCE)
17. ^ Dutka, Jacques. “‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of the Earth
Reconsidered’.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 46.1 (1993): 55–66.
Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/content/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
Alexandria, Egypt14   
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 10 		1325) The earliest observation of a comet.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11255168
2. ^ http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.html
3. ^ http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/971112e.html
4. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet?
", Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9, 2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy106.html
5. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11255168
6. ^ http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.html
7. ^ http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/971112e.html
8. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet?
", Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9, 2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy106.html
9. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11255168
10. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11255168
China9   
2,231 YBN
[231 BC] 5 		833) Metal gears. The earliest evidence of the spur and worm gears.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
4. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
5. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/hanging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44, Number 1, January 2003 (PDF)
Dalley, Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter. "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/technology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
[4] "Archimedes screw." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32831/Archimedes-screw>
[5] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p22
[6]
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon chips
", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (=500)
[7]
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nineveh (=600)
Syracuse, Sicily4   
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 4 		1029) The distance to the Moon is measured using parallax; by measuring how
much an object appears to move compared to a more distant object when the
observer changes positions.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p33-34.
2. ^ American Council of Learned Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner’s, 2000, p425-426.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements
of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically
arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements
of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically
arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/people/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy:
With Plates Illustrating, Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin and Cradock,
1833, p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-1
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably Nicaea)2 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece3   
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 15 		6477) The law of inertia (that a body preserves its motion9 ) is understood.10
11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
2. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K. Paul,
1962, p74?.
3. ^ "John Philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter
2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2
4. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eWyyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
5. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
6. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K. Paul,
1962, p74?.
7. ^ "John Philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter
2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2
8. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eWyyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
9. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
10. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
11. ^ "John Philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2
12. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eWyyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
13. ^ American Council of Learned Societies. Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Scribner's, 2000, p425-426.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/people/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy:
With Plates Illustrating, Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin and Cradock,
1833, p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-1
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p32
[5] Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p88 Pliny, Naturalis historia, II 95
[6] Lucio Russo, "The
Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p89
[7]
"inertia." The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford University Press,
1998, 2006, 2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
[8] Edward Grant, "Motion in the Void and the Principle of Inertia in the
Middle Ages", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Sep., 1964), pp. 265-292 Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/228571
[9] "Simplicius of Cilicia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably Nicaea)13 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece14   
2,140 YBN
[140 BC] 11 12 13 		1070) The invention of paper in China.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press, p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-08/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science and
Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press, p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-08/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science and
Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press, p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-08/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science and
Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press, p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
8. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-08/08/content_4937457.htm
9. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science and
Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press, p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
10. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
11. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and
Printing. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and
Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
12. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm (=140-87BCE)
13. ^
http://www.amateras.com/trip/china/xian-e.htm {140-87BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] David Buisseret (1998), Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press, p. 12,
ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
Pa-chhiao near Sian in the Shensi province of China9 |Xian, China10   
2,134 YBN
[134 BC] 4 5 		1041) A nova is observed. The first star catalog that uses celestial
coordinates of latitude and longitude, and that divides stars by brightness1 .
The "precession of the equinoxes" is recognized; that the position of the stars
at equinox changes slightly each year.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bostock, J., and H.T. Riley. The Natural History of Pliny. H. G. Bohn,
1893. Bohn’s Classical Library.
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=aVMMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA59
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
5. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16707/Almagest>.

MORE INFO
[1] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy. Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(observatory on) Island of Rhodes, Greece3   
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 4 		870) The earliest known metal spur gear and mechanical computer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antikythera mechanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
2. ^ "Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the
Antikythera Mechanism". Nature 444 Supplement. 30 November
2006. http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/system/files/0608_Nature.pdf
3. ^ "Antikythera mechanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
4. ^ "Antikythera mechanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 BC". The New York Times. 31
July 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp&_r=0
near the island of Antikythera, Mediterranean Sea3   
2,075 YBN
[75 BC] 4 		1116) Negative numbers are used in China.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "East Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

2. ^ "East Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

3. ^ "East Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

4. ^ "East Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.


MORE INFO
[1] Christopher Cullen, The Suàn shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1, February
2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN 0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
[2] "Negative number". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_number (100bce-50bce)
[3] "Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art
(200bce-100ce)
[4] "Suàn shù shū". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A0n_sh%C3%B9_sh%C5%AB (100ce)
[5] Shepherd, W.
Outline History of Science. Ward Lock, 1965.
p43. http://books.google.com/books?ei=R2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=Fu64AAAAIAAJ
[6] Shen, K. et al. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and
Commentary. Oxford University Press, 1999.
p405. http://books.google.com/books?ei=R2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=0DlGAQAAIAAJ
China3   
2,056 YBN
[56 BC] 14 		1045) The theory that light is made of atoms that move very fast.10 11 12
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229, p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=LCmRGMJBoYUC
3. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=mUsQtrxbfxIC
4. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229, p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=LCmRGMJBoYUC
6. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=mUsQtrxbfxIC
7. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229, p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=LCmRGMJBoYUC
9. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=mUsQtrxbfxIC
10. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229, p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
11. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=LCmRGMJBoYUC
12. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=mUsQtrxbfxIC
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p36-37.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp36-37.

MORE INFO
[1] "Lucretius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius (=(ca. 94 BC- ca. 49 BC)
[2] "Light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light
[3] "didactic." The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/didactic
[4] "hexameter." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexameter
Rome, Italy13   
2,050 YBN
[50 BC] 6 7 8 		1050) The first glass blowing.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ "Glass blowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowing
3. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of the
Old City of Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary Report).” Israel Exploration
Journal 22.4 (1972): 193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27925355
4. ^ Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman Empire. In H. Tait
(ed.) Five Thousand Years of Glass. pp.62–97. British Museum Press: London
ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Five-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
5. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary Report).” Israel Exploration Journal 22.4
(1972): 193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27925355
6. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary Report).” Israel Exploration Journal 22.4
(1972): 193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27925355
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (based on this source
estimate of 1st century BCE) (based on this source estimate of 1st century BCE)
8. ^
Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman Empire. In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand Years
of Glass. pp.62–97. British Museum Press: London ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Five-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
(origin of glass blowing probably in the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest
artifact is from) Jerusalem4 5   
2,045 YBN
[01/01/45 BC] 2 		1056) The Julian calendar: 365 days with an extra day every 4 years.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Sosigenes of Alexandria." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia
Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic//>.
2. ^ Ball, W.W.R. Mathematical Recreations and Essays. Macmillan, 1917,
p444. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zy87AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA44
Rome (presumably)  
2,040 YBN
[40 BC] 8 9 10 		1058) The earliest waterwheel.4 5 The earliest elevator (or vertical lift)6 .
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/637559/waterwheel>.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
3. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032371>.
4. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/637559/waterwheel>.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032371>.
7. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631310/Vitruvius>.
8. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/631310/Vitruvius>. {after 27BCE}
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c70-c25) (c70-c25)
10. ^ "Vitruvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius (=c80/70-c25)

MORE INFO
[1] "Waterwheel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel
Rome7   
2,037 YBN
[37 BC] 3 4 		6549) The germ theory of disease; that disease can be caused by tiny living
organisms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic. 1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008. History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceAd-41awC&pg=PA58
2. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic. 1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008. History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceAd-41awC&pg=PA58
3. ^ Cato, M.P., F. Harrison, and M.T. Varro. Roman Farm Management: The
Treatises of Cato and Varro Done into English, with Notes of Modern Instances.
Macmillan, 1918, p94. http://books.google.com/books?id=dTJPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA94
4. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic. 1000 Events That Shaped
the World. National Geographic Society, 2008. History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceAd-41awC&pg=PA58

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcus Terentius Varro". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcus_Terentius_Varro
Rome (presumably)2   
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 9 10 		1078) The steam engine.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p40.
2. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p40.
4. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p40.
6. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p40.
8. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982). (=c20-?)
10. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 3 4 		6566) A wind-wheel powered machine.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv
für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1–30 (10f.)
2. ^ A.G. Drachmann,
"Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145–151
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements
of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically
arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c20-?)
4. ^ "Hero of Alexandria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria
(=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
[2] John Marlowe, "The golden age of Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.", (London:
Gollancz, 1971)
[3] http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Printonly/Pappus.html
[4] http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Printonly/Heron.html
[5] "Heron's formula". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron%27s_formula
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,935 YBN
[65 AD] 6 		6432) The glass prism.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge. Works, Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
2. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp. 339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
3. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge. Works, Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
4. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp. 339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
5. ^ "Lucius Annaeus Seneca". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534392/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca>.
6. ^ McBeath, A. & Gheorghe, A. D., "Meteor Beliefs Project: Classical beliefs
connecting meteors with life and death", WGN, Journal of the International
Meteor Organization, vol. 34, no. 5, p.
148-150. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2006JIMO...34..148M
Rome5   
1,925 YBN
[75 AD] 6 7 		1270) The last cuneiform texts.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series,
p56-57.
3. ^ Sachs, Abraham. "The latest datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer Anniversary
Volume. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO IN Kramer,
Samuel Noah, et al., eds. Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25. Butzon & Bercker,
1976.
4. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p29.
5. ^ http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dccmt
6. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to
the Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
7. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series,
p56-57.

MORE INFO
[1] Walker, C.B.F. Cuneiform. University of California Press, 1987.
Reading the Past, p19
Sumer/Babylon4 (Southern Iraq)5   
1,923 YBN
[77 AD] 3 		1083) The earliest Encyclopedia.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedia
2. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedia
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
Spain?  
1,917 YBN
[83 AD] 5 6 7 8 		766) The magnetic compass.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, p252.
ISBN 0-521-25272-5
2. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, p252.
ISBN 0-521-25272-5
3. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, p252.
ISBN 0-521-25272-5
4. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, p252.
ISBN 0-521-25272-5
5. ^ Joseph Needham, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962, p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.pdf} {83 CE}
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p24. {83 CE}
7. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism
and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
{1040-1044}
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {600 BC}
China4 (more specific)  
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 3 4 		5861) The earliest known complete musical composition including musical
notation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph
2. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1-7.
{100CE}
4. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph {200 BCE- 100 CE (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWyXPpf7Vjo
[2] MP3 recording of the Seikilos
song. http://www.biblicallanguagecenter.com/assets/audio/SEIKILOU_WDH_2006.mp3
(now Aidin, Turkey)2 (verify)  
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1087) Ptolomy's "Almagest"1 , an Earth-centered model of the universe, with the
Earth a stationary sphere in the center, surrounded by 7 larger planetary
spheres for the Moon, Sun, planets, and fixed stars2 3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by: G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
2. ^ "Ptolemy." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 18 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ptolemy
3. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by: G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984, p38-39.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
4. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
5. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
6. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, 1986, Berman, Evansc150) (almagest=)c150)
7. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005845/Almagest (almagest=c150)
(almagest=)c150)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=75-?)
9. ^ "Ptolemy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy (c90-c168)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hipparchus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266559/Hipparchus/229469/Other-s
cientific-work>
[2] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy. Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(in Mouseion?) Alexandria, Egypt4   
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 3 		1073) The earliest "press-on" printing in China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>. {By 200}

MORE INFO
[1] "Woodblock printing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing (704-751)
China2   
1,672 YBN
[328 AD] 3 		6451) The Arabic alphabet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p100-103.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p100-103.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p100-103.
(early inscription) Namara, Syria2   
1,609 YBN
[02/24/391 AD] 4 5 		1002) Roman Emperor Theodosius I prohibits the visiting of non-Christian
temples.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
2. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp (Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/tituli.htm
3. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
4. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp (Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/tituli.htm
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
(presumably) Rome, Italy3   
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 5 		1003) The Library in Alexandria (the Serapeum) is destroyed by Christians.3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p160.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi,
"The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO,
1990).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p160.
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I (391/392)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/rhetoric/prog-aph.htm
Alexandria, Egypt  
1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD] 3 		1009) The murder of Hypatia.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria (Revealing
Antiquity , No 8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, USA, 1996).
2. ^ Maria
Dzielska, F. Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity ,
No 8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, USA, 1996).
3. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, USA, 1996).

MORE INFO
[1] "Socrates Scholasticus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Scholasticus
[2] from Damascius (in Suida):
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-suda.html "From Damascius's
Life of Isidore, reproduced in The Suda Translated by Jeremiah Reedy, from
"Alexandria 2"
[3] http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-john.html
(steps of a church called The Caesarium ) Alexandria, Egypt2   
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 6 		1014) Byzantine {BiZeNTEN3 } Emperor Justinian closes the schools of Alexandria
and Athens (including Plato's Academy).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p188.
3. ^ "Byzantine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Byzantine>.
4. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
5. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5
6. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 2003. Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

MORE INFO
[1] "Damascius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
[2] "Justinian I." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308858/Justinian-I>
[3] "Justinian I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308858/Justinian-I>
Athens, Greece (and Alexandria,Egypt)5   
1,458 YBN
[542 AD] 3 4 		1381) The earliest hospital in France.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110316/hospital
2. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110316/hospital
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110316/hospital (542)
4. ^
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+HT
ML&doi=10.1046%2Fj.1445-2197.2002.02492.x (hotel_dieu_lyon.html) (542) (542)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#History
[2] "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-Dieu_de_Paris
Lyon, France2   
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 5 6 7 		1111) The earliest windmill, in Persia. This windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63. {600}
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention
: from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (6th
century) (6th century)
7. ^ "Wind mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_mill (6th century)

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993,
p25
Persia (Iran)4   
1,300 YBN
[700 AD] 6 7 		1118) The numerals (0 through 9), and decimal notation.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "South Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature>.
2. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
3. ^ "South Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature>.
4. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
5. ^ "South Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature>.
6. ^ "South Asian mathematics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature>.
7. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Bakhshali Manuscript". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_Manuscript
[2] "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29 (200 BCE - 400 CE)
[3] Ho, P.Y. Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to
Science and Civilization in China. Dover, 2000. Dover Science
Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA58
Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar, Pakistan)5   
1,249 YBN
[751 AD] 5 6 		1253) Jabir prepares and identifies acids.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
6. ^
"Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber (+30)
Kufa, (now Iraq)3 4   
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 4 		1060) Wood-cut Printing.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>. {868}
Japan3   
1,219 YBN
[781 AD] 5 6 		1254) Lower case letters.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
4. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin (c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
6. ^ "804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin (c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the English language". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Carolingian minuscule". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule
Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York, England3 4   
1,211 YBN
[789 AD] 3 		1256) Charlemagne {soRlemAN} establishes schools where math and grammar are
taught.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (789) (789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charlesmagne". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlesmagne
Aachen, in north-west Germany2   
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 4 		6221) String instruments are played with a bow.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
2. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
3. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
4. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p47. {no later than 9th century) 800 CE}
River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan (Central Asia)3   
1,185 YBN
[815 AD] 4 5 		1021) The "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) school is founded, where many
scientific works are translated into Arabic.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
2. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
3. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
4. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization in
Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1987). (c815) (c815)
5. ^ Delacy
O`Leary, "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs", (London; New York: Kegan
Paul, 2001). (before 828/829) (before 828/829)

MORE INFO
[1] "House of Wisdom)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayt_al-Hikma
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom)
[2] "Harun Al-Rashid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_Al-Rashid
Baghdad3   
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 11 12 		1144) Gunpowder is invented; in China7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 5, part 7,
"Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986,
p7.
3. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 5, part 7,
"Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986,
p7.
5. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 5, part 7,
"Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986,
p7.
7. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
8. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 5, part 7,
"Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986,
p7.
9. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
10. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986,
p7.
11. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf} {850}
12. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 5, part 7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press, 1986, p7. {850}
China9 10   
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 3 4 5 		1379) A health science school is founded in Salerno, Italy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997): 1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/6/1855
2. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997): 1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/6/1855
3. ^ http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/library_notes/40/salerno.cfm (900)
4. ^
"university". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074363/university (800s)
5. ^ "University of
Salerno". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065054/University-of-Salerno (notes for
physicians at 900)

MORE INFO
[1] "hospital". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110316/hospital
[2] "Hospital#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#History
[3] "Salerno#Salerno and the revival of medical learning in Western Europe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salerno#Salerno_and_the_revival_of_medical_learning
_in_Western_Europe
[4] "Schola Medica Salernitana". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana (monestary founded in
800s)
Salerno (near Naples), Italy2   
1,080 YBN
[920 AD] 9 		6183) Norwegian explorers reach North America.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne
Stine Ingstad The Journal of Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No. 1
(Summer, 1979), pp. 176-178 Published by: The MIT Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
2. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse
Settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
3. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed
work(s): The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in America: Excavations at L'Anse
aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No. 1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
4. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse
Settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
5. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed
work(s): The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in America: Excavations at L'Anse
aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No. 1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
6. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse
Settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
7. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed
work(s): The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in America: Excavations at L'Anse
aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No. 1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
8. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. “L’Anse Aux Meadows, Leif Eriksson’s Home in
Vinland.” Journal of the North Atlantic 2.sp2 (2011) :
114-125. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3721/037.002.s212
9. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne
Stine Ingstad The Journal of Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No. 1
(Summer, 1979), pp. 176-178 Published by: The MIT Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319 {920}
L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland7 8   
1,040 YBN
[960 AD] 7 8 		6186) The earliest rocket; in China.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt
2. ^ http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt
3. ^ http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt
4. ^ http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt
5. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the history and development
of rocket & missile technology", 1978, p10.
6. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt
7. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the history and development of rocket & missile
technology", 1978, p10. {960 CE}
8. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt {1045} {1045 CE}

MORE INFO
[1] "military technology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/382397/military-technology/57612
/The-gunpowder-revolution-c-1300-1650>
China5 6   
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1022) The Encyclopedia the "Suda".1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX (in
Greek and Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id=7OFCgP0UCy4C
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of Alexandria Centre of Learning in
the Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
3. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
4. ^ Suda On Line: Byzantine Lexicography http://www.stoa.org/sol/
5. ^ "Suidas." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
6. ^ http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
7. ^ "encyclopaedia." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186603/encyclopaedia>.
  
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 4 		1054) Paper money is used; in China.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/389170/money>. {before) 1000 YBN}
China3   
962 YBN
[1038 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 		1308) The pin-hole camera.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p50.
4. ^ "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī
Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 189-210. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2830901904&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c965-1039) (c965-1039)
6. ^ "Ibn al
Haytham". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005710/Ibn-al-Haytham (c965-c.1040)
7. ^ "Alhazen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen (965-1039)
8. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (c965-1039) (c965-1039)

MORE INFO
[1] "Camera obscura". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura
[2] "Heliocentrism". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism
[3] "Catoptrics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catoptrics
Cairo, Egypt3   
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 4 		1124) Movable type printing, where individual blocks can be put together to
form a text.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>. {1041-48}
China3   
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 4 		1339) The University of Bologna.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+nostra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
2. ^ http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+nostra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
3. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+nostra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
4. ^ http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+nostra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation

[2] "University of Bologna". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bologna (1088)
[3]
http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/University/Our+History/default.htm
Bologna, Italy3   
868 YBN
[1132 AD] 11 12 		1146) The first cannon and gun.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
2. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
3. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
4. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
5. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
6. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
7. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
8. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
9. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
10. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
11. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
12. ^ Gwei-Djen,
Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "gunpowder". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038534/gunpowder
[2] Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, V:7: The
Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521303583
[3] "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China9 10   
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 3 		6239) The first stringed instrument to use a keyboard.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p77.
2. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p77.
3. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p77. {well
established by) 1150}
Europe2   
833 YBN
[1167 AD] 4 		1340) The University of Oxford.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
2. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
3. ^ "University of Oxford." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/436492/University-of-Oxford>.
4. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.ox.ac.uk/aboutoxford/history.shtml (1167 but teaching
starts 1096)
Oxford, England (now: United Kingdom)3   
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 4 		1319) The University of Paris.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
2. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
3. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
4. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9003315/Peter-Abelard
Paris, France3   
816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD] 7 		1153) The start of the Inquisition. Pope Lucius III makes burning the official
punishment for heresy {HAReSE3 }.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288915/inquisition>.
2. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/350632/Lucius-III>.
3. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
4. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288915/inquisition>.
5. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/350632/Lucius-III>.
6. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/350632/Lucius-III>.
7. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/350632/Lucius-III>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Saint Dominic". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Dominic
[2] "Inquisition". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition
[3] "Pope Lucius III". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Lucius_III (11/1184)
Verona, Italy6   
772 YBN
[1228 AD] 14 15 16 17 18 		1392) The theory that all matter is made of light.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C. Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
2. ^ http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textdisplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
3. ^ http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lcm/lunch/deluce.html
4. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C. Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}",
1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
5. ^ http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textdisplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
6. ^ http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lcm/lunch/deluce.html
7. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C. Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}",
1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
8. ^ http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textdisplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
9. ^ http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lcm/lunch/deluce.html
10. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C. Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}",
1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
11. ^ http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textdisplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
12. ^ http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lcm/lunch/deluce.html
13. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto, The Early Oxford Schools,
Volume 1, 1984, p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
14. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto, The Early Oxford
Schools, Volume 1, 1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1168-1253) (c1168-1253)
16. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038191/Robert-Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
17. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
18. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/bio.htm (c1170-1253)
Oxford, England13   
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 4 5 		1125) The movable metal block printing press.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-buljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-priests-zen-teachings/
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing>.
3. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-buljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-priests-zen-teachings/
4. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-buljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-priests-zen-teachings/ {July 1377}
5. ^
"Movable type". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_type {1234}
Korea3   
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 3 		6238) The first eyeglasses.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/199370/eyeglasses>.
2. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/199370/eyeglasses>.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p31.
{1280}
Florence, Italy2   
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 4 		1121) Mechanical clocks.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 1987).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 1987).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987). {around 1300}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clock#Early mechanical clocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early_mechanical_clocks
[2] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (8th century) (8th century)
Europe3   
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 3 4 		1424) Sulfuric and other strong acids described.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982).
2. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Geber
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982). (c1300)
4. ^ "Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Geber (c1310)

MORE INFO
[1] "alchemy". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-35960/alchemy
Spain2   
684 YBN
[1316 AD] 3 		1428) The first book devoted entirely to anatomy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). }
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). } (1316 writes
book) (1316 writes book)
Bologna, Italy2   
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 4 5 6 		1425) The law of inertia is revived.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018165/Jean-Buridan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1295-c1358)
(c1295-c1358)
5. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018165/Jean-Buridan (1300-1358)
6. ^
"Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
(1300-1358)
Paris, France3   
635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD] 3 		1360) The University of Vienna, the oldest university in the German-speaking
world.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Vienna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/628154/University-of-Vienna>.
2. ^ http://www.univie.ac.at/en/university/
3. ^ http://www.univie.ac.at/archiv/tour/12.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation

Vienna, Austria2   
602 YBN
[1398 AD] 3 		1364) Sungkyunkwan University in Korea is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp
2. ^ "Songgyun'guan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/554418/Songgyunguan>.
3. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation

Seoul, South Korea2   
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1435) The movable type printing press is introduced into Europe.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038592/Johannes-Gutenberg
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038592/Johannes-Gutenberg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1398-c1468) (c1398-c1468)
5. ^ "Johannes
Gutenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038592/Johannes-Gutenberg (14th c.-1468)
6. ^
"Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg (c1400-1468)
7. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1438 law suit)
Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France)3   
560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD] 7 8 9 10 		1437) Space is described as infinite in size, and stars are described as other
suns with inhabited planets.2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.pdf)
4. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.pdf)
5. ^ "De Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ignorantia
6. ^ "Bernkastel-Kues". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-Kues
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1401-1464) (1401-1464)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1440 book) (1440 book)
9. ^ "Nicholas Of Cusa". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055730/Nicholas-Of-Cusa (1440 book)
10. ^ "De
Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ignorantia (02/12/1440)
Cusa, Germany5 6   
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 6 		1171) The earliest wound spiral spring driven clocks.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121951/clock>.
2. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock & Watchmakers and Their Work, Including an
Account of the Development of Horological Instruments from the Earliest
Mechanism, with Portraits of Masters of the Art: a Directory of over Five
Thousand Names and Some Examples of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon, 1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
3. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121951/clock>.
4. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock & Watchmakers and Their Work, Including an
Account of the Development of Horological Instruments from the Earliest
Mechanism, with Portraits of Masters of the Art: a Directory of over Five
Thousand Names and Some Examples of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon, 1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
5. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121951/clock>.
6. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121951/clock>.

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). (1400s century estimate)
(1400s century estimate)
[2] "Clock". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock (early 1400s)
[3] "spring." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/spring
southern Germany or northern Italy5   
546 YBN
[1454 AD] 3 4 		1436) The first printed book in Europe (copies of the Bible).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Gutenberg Bible". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038593/Gutenberg-Bible
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1454) (1454)
4. ^ "Johannes
Gutenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1455 at the
latest)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg
Mainz, Germany2   
517 YBN
[1483 AD] 4 		6481) A parachute is designed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/442451/parachute>.
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci's parachute". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1704849/Leonardo-da-Vincis-parac
hute>.
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
4. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/442451/parachute>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci
[2] http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#History
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
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[7] "tank". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/582594/tank>
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1452-1519)1472 to be
before all other Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in 1473 CE.) (CE
1452-1519)1472 to be before all other Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in
1473 CE.)
[9]
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap11.html
Milan, Italy3   
514 YBN
[1486 AD] 3 		1467) Gliders, a helical air-screw, and a flying machine with flapping wings
are designed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
3. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci
[2] http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da-vinci?cat=health
[3] "Ornithopter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter (1488)
[4]
http://www.wired.com/images/slideshow/2007/11/gallery_helicopter/02_vite_aerea.j
pg
Milan, Italy2   
508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD] 5 		1450) Humans from Europe reach America by crossing the Atlantic Ocean in three
small ships.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109621/Christopher-Columbus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (10/12/1492) (10/12/1492)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/christopher%20columbus
(probably) San Salvador4   
487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD] 3 		1485) Europeans reach the Pacific Ocean.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/49909/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa>.
3. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa (09/25/1513
(or 09/27/1513)
from a peak in Darién, Panama2   
483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD] 3 		1389) The start of the Protestant Reformation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063023/Reformation
2. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063023/Reformation
3. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063023/Reformation
Wittenberg, Germany2   
478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD] 8 9 10 		1475) Humans circumnavigate the Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Juan Sebastian de Elcano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Juan Sebastian de Elcano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Juan Sebastian de Elcano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
7. ^ http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%20del%20Cano
8. ^ "Juan Sebastián Elcano". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano (09/08/1522)
9. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225336/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/08/1522)
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%20del%20Cano (09/06/1522)
Seville, Spain7   
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 3 4 		1541) The method of triangulation to measure distance: a base line of known
length is chosen, and from its endpoints the angles of sight to a remote object
are measured. The distance to the object from either endpoint can then be
calculated using simple trigonometry.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisius (1553)
Friesland (present day Netherlands) (presumably)2   
462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD] 3 4 		1371) The University of Santo Domingo, the first university in the Western
Hemisphere.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "First universities in the Western Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor=ref96335
2. ^ "First universities in the Western Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor=ref96335
3. ^ http://uasd.edu.do/html/website2/detalles/informacion_general.html
4. ^ "First universities in the Western Hemisphere", Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor=ref96335

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_universities_in_continuous_operation

Santo Domingo, (now the) Dominican Republic2   
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 7 8 		1482) The Sun centered theory is revived by Copernicus.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
5. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
7. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1543)
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus
[2] "Heliocentric theory". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentric_theory
(presumably) written in (Frauenburg, East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland5 ;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany6   
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 3 4 		1543) Arteries are tied to stop bleeding. Artificial limbs are created.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441/Ambroise-Pare
3. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441/Ambroise-Pare (1545)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1545) (1545)
Paris, France2   
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 6 7 8 		1507) The scientific classification of minerals.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9004072/Georgius-Agricola
2. ^ http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agricola?cat=technology
3. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
4. ^ http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agricola?cat=technology
5. ^ "Basel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel
6. ^ http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/agricola_textbook_of_mineralogy/page_001
(published: 1546 in Basel) (published: 1546)
7. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agricola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel) (published: 1546 in Basel in Basel)
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agricola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Georgius Agricola". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Agricola
written: Chemnitz2 , Saxony, Germany3 | published: Basel4 , Switzerland5   
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 		1547) Pulmonary circulation is understood by Michael Servetus (SRVETuS): that
blood goes from the right side of the heart to the lung where it is mixed with
air becoming red, and then to the left side of the heart where it is sent
through the rest of the body.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
2. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
3. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
4. ^ Osler, W. Contributions to Medical and Biological Research. P. B. Hoeber,
1919. Contributions to Medical and Biological Research,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=bqIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA772
5. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
6. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
7. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
8. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetus (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] "Unitarian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
Vienne, France2   
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 2 3 		1549) The first planetary tables based on the Sun-centered theory.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1551) (1551)
3. ^ "Erasmus Reinhold". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+?cat=technology (1551)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Reinhold". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Reinhold
[2] http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
  
447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD] 5 		1548) Servetus is burned alive for heresy {HAReSE1 }.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066881/Michael-Servetus
4. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
5. ^ "Michael
Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Servetus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Servetus
[2] "Unitarian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
[3] "Champel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champel
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetus (1553)
Geneva, Switzerland4   
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 3 		1538) Systematic computations of probability.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020283/Girolamo-Cardano
2. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020283/Girolamo-Cardano
3. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano (1560s)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
Italy2   
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 2 		1563) The first scientific society (a group for the communication of scientific
research), the precursor of the Academy of the Lynx.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1560) (1560)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giambattista della Porta". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060950/Giambattista-della-Porta
[2] http://www.answers.com/Giambattista%20della%20Porta
  
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 3 		1562) Fallopian tubes, and semicircular canals are identified, and the vagina,
placenta, clitoris and cochlea are named.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033648/Gabriel-Fallopius
2. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.
3. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Fallopius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fallopius (1561)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy2   
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 5 		1550) Cyclindrical projection is used to make a map so that lines of latitude
and longitude are straight.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052077/Gerardus-Mercator
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052077/Gerardus-Mercator
4. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator
5. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052077/Gerardus-Mercator (1569)
Duchy of Cleves, Germany3 4 (presumably)  
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 3 		1575) A comet is proven to be farther away than the moon and to have an orbit
that is not circular.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=technology
2. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=technology
3. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016148/Tycho-Brahe (1573)

MORE INFO
[1] "Tycho Brahe". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe
[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
[3] "Hven".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hven
Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)2   
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 		1566) The Gregorian calendar: February 29th is omitted in century years which
are not divisible by 400.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Christoph Clavius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Clavius
Rome, Italy2   
415 YBN
[1585 AD] 4 		1581) Decimal point notation is used in Europe.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565994/Simon-Stevin>.
2. ^ Simon Stevin, "De Thiende", 1585.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie01_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English "The Tenth"
3. ^ "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevinus
4. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9069667/Simon-Stevin (1585)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fraction (mathematics)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_%28mathematics%29
[2] Stevin, S. "L’ Arithmetique". 1585, part2,
p144. http://books.google.com/books?id=1dU5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA144
Netherlands3 (presumably)  
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 4 5 		1583) Objects of different weight are shown to fall the same distance in the
same amount of time.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9069667/Simon-Stevin
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA757 2. ^ Sherwood
Taylor, "Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/sciencepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
3. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9069667/Simon-Stevin
4. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9069667/Simon-Stevin
(1586)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1586) (1586)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevinus
[2] http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=technology
[3] "statics". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9069478/statics
[4] http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood
Taylor, "Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/sciencepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
[5] http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/sciencepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
Netherlands3 (presumably)  
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 3 4 5 		1182) The flush toilet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir John Harington". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
2. ^ "Sir John Harington". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
3. ^ "Sir John Harington". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
4. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Harrington (based on (presented ajax to
Queen in 1592)
5. ^ "Flushing toilet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_toilet (=1596)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Harington". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harington
(Palace of Queen Elizabeth) Richmond, Surrey, England2   
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 5 6 		1568) Letters are used to represent constant and unknown numbers (the first
"variables"1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Viète, F. Introduction à
L’art Analytique. 1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=atM8AAAAcAAJ
4. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la Bigotiere".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
5. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere (1591)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1591) (1591)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Vieta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_Vieta
[2] "Viète's formulas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%27s_formulas
(possibly) Paris, France4   
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 5 		1613) Galileo invents the first thermometer.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591653/thermometer>.
2. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591653/thermometer>.
3. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591653/thermometer>.
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
5. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591653/thermometer>. {1592}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?cat=technology
[2] http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/Thermometer.html
[3] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei (1593)
Padua, Italy4   
404 YBN
[08/03/1596 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1616) A variable star is discovered, a star that shows periodic changes in
brightness.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy. Dover
Publ., 1967, p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
3. ^ Christianson, J.R. On Tycho’s Island: Tycho Brahe, Science,
and Culture in the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge University Press, 2002,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=SNh7SyciWPMC&pg=PA264
4. ^ Kepler, J., and E. Rosen. Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or Posthumous
Work on Lunar Astronomy. Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
5. ^ Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal, 1926,
p.114-115.
6. ^ The Popular Science Monthly. Popular Science Publishing Company, 1897,
p683. http://books.google.com/books?id=7zwUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA683
7. ^ Campbell, W.W. Stellar Motions: With Special Reference to Motions
Determined by Means of the Spectrograph. Yale university press, 1913. Mrs.
Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures,
p282. http://books.google.com/books?id=a567AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA282

MORE INFO
[1] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabricius (08/??/1596)
Resterhave (near Dorum) East Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast
Netherlands) (presumably)3   
400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD] 3 		1578) Bruno is burned alive for heresy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Giordano Bruno". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/82258/Giordano-Bruno/883/Final-y
ears>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (02/17/1600) (02/17/1600)
(Campo de Fiori {flower market}) Rome, Italy2   
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 5 6 7 		1571) That the Earth is a spherical magnet on which a compass points to the
magnetic poles is recognized1 , and the first electroscope, which measures
static electricity.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electroscope". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electroscope
3. ^ Gilbert, W., and P. Short. Gulielmi Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, Et De Magno Magnete Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short, 1600.
Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
4. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036815/William-Gilbert
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1600) (1600)
6. ^ Gilbert, W., and
P. Short. Gulielmi Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, Et De
Magno Magnete Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short, 1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
7. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036815/William-Gilbert (1600)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gilbert". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gilbert
[2] http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.HTM
[3] Gilbert, W., P.F. Mottelay, and E. Wright. William Gilbert of
Colchester, Physician of London: On the Load Stone and Magnetic Bodies, ... J.
Wiley & Sons, 1893, pxii. http://books.google.com/books?id=uTfPAAAAMAAJ
London, England4 (presumably)  
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 5 		1622) The inverse squared law of light: that the intensity of light is
inversely related to the square of the distance.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferguson, K. Tycho and Kepler: The Unlikely Partnership That Forever
Changed Our Understanding of the Heavens. Walker, 2002,
p292-293. http://books.google.com/books?id=O7ve-vB_Kq8C&pg=PA292
2. ^ Kepler, J., C. de Marne, and J. Aubry. Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, Quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica Traditur ; Potibimùm De Artificiosa Observatione Et
Aestimatione Diametrorum Deliquiorumque Solis & Lunae. Cum Exemplis Insignium
Eclipsium. Habes Hoc Libro, Lector, Inter Alia Multa Nova, Tractatum Luculentum
De Modo Visionis, Et Humorum Oculi Usu, Contra Opticos Et Anatomicos, Authore
Ioanne Keplero. apud Claudium Marnium & haeredes Ioannis Aubrii,
1604. http://books.google.com/books?id=iXlZNOHpsVIC
3. ^ Kepler, Johannes, and William H. Donahue. Optics: Paralipomena to Witelo &
optical part of astronomy. Santa Fe, N.M.: Green Lion Press, 2000. Print, p22.
(Proposition 9) {Kepler_Optics_1604_2000.pdf}
4. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler/8445/Astr
onomical-work>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105767/Johannes-Kepler
[2] http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?cat=technology
[3] "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler (01/01/1604)
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)4 (presumably)  
392 YBN
[1608 AD] 7 8 		1618) The earliest telescope.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
5. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and Microscope. Lane & Scott,
1852, p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
6. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048449/Hans-Lippershey
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
8. ^ Dick, T. The
Telescope and Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?cat=technology
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland5 ) (modern: Netherlands)6   
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 3 		1599) The "law of falling bodies"; that the distance covered by a falling body
is proportional to the square of the elapsed time is understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
(1609)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy2   
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 10 		1619) Kepler shows that planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one
focus of the ellipse5 , and that a line connecting a planet and the Sun will
sweep over equal areas in equal times6 .7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
2. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
4. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
7. ^ Johannes Kepler,
"Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
8. ^ "Johannes Kepler." Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 04 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-kepler
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609) (1609)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?cat=technology
Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center)9   
390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD] 6 		1605) The moons of Jupiter are first seen and their period determined by
Galileo.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo (01/1610)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?cat=technology
(University of Padua) Padua, Venice, Italy5   
390 YBN
[12/11/1610 AD] 		6485) The phases of planet Venus are seen by Galileo.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Machamer, P. The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University
Press, 1998. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy,
p261. http://books.google.com/books?id=1wEFPLoqTeAC&pg=PA261
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?cat=technology
[2] "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo (01/1610)
[3] "Galilei,
Galileo." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 237-249. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Dec.
2012. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2830901566&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
Florence, Italy2   
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 7 		6488) The earliest Microscope, a compound light microscope.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ King, H.C. The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955. Dover
Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
2. ^ King, H.C. The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955. Dover
Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
3. ^ King, H.C. The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955. Dover
Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
4. ^ King, H.C. The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955. Dover
Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
5. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
6. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048449/Hans-Lippershey
7. ^ King, H.C. The History of the Telescope. Dover Publications,
1955. Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?cat=technology
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
[3] "microscope".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/380582/microscope>
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland5 ) (modern: Netherlands)6   
389 YBN
[06/13/1611 AD] 10 11 		1617) That the Sun has spots and rotates around its own axis is shown.5 6 7 8
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Johannes Fabricius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
3. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
6. ^ "Johannes Fabricius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
7. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=aGFRAAAAcAAJ
8. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
9. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots. University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p30. http://books.google.com/books?id=vdDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31
10. ^ Vaquero, J.M. The Sun Recorded Through History. Springer-Verlag New York,
2009. Astrophysics and Space Science Library,
p111. http://books.google.com/books?id=iWkyiEeiyksC&pg=PA111
11. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots. University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p31. http://books.google.com/books?id=vdDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.html
[3] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabricius (06/??/1611)
Osteel, East Frisia9 (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands)  
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 3 		3680) The theory of storage of light; that light can be absorbed in materials
and re-emitted later.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence From the Earliest Times Until
1900", American Philosophical Society, 1957, p94-95.
2. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307.
3. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American Philosophical Society, 1957, p306-307.
{1612}

MORE INFO
[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulfide
[2] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
[3] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescence
[4] "phosphor." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
[5] "luminescence." Science of Everyday Things. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 13 Dec. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescence
[6] Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and Heinz Sell,
"Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The Fairmont Press,
Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=klE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktjD5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
[7] "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphorescence
[8] "luminescence." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 11 Dec. 2008 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-68942>
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy2   
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 6 		1584) Exponential notation and logarithms.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054813/John-Napier , -97.
2. ^
Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum
Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=VukHAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054813/John-Napier , -97.
4. ^
Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum
Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=VukHAQAAIAAJ
5. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9054813/John-Napier (1614)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier
[2] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevinus (1614)
Scotland5 (presumably)  
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 3 4 		1644) Harvey describes the circulatory system, that blood can only move in one
direction and that blood moves in a circle from the heart to the arteries, from
the arteries to the veins, and through the veins back to the heart.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
2. ^ "William Harvey".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?cat=health
3. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?cat=health (1616)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112. (1616) (1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Harvey". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey
London, England2   
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 4 5 		1831) The earliest known reflecting telescope.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078475/Niccolo-Zucchi
2. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078475/Niccolo-Zucchi
3. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/zucchi.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
5. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/zucchi.html (1616)
Rome, Italy3   
383 YBN
[01/15/1617 AD] 5 6 		6491) The first double (or binary) star system is observed.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei. Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii Di Sua
Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G. Barb�ra,
Florence, 1890�1909 Vol. III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal. P.IV, T.VI,
car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002
2. ^ http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar/riccioli/
3. ^ Fedele, U. "Le Prime Osservazioni Di Stelle Doppie." (1949): n. pag.
Print. http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar/fedele/
4. ^ Davies, J.K., and L.H. Barrera. The First Decadal Review of the
Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt. Springer, 2004. Earth, Moon, and Planets,
p395. http://books.google.com/books?id=WuDdVbJf_d8C&pg=PA395
5. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei. Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii Di Sua
Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G. Barb�ra,
Florence, 1890�1909 Vol. XII (1902), p. 296 (Letter 1236). Mss. Gal. P.VI,
T.X, car. 16, BNCF. http://books.google.com/books?id=70ESAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA296
6. ^ http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista+Riccioli+?cat=technology
[2] Riccioli, G.B. Almagestum Novum Astronomiam Veterem Novamque Complectens
Observationibus Aliorum, Et Propiis Novisque Theorematibus, Problematibus, Ac
Tabulispromotam, in Tres Tomos Distributam Quorum Argumentum Sequens Pagina
Explicabit. Ex typographia Haeredis Victorii Benatii, 1651. Almagestum Novum
Astronomiam Veterem Novamque Complectens Observationibus Aliorum, Et Propiis
Novisque Theorematibus, Problematibus, Ac Tabulispromotam, in Tres Tomos
Distributam Quorum Argumentum Sequens Pagina Explicabit,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=_mJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA422
[3] "Mizar". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053081/Mizar (1650)
(University of Florence) Florence, Italy  
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 4 		1651) The law of refraction, which describes how a light ray bends when passing
between two mediums of different density.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "light". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/340440/light/258393/Reflection-a
nd-refraction>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p113.
3. ^ "Willebrord Snell".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snell
4. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snell (1621)
Leiden, Netherlands3 (presumably)  
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 4 		6241) The submarine.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/570813/submarine>.
2. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/570813/submarine>.
3. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/570813/submarine>.
4. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/570813/submarine>. {1624}
Thames River, England3   
374 YBN
[1626 AD] 5 6 7 		1693) The sealed thermometer (measures temperature independently of air
pressure).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124.
2. ^ Taylor, F. Sherwood.
“The Origin of the Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2 (1942): 129–156.
Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
3. ^ "Low Countries". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 17 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349663/Low-Countries>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124.
5. ^ Taylor, F. Sherwood.
“The Origin of the Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2 (1942): 129–156.
Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
6. ^ Leurechon, J. Récréation Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux : En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=QsY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124. (1654) (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany

(The Low Countries) Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg2 3 |was: Tuscany,
Italy4 (presumably)  
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 3 		1642) That the Sun completes one rotation every 25 days is recognized.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
2. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p85,209. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_o
f_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
3. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Scheiner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3] http://journal.utarts.com/articles.php?id=3&type=paper
[4] http://www.christoph-scheiner.com/
[5] "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner (01/12/1612)
[6] Galilei, G. et al. On
Sunspots. University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=vdDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA46
Rome, Italy2   
369 YBN
[11/07/1631 AD] 5 6 7 		1663) The transit of Mercury across the Sun is observed.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Nadler, S. A Companion to
Early Modern Philosophy. Wiley, 2008. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=KENbzY8uDGkC&pg=PA81
3. ^ Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611",
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3, p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and Venus
Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
4. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi
5. ^ Hockey, T. et al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer Reference, p409.
6. ^ Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus et Venus
invisa Parislis anno 1611", 1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3, p441. ("Mercury
Seen in the Sun, and Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?cat=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably)  
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 5 		1664) The speed of sound is measured.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
4. ^ "Pierre
Gassendi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036159/Pierre-Gassendi
[2] http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?cat=technology
Paris, France4 (presumably)  
367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD] 3 4 		1611) Galileo is condemned to life imprisonment by the Inquisition.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (06/22/1633) (06/22/1633)
4. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105766/Galileo (06/22/1633)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
[2] http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?cat=technology
Rome, Italy2   
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 3 		1657) The "Académie Parisienne" (the precursor to the French Academy of
Sciences).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052176/Marin-Mersenne
2. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052176/Marin-Mersenne (1635)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Mersenne
Paris, France2 (presumably)  
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 5 		1660) Frequencies of sounds are measured.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Mersenne.html
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Mersenne.html
3. ^ http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Mersenne.html
4. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052176/Marin-Mersenne
5. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E. Chapman, "Harmonie
Universelle", 1635, 1957.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
[2] "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052176/Marin-Mersenne
(1637)
Paris, France4 (presumably)  
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 2 		1219) Harvard College is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_colleges
2. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_colleges

MORE INFO
[1] "Harvard University". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA  
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 6 		1668) The cartesian coordinate system.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La Géométrie. Original in French, because
intended for a wider public., 1637 English: tr: John Veitch, "Discourse on
the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking Truth in the
Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/books?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ 2nd edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=lGFxGEEK52oC
2. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descartes
3. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours de la
Methode"). An introduction to Dioptrique, Des Météores and La Géométrie.
Original in French, because intended for a wider public., 1637 English: tr:
John Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/books?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
4. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descartes
5. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118. (1637) (1637)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descartes?cat=technology
Netherlands (presumably)5   
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 6 		1708) The transit of Venus is observed.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p128.
4. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
5. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
6. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Horrocks
Hoole, Lancashire, England5 (presumably)  
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 3 4 		1697) The micrometer (a device for precision measurement).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, 2007.
Springer Reference. http://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
2. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers.
Springer, 2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
3. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, 2007.
Springer Reference. http://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
4. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html (1636)
Middleton (West Yorkshire), England2   
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 6 7 8 9 		6244) The repeating gun, a gun in which ammunition is fed from a magazine.3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498312/repeating-rifle>.
2. ^ http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripetizione.html
3. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web.
24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498312/repeating-rifle>.
4. ^ http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripetizione.html
5. ^ "The new weapons of the world encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
6. ^ "The new weapons of the world encyclopedia : an international encyclopedia
from 5000 B.C. to the 21st century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353& {1641}
7. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripetizione.html {1641}
8. ^ "repeating rifle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498312/repeating-rifle>. {early
1600s}
9. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p49.
{1836}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeff Kinard, "Pistols: an illustrated history of their impact", 2004,
p37-38. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVnuHX_6bG0C&pg=PA37
Netherlands5   
358 YBN
[1642 AD] 3 		1719) A mechanical calculating machine that can add and subtract.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132. (1642) (1642)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108317/Blaise-Pascal
[2] "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal
Rouen, France2 (presumably)  
357 YBN
[1643 AD] 6 		1692) The earliest vacuum and the barometer (which measures the pressure of the
air).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli
2. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli
3. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli
4. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli
5. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli
6. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072977/Evangelista-Torricelli (1643)

MORE INFO
[1] "Evangelista Torricelli". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli
[2] "atmospheric pressure." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/atmospheric-pressure
Florence, Italy5   
356 YBN
[11/22/1644 AD] 6 7 8 		1694) The phases of Mercury are observed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ Hevelius, J. Johannis
Hevelii Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum
Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Qu� Simul Caeterorum Omnium
Planetarum Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim Autem Macularum
Solarium ... Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=i1lDAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-hevelius
4. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-hevelius
5. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-hevelius
6. ^ Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio; Atque
Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque Omnium
Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Qu�
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis, 1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=i1lDAAAAcAAJ
7. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-hevelius
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1644) (1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius
(rooftop observatories on many houses3 ) Danzig4 (now Gdansk in Poland)5
  
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 5 6 		2618) The principle of the conservation of motion.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, "Principles of Philosophy", in "The Philosophical Works
of Descartes", trans. E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York: Dover, 1955).
2. ^
Descartes, Rene?, Valentine R. Miller, and Reese P. Miller. Principles of
Philosophy. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1983. Print. p61.
{Descartes_Miller_and_Miller_Principles_of_Philosophy_1983.pdf}
3. ^ Descartes, R. Principia Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1644,
Part II, art 37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54
4. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
5. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, fifth edition. Berman and Evans, p46. (1644)
6. ^
Descartes, R. Principia Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1644, Part
II, art 37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108563/Rene-Descartes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descartes?cat=technology
[3] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%28Descartes%29
[4] "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
[5] 1. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the
Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477-482:
"Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity.
In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of
momentum of Newtonian mechanics."
[6] Rene Descartes, translated by John Veitch,
"Selections from the Principles of Philosophy of Rene Descartes
(1596-1650)". http://www.classicallibrary.org/descartes/principles/index.htm
[7] "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
Netherlands (presumably)4   
352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD] 3 		1721) Atmospheric pressure is shown to change at different elevations.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132. (09/19/1648)
(09/19/1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108317/Blaise-Pascal
Rouen, France2 (presumably)  
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 5 		1648) The label of "gas" is applied to a substance.1 2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas is recognized.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p112.
2. ^ Van Helmont, J.B. Joannis
Baptistae Van Helmont ... Opera Omnia. Additis His De Novo Tractatibus Aliquot
Posthumis Ejusdem Authoris, Maximè Curiosis Pariter Ac Perutilissimis, Antehac
Non in Lucem Editis; Una Cum Indicibus Rerum Ac Verborum Ut Locupletissimis,
Ita Et Accuratissimis. sumptibus Johannis Justi Erythropili, typis Johannis
Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator) (1662). "Oriatrike or Physick
Refined" http://www.nightenlight.com/higher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-va
n-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-001-030
3. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
4. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
5. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont (1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Baptista van Helmont". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Baptista_van_Helmont
[2] http://www.answers.com/Jan+Baptista+van+Helmont?cat=technology
Vilvoorde, Belgium4   
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 5 6 7 		1675) The first air pump.2 That sound cannot be produced in the absence of air
is proven.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-von-guericke
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038368/Otto-von-Guericke
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1650) (1650)
6. ^ "Otto
von Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038368/Otto-von-Guericke (1650)
7. ^ Daniel Coit
Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/books?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookclip (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke
[2] http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke?cat=technology
Magdeburg, Germany4 (presumably)  
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 3 		1722) The hydraulic press.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat=technology
3. ^ "Syringe#Historical Timeline". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe#Historical_Timeline (1650 (needs better
estimate)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pascals principle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058620/Pascals-principle
[2] "Pascal's law". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_law
Rouen, France2 (presumably)  
345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD] 5 6 7 		1763) The first known moon of Saturn, Titan is identified.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ "Titan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/597100/Titan>.
4. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041658/Christiaan-Huygens
5. ^ http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html (3/25/1655)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656) (1656)
7. ^ "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072639/Titan (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens
[2] "Orion nebula#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebula#History
The Hague, Netherlands4 (presumably)  
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 4 		1702) Exponents are extended to include negative numbers and fractions.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ Wallis, J. Arithmetica
Infinitorum. 1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
3. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075990/John-Wallis
4. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075990/John-Wallis (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
[2] http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=technology
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England3   
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 4 5 		1804) Red blood cells are observed and described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070581/Jan-Swammerdam
2. ^ Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der
Natuure. by Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa, Pieter van der Aa, 1738.
Bybel Der Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam, Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige Onderzoekingen
Van Veelerhande Kleine Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige Kopere Plaaten
Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit Ontdekte
Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?id=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
3. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070581/Jan-Swammerdam
(1658)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p145. (1658) (1658)
Amsterdam, Netherlands3 (presumably)  
340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD] 3 		1704) The Royal Society is formed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064290/Royal-Society
2. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064290/Royal-Society
3. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064290/Royal-Society (11/28/1660)
London, England2   
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 6 		1737) Gas is collected.1 2 That electrical attraction is transmitted through a
vacuum is proven.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Boyle, "New experiments physico-mechanicall, touching the spring of the
air and its effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/index.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_013_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Boyle, "New experiments physico-mechanicall, touching
the spring of the air and its effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/index.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_013_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
5. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
6. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
(1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle
Oxford, England5 (presumably)  
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 3 4 		1738) Acid-base indicators.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
3. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle (1661)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1661) (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle
Oxford, England2 (presumably)  
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 4 		1754) The connection of arteries and veins is observed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
2. ^ "Marcello Malpighi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050369/Marcello-Malpighi (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi
Bologna, Italy3   
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 8 9 		1739) That pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related is known.4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA156
3. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing, 2009,
p99.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA156
6. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing, 2009,
p99.
7. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
8. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
(1662)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1662) (1662)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle
[2] http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=technology
Oxford, England7 (presumably)  
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 5 		2247) The first static electricity generator: a sulfur globe is rotated against
a cloth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke?cat=technology
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038368/Otto-von-Guericke
5. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke?cat=technology (1663)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke
[2] http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-qotsC
Magdeburg, Germany4 (presumably)  
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 6 7 		1666) The theory that light is made of particles is revived by Descartes.
Descartes also identifies both the wave and corpuscular theory of light.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or Treatise
on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
2. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=DHEPAAAAQAAJ
3. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by Michael S. Mahoney, "The
World or Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
4. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=DHEPAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
6. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
7. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=DHEPAAAAQAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%28Descartes%29
[2]
http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Descartes/extraits/le_monde/le_monde.doc
[3] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108563/Rene-Descartes (1633)
[4] "Rene
Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes>
(in 1633:) Netherlands (presumably)5   
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 3 		1688) The theory that comets move in elliptical orbits.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9080729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
3. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+Borelli?cat=technology (1665)
Pisa, Italy2 (presumably)  
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 5 		1707) The theory of light "diffraction".1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et
iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_AAAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
2. ^ Review of "Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride", Martyn, J. et
al. Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some Accompt of the Present
Undertakings, Studies and Labors of the Ingenious in Many Considerable Parts of
the World. T. N., 1710,
p3068. http://books.google.com/books?id=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3068
3. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimaldi?cat=technology
4. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimaldi?cat=technology (1665)
5. ^ P. Francesco
Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_AAAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/G/Grimaldi/1/html
Bologna, Italy3 (presumably)  
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 3 4 		1726) The period of a Mars day is measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Giovanni Domenico
Cassini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp 132-133. (1665,1666)
4. ^ "Gian
Domenico Cassini". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
(1666)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico+Cassini+?cat=technology
Bologna, Italy2   
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 		1776) The first blood transfusion.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p141.
2. ^ Richard Lower, "An
account of the experiment of transfusion, practiced upon a man in London",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1667, Vol.2,
p489 http://books.google.com/books?id=RF5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA489
3. ^ "Richard Lower". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lower
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1665) (1665)
London?, England3   
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1799) The wave theory of light is firmly established by Hooke1 , with the
medium being a fluid between the stars associated with the ancient concept of
aether2 .

Hooke also publishes the first images of a microorganism (or protist).3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57. http://books.google.com/books?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p96-97. http://books.google.com/books?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ Gest, Howard. "The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni
Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal Society." Notes and Records of the Royal
Society of London 58.2 (2004):
187-201. http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/58/2/187.full.pdf
4. ^ http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
5. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia, Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses,... by R. Hooke,... J. Martyn and J.
Allestry, 1665. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZggAYAAACAAJ
6. ^ "Robert Hooke." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2012. Answers.com 10 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-hooke
7. ^ http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
8. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
9. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1665)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke
[3] http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=technology
[4] http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfour/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6] http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/cyclopaedia.html
[7] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some Physiological Descriptions
of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries
Thereupon. printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p54. http://books.google.com/books?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
[8] P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et
iride", 1665. http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_AAAAcAAJ PD
[9] Suber cells and mimosa leaves. Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665. other version PD
London, England4   
334 YBN
[10/??/1666 AD] 8 9 10 11 		1827) Calculus: differentiation is used to find the rate of change (or slope)
of an equation and integration is used to calculate the area or volume
described by an equation.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03958/92
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by Equations with an Infinite Number of Terms"),
todo: find original work, and English translation of original
work. partially described in Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ... Opera
Mathematica ... E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ... Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis by
Equations of an Infinite Number of Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham, 1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=eg4OAAAAQAAJ
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", MS Add.
3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03958/92
5. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by Equations with an Infinite Number of Terms"),
todo: find original work, and English translation of original
work. partially described in Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ... Opera
Mathematica ... E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ... Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis by
Equations of an Infinite Number of Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham, 1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=eg4OAAAAQAAJ
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03958/92
9. ^ Brewster, D., and I. Newton. Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries
of Sir Isaac Newton. Constable, 1855. Memoirs of the Life, Writings and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac
Newton. http://books.google.com/books?id=4hY6AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=%E2%8
0%9COn+Analysis+by+Equations+with+an+Infinite+Number+of+Terms%E2%80%9D&source=bl
&ots=TPKbJAoHv0&sig=K_kBe8m59TO6GE8oAtLdugq3lCs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aSA5UMWePIjPrQHj0o
DYDQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%9COn%20Analysis%20by%20Equations%20with%
20an%20Infinite%20Number%20of%20Terms%E2%80%9D&f=false
10. ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
11. ^
"Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
(07/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaac_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9079241/binomial-theorem
[4] http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.html
[5] http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=47
[6] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan, "Calculus and Analytic
Geometry", Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral) {For a basic explanation of differentiation
and integration, or any modern calculus textbook}
[7] Newton, I. The Method of Fluxions
and Infinite Series: With Its Application to the Geometry of Curve-lines. By
... Sir Isaac Newton, ... Translated from the Author’s Latin Original Not Yet
Made Publick. To Which Is Subjoin’d, a Perpetual Comment Upon the Whole Work,
... By John Colson, ... Henry Woodfall; and sold by John Nourse, 1736
Cambridge, England7   
332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD] 4 		3257) The theory of momentum (mass times velocity).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr. Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of the
General Laws of Motion", Philosophical Transactions, (1665-1678), Volume
3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_Motion_1668.pdf}
2. ^ Davies, E. Brian. "The Mechanical Philosophy 1660-1675."
(2007). http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/3458/
3. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
4. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr. Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of the
General Laws of Motion", Philosophical Transactions, (1665-1678), Volume
3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_Motion_1668.pdf} (11/26/1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075990/John-Wallis
[2] http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[4] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren
[5] http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wren
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p126
[7] "John Wallis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis (1685)
[8] "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-8007/Sir-Christopher-Wren
[9] Wallis, J. Mechanica: Sive, De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus. Pitt,
1670. http://books.google.com/books?id=vGo_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA29
London, England3 (presumably)  
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 3 		1727) Jupiter's period of daily rotation is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Cassini, Gian Domenico",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 2000, p171.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1668) (1668)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico+Cassini+?cat=technology
[2] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini
(Observatory at) Panzano (near Bologna), Italy2   
331 YBN
[03/18/1669 AD] 4 		3258) The concept of energy (mass multiplied by velocity squared), and the
theory of conservation of energy is defined.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Compl�tes: Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895. Oeuvres
Compl�tes, p383-389. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6ogFtcC&pg=PA383
2. ^ George E. Smith, "The vis viva dispute: A controversy at the
dawn of dynamics", Physics Today, October 2006, page
31. http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_10/31_1.shtml
3. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041658/Christiaan-Huygens
4. ^ http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101/VisViva.html#ref (03/08/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands3 (presumably)  
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 4 		1735) "Double refraction" is observed.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp133-134.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp133-134.
3. ^ "Erasmus Bartholin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9013525/Erasmus-Bartholin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp133-134. (1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "double refraction". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9001617/double-refraction
Copenhagen, Denmark3   
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 3 4 		1774) The element Phosphorus is identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016207/Hennig-Brand
2. ^ "Hennig Brand". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Brand
3. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016207/Hennig-Brand (about 1669)
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (between 1669 and 1675) (between 1669 and
1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Retort". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retort
Hamburg, Germany2 (presumably)  
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 5 		2119) The element Hydrogen is identified; released by mixing iron filings and
acids.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark Books).
2. ^
Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written by the Honourable Robert Boyle: Containing New
Experiments Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and Air : and About Explosions
: an Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion'd by Some Objections of Dr. Henry More
against Some Explications of New Experiments Made by the Author of These Tracts
: to Which Is Annex't, an Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an Experiment
About a Way of Weighing Water in Water. London: Printed for Richard Davis,
1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-written-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-relation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occasiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-experiments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-letter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606570832?referer=di&ht=edition
3. ^ Boyle, Robert. The works of the Honourable Robert Boyle. In six volumes.
To which is prefixed The life of the author. ... Vol. Volume 3.A new edition.
London, MDCCLXXII. 3. ^. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC
Irvine. 11 Dec. 2012
<http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW3314952823&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE>. {Boyle_part_1672.pdf}
4. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9016071/Robert-Boyle
5. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle
[3] http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=technology
[4] "Hydrogen# ref-8". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#_ref-8 (1671)
[5]
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/H/hist.html (1671)
[6] Boyle, R.
Tracts ... Containing New Experiments, Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air: And About Explosions. An Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion’d by Some
Objections of Dr. Henry More ... To Which Is Annex’t, An Hydrostatical Letter
... New Experiments, of the Positive Or Relative Levity of Bodies Under Water;
of the Air’s Spring on Bodies Under Water; About the Differing Pressure of
Heavy Solids and Fluids. Richard Davis,
1672. http://books.google.com/books?id=_Dh8PQAACAAJ
Oxford, England4 (presumably)  
328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 		1829) The corpuscular theory of light is firmly established by Newton. Color is
determined to be a property of light, not of objects. White light is separated
into and recreated from primary colors. Light of different colors is shown to
refract at different angles.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton … containing his New Theory
about Light and Colors", Feb 19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words, 13pp.
Published in: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 80 (19 Feb.
1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND http://books.google.com/books?id=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons Answer to some Considerations of
Robert Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and Colors", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November 1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton … containing his New Theory
about Light and Colors", Feb 19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words, 13pp.
Published in: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 80 (19 Feb.
1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November 1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
7. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
(02/19/1672)
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
9. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
10. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton … containing his New Theory
about Light and Colors", Feb 19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words, 13pp.
Published in: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 80 (19 Feb.
1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
11. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
12. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton … containing his New Theory
about Light and Colors", Feb 19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words, 13pp.
Published in: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 80 (19 Feb.
1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND http://books.google.com/books?id=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaac_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9079241/binomial-theorem
[4] http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html
[5] http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.html
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p148
[7] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154. (02/19/1672)
Cambridge, England7   
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 5 		1731) The scale of our star system is measured.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill, "Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
2. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill, "Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaSVA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
3. ^ "Giovanni Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p140.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672) (1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2] http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France3 ;Guiana, South America4   
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 4 		1825) The element Oxygen is identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Mayow". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051617/John-Mayow
2. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=technology
3. ^ "John Mayow". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayow
4. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=technology (1674)
Oxford, England3   
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 15 16 		1851) The speed of light is shown to be finite and is measured by subtracting
the time it takes for the moon of Jupiter, Io, to enter and exit the shadow of
Jupiter when the Earth is moving toward Jupiter, from the time it takes when
the Earth is moving away from Jupiter.9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=technology
2. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083854/Ole-Romer
3. ^ "Demonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des Sciences", Journal des sçavans, December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
4. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light, communicated from Paris"
is published in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society" (No. 136)
on June 25, 1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
5. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=technology
6. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083854/Ole-Romer
7. ^ "Demonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des Sciences", Journal des sçavans, December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
8. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light, communicated from Paris"
is published in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society" (No. 136)
on June 25, 1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
9. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=technology
10. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083854/Ole-Romer
11. ^ "Demonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par
M. Römer de l' Academie Royale des Sciences", Journal des sçavans, December
7, 1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
12. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society"
(No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
13. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
14. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=technology
15. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=technology (1676)
16. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155. (1676) (1676)
(Paris Observatory13 ) Paris, France14   
323 YBN
[1677 AD] 3 		1784) Sperm cells are observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health (1677)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek
Delft, Netherlands2   
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 6 7 8 9 10 11 		1794) The helical spring.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining the
Power of Springing Bodies. John Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=LAtPAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=technology
3. ^ http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
5. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
6. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining the
Power of Springing Bodies. John Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=LAtPAAAAcAAJ
7. ^ http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
(1657)
8. ^ Nicholson, W., "An Account of the Invention of the Balance Spring, and the
Determination of the Conditions of its Isochronism in wide and narrow
Vibrations...", Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts. G. G.
and J. Robinson, 1806. Landmarks II, Scientific Journals.,
p363. http://books.google.com/books?id=6GcxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA363
9. ^ "Hooke, Robert", Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and Improved. A. Constable,
1823. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and
Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and Improved.,
p592-593. http://books.google.com/books?id=GMsnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA592
10. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl. �Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.� Osiris 10
(1952): 277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/301817
11. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl. �Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.�
Osiris 10 (1952): 277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/301817

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
London, England (presumably)4 |(if 1657:) Oxford, England (presumably)5   
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 4 5 		1871) A catalog of southern hemisphere stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ Halley, E. Catalogus Stellarum Australium: Sive, Supplementum
Catalogi Tychenici, Exhibens Longitudines Et Latitudines Stellarum Fixarum,
Quae, Prope Polum Antarcticum Sitae, in Horizonte Uraniburgico Tychoni
Inconspicuae Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex Distantiis Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677
Completum correctas...Accedit Appendicula De Rebus Quibusdam Astronomicis...
Typis T. James, 1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=QVg4AAAAMAAJ
3. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1678) (1678)
5. ^
"Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038943/Edmond-Halley (late 1678)

MORE INFO
[1] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England3 (presumably)  
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 7 		3592) Direct neuron activation (or direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam (Yon4
 SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle with electricity.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year
1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070581/Jan-Swammerdam
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year
1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1678}"

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam
[2] http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?cat=technology
[3] http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.html
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5] http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhibits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
[6] "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070581/Jan-Swammerdam
(1672)
[7] "Electricity and Magnetism" Amédée Guillemin, translated by Silvanus P.
Thompson, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Macmillan and Co., London, 1891.
http://books.google.com/books?id=iHg9AQAAIAAJ
[8] http://www.telephonecollecting.org/feeling.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands6 (presumably)  
318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD] 6 7 8 9 		1788) The cell nucleus is described.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram, Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem Societatem,
Cujus Membrum Est, Datis, Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis Distincta. Editio
novissima, prioribus emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo accommodatis.
Lugduni Batavorum: apud Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
2. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 , p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after: Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
3. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram, Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem Societatem,
Cujus Membrum Est, Datis, Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis Distincta. Editio
novissima, prioribus emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo accommodatis.
Lugduni Batavorum: apud Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
4. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 , p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after: Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
5. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health
6. ^ Henry Harris, "The Birth of the Cell",
p76 http://books.google.com/books?id=zVsxFp3CyngC&pg=PA76
7. ^
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/cell/resources/blooddisc.htm?HeaderFooter
=0
8. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 , p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after: Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
9. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram, Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem Societatem,
Cujus Membrum Est, Datis, Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis Distincta. Editio
novissima, prioribus emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo accommodatis.
Lugduni Batavorum: apud Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek
[2] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher
[3] "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc,
2004. Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health (10/09/1676
(letter to Royal Society)
[4] "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health (10/09/1676 (letter
to Royal Society)
Delft, Netherlands5   
317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD] 6 7 		1785) The first picture of bacteria.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9047611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
2. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural history." Bulletin of the Ecological Society
of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history19.pdf
3. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9047611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
4. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural history." Bulletin of the Ecological Society
of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history19.pdf
5. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=health
6. ^ http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuwenhoek.html
(09/12/1683)
7. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural history." Bulletin of the Ecological Society
of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history19.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek
[3] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher
Delft, Netherlands5   
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 7 		1845) The law of gravitation by Newton; that all matter attracts other matter
with a force that is the product of their masses, and the inverse of their
distance squared.4

Newton also theorizes that light particles are affected by gravity.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A. Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
2. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A. Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
3. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A. Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
4. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A. Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
5. ^ (De Motu Corporum, Liber Primus, Prop XCVI Scholium) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 1,
p316-317. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA316
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
7. ^ Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.pdf Annals of Science, The
Newton Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston Brown, 06/01/1960 (publishes: 1687)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaac_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9079241/binomial-theorem
[3] http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html
[4] http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.html
[5] http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/texts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7] http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html
[10] http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-64048/acoustics
[12] (Scholium.) Newton, I., and A. Motte. The Principia. Prometheus
Books, 1848. Great Minds Series., p182
Cambridge, England6 (presumably)  
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 3 		1200) A gear-cutting machine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
3. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
Sweden2   
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 3 		1864) The steam engine is reinvented.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerks, "The Gas Engine", Scientific American Supplement, No. 484,
April 11, 1885 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13939/13939-h/13939-h.htm
2. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin
3. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin (1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058341/Denis-Papin
[2] http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/projects/cecil/history.html
Leipzig, Germany2   
302 YBN
[1698 AD] 8 		1777) The size and distance of other stars is measured.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos", 1984.
2. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA63
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or Conjectures Concerning the Planetary Worlds and
Their Inhabitants", 1699. Huygens, Christiaan. Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition, corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW3309941561&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huygens_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos", 1984.
5. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA63
6. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or Conjectures Concerning the Planetary Worlds and
Their Inhabitants", 1699. Huygens, Christiaan. Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition, corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW3309941561&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huygens_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
7. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041658/Christiaan-Huygens
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1698) (1698)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens
[2] http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygens?cat=technology
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ntZwxttZF-sC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=huygens+distan
ce+stars+sirius&source=web&ots=LS3xk1VXzb&sig=dggeaF1_TGO8d12SB7CC9-t0Wxg
The Hague, Netherlands7 (presumably)  
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 3 4 		2008) The theory that color is determined by the frequency of light.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p75.
2. ^ Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p57.
3. ^ Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p56. (1699)
4. ^ "Malebranche". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malebranche (1699)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolas-malebranche
[2] light_color_malebranche_Newton.pdf
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n57210216334v842/ VI From Newton to
Young Journal Documenta Ophthalmologica Publisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0012-4486 (Print) 1573-2622 (Online) Issue Volume 96,
Numbers 1-3 / July, 1999 DOI 10.1023/A:1017248722519 Pages 88-111 Subject
Collection Medicine SpringerLink Date Monday, October 25, 2004
Paris, France2   
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 3 		6251) The piano.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p91.
2. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91.
3. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989, p91. {1700}
Florence, Italy2   
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 3 		1872) The path of a comet is correctly calculated.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Halley
[2] http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?cat=technology
London, England2 (presumably)  
287 YBN
[03/28/1713 AD] 7 		6594) The mass and density of the planets are determined3 and the theory that
the Universe is made of mostly empty space by Newton4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf} For
English see Third Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
2. ^ (Book III, Propositions X) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf} For
English see Third Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
3. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf} For
English see Third Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
4. ^ (Book III, Propositions X) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf} For
English see Third Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
5. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf}
6. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 27
Mar. 2013. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
7. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. . {Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130328.pdf} For
English see Third Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy. printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228

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[1] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
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[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
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[3] http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html
[4] http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.html
[5] http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=47
[6]
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[7] http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
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[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html
[10] http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-64048/acoustics
[12] (De Motu Corporum -Liber Primus- Scholium) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
[13] Sir Isaac Newton, The mathematical principles of natural philosophy,
Volume 2, printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729,
p227-228. http://books.google.com/books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA227
[14] "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bullialdus
[15] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A treatise of the Reflections, Refractions,
Inflexions and Colours of Light. Also Two treatises of the Species and
Magnitude of Curvilinear Figures", First Edition, (London: 1704),
p132. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
AND http://archive.org/details/opticksortreatis00newt
[16] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A treatise of the Reflections, Refractions,
Inflexions and Colours of Light. Also Two treatises of the Species and
Magnitude of Curvilinear Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
[17] http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101/VisViva.html#ref
[18] "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
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[19]
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gravity+levity&as_brr=1
[20]
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totle+gravity+levity&source=web&ots=uMydiEAeSU&sig=7Jj8rcY4QjtyJC6olR_uyAt2KAE#P
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[21] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[22] "Edmund Halley". Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 2008.
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[23] The Mechanical Universe, Episode 18, Waves
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[25] Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The First Law of Circulation",
(Pergamon, NY), 1965, p4
(Dabam) London, England5 6   
282 YBN
[1718 AD] 7 8 		1876) The movement of the stars over long periods of time is proven.4 5 6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Edmund Halley, "Considerations on the Change of the Latitudes of Some of
the Principal Fixt Stars.", R. S. Sec. Phil. Trans. 1717 30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
2. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
4. ^ Edmund Halley,
"Considerations on the Change of the Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt
Stars.", R. S. Sec. Phil. Trans. 1717 30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
5. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
8. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper
Motions", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038943/Edmond-Halley
[2] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Halley
[3] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110156/comet
[4] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halley
  
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 3 		3604) A machine uses a perforated roll of paper to form patterns in textiles.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 23 Sep. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile>.
2. ^ W. Maigne, "Dictionnaire classique des origines,
inventions & découvertes dans les arts, les sciences, et les lettres,
présentant une exposition dommaire des grandes conquétes du génie de
l'homme: ouvrage destiné aux gens du monde et aux élèves des écoles",
Larousse et Boyer, 1864,
p614. http://books.google.com/books?id=DOgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA614&dq=basile+bouchon+
lyon&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KjLZSP_RKYXWsgOKouSZDg
3. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 23 Sep. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile>.
{1725}

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[2] http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/index.php?id=315
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=vf8tAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA444&dq=basile+bouchon&as_brr=
1&ei=JjHZSLTaMYjutAP99KHeDg#PPA444,M1
Lyon, France2   
267 YBN
[12/27/1733 AD] 4 5 		1965) The theory that electricity is made of two different fluids.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay Du Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
2. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
3. ^ http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM
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N432, Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
5. ^ "C. F. du Fay". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._du_Fay (12/1733)
Paris, France3   
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 10 11 12 		1996) Life of Earth is systematically categorized by Linnaeus (li-nE-uS or
li-nA-uS3 4 5 ).6 7
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1. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048407/Carolus-Linnaeus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp181-183.
3. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnaeus&submit=Submit
4. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-linnaeus
5. ^ "linnaeus." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/linnaeus>.
6. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048407/Carolus-Linnaeus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp181-183.
8. ^ "carolus linnaeus". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-linnaeus
9. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus
10. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048407/Carolus-Linnaeus (1735)
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology; the
lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient times to the
present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183. (1735)
12. ^ "carolus linnaeus". History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-linnaeus (1735)
Netherlands8 9   
255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD] 14 15 16 		1972) The storage of electricity. The first electric memory and capacitor
(commonly called the Leyden jar).7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
2. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph Priestley, ... The third edition, corrected and
enlarged Vol. 1. London, 1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale Group, pp102-103. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO Gale Document
Number: CW3308601351
3. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
4. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
5. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph Priestley, ... The third edition, corrected and
enlarged Vol. 1. London, 1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale Group, pp102-103. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO Gale Document
Number: CW3308601351
6. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
7. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
8. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph Priestley, ... The third edition, corrected and
enlarged Vol. 1. London, 1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale Group, pp102-103. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO Gale Document
Number: CW3308601351
9. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
10. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From
500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
11. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
12. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist.html
13. ^ "Pomerania". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania
14. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From
500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
15. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph Priestley, ... The third edition, corrected and
enlarged Vol. 1. London, 1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale Group, p102. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO Gale Document
Number: CW3308601351 (11/04/1745)
16. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045738/E-Georg-von-Kleist (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewald Georg von Kleist". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Georg_von_Kleist
(University of Wittenburg) Wittenburg, Germany10 (was for von Kleist:
Pomerania?, Prussia11 12 ) (coast of Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland13
)  
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 4 5 		2966) An electrostatic motor.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.html
2. ^ video of a modern version of Hamilton's Mill
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewgVXg_tsC4
3. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.htm
4. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.htm (1745)
5. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.html (Bells= 1742)

MORE INFO
[1] Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany3   
253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD] 3 4 5 		1981) The single fluid theory of electricity. Lightning is recognized as
electricity.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-22467/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^ The Writings of Benjamin Franklin By Benjamin Franklin Published
1905 Macmillan & co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDwQT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (07/11/1747)
4. ^ "Benjamin Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-22467/Benjamin-Franklin (1751)
5. ^ "Leyden Jar
(1747-1748)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_Jar (1747-1748)
(1747-1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin
[2] http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Franklin%20
[3] http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4] An Account of Mr. Benjamin Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R. S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 - 1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64afe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by shock which flies into wall as if blind)
[5]
Electrical Experiments, Made in Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated Decem.
3, 1753; With Explanations by Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr. Peter
Collinson, F. R. S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads separate electroscope,
Canton made pithballs)
Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA (letter to London, England2 )  
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 3 4 		2055) Citris fruits are proven to cure scurvy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ "James Lind".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048347/James-Lind
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p189. (1747) (1747)
4. ^ "James
Lind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
(1747)
England2   
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 		3452) The basis of refrigeration is understood. Humans recognize that
evaporating liquid lowers temperature.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold produced by evaporating Fluids and of some
other Means of producing Cold", Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Essays and
observations, physical and literary. Read before a Society in Edinburgh, and
published by them. Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2 vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
2. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold produced by evaporating Fluids and of some
other Means of producing Cold", Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Essays and
observations, physical and literary. Read before a Society in Edinburgh, and
published by them. Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2 vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold produced by evaporating Fluids and of some
other Means of producing Cold", Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Essays and
observations, physical and literary. Read before a Society in Edinburgh, and
published by them. Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2 vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
4. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold produced by evaporating Fluids and of some
other Means of producing Cold", Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Essays and
observations, physical and literary. Read before a Society in Edinburgh, and
published by them. Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2 vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} {1747}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cullen
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cullen
[3] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isis.pdf} (05/01/1755)
(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg, Russia3   
248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD] 4 		2976) A spark is passed through a vacuum tube.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of Electricity, with Original Experiments
by Joseph Priestley, ... The third edition, corrected and enlarged. London,
1775. 542pp. (2 vols), v1 347-351.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW3308601212&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm. Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775), Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap000035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3&config=jstor
3. ^ "William Watson (scientist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Watson_%28scientist%29
4. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm. Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775), Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap000035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3&config=jstor (02/20/1752) (02/20/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71599/electromagnetism
[2] A Continuation of a Paper concerning Electricity, by
William Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans. N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Watson_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[3] A Sequel to the Experiments and Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity; In a Letter to the Royal Society from the
Same Journal Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Watson_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
London, England3   
245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD] 3 4 		1370) Moscow State University is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Moscow State University." Encyclop�dia Britannica. Encyclop�dia
Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
2. ^ http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
3. ^ http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
4. ^ "Moscow State University." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 13
Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
Moscow, Russia2   
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 5 6 		2122) Electrolysis. Molecules are split using electricity. Water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gases using electricity.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.htm
4. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Beccaria
5. ^
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZh20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electricity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3] "Electrolysis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrolysis
[4] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.htm
[5] http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7] http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/beccaria.xml
Turin, Italy3 4   
234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD] 6 7 		2113) Hydrogen gas is isolated.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers, Containing Experiments on
Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105491
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers, Containing Experiments on
Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105491
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers, Containing Experiments on
Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R. S.", Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105491
7. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish
[2] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#History
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[4]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[5] Three Papers, Containing Experiments on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 56 -
1766 Pages 141-184 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1766.0019 http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac
.uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c905fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish
_3gases.pdf
London, England5   
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 12 		1206) The first self-propelled vehicle.7 8 A steam-engine powered automobile.9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
2. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
4. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
8. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
10. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
11. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
12. ^ "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/145966/Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot>. {1769}
England11   
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 9 10 		6495) Five new gases are identified and isolated (including nitrous oxide and
carbon monoxide).1 2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Observations on different Kinds of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264, p.216. http://books.google.com/books?id=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA216
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley
3. ^ SMITH, W. D. A. “A HISTORY OF NITROUS OXIDE AND OXYGEN ANAESTHESIA PART
I: JOSEPH PRIESTLEY TO HUMPHRY DAVY.” British Journal of Anaesthesia 37.10
(1965): 790–798.
Print. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/10/790.extract
4. ^ Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774, p118. http://www.archive.org/details/experimentsobser01prie
5. ^ Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley. Dent, 1906. English Men of Science,
p177. http://books.google.com/books?id=uAwFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA177
6. ^ Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774, p38-39. http://www.archive.org/details/experimentsobser01prie
7. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley
8. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley
9. ^ "Observations on different Kinds of Air." Philosophical
Transactions 62 (1772): 147-264,
p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147
10. ^ "Observations on different Kinds of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264, p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley (1772)
[2] Experiments
and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London,
1775. http://books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=da
[3] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley
[4] Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774. http://www.archive.org/details/experimentsobser01prie
Leeds, England7 |(does not move to Calne until 1773)8   
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 5 6 		2076) The theory that gravity changes the speed of light particles.1 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yymkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh257sC&pg=PA787
2. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other Data Should be Procured from Observations,
as Would be Farther Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev. John Michell, B. D.
F. R. S. In a Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R. S. and A. S.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (The Royal Society)
74: 35–57. http://www.jstor.org/stable/106576 michell_1783.pdf
3. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other Data Should be Procured from Observations,
as Would be Farther Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev. John Michell, B. D.
F. R. S. In a Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R. S. and A. S.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (The Royal Society)
74: 35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106576 michell_1783.pdf
4. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771,
p786-791,787. Vol 1: http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yymkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh257sC&pg=PA787
5. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other Data Should be Procured from Observations,
as Would be Farther Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev. John Michell, B. D.
F. R. S. In a Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R. S. and A. S.",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (The Royal Society)
74: 35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106576 michell_1783.pdf {05/26/1783}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1784) (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michell
[2] http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=technology
[3] http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/michell.html
[4] Criticisms of the projectile theory of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys.
Educ. 16 112-119 doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N Cantor Print
publication: Issue 2 (March
1981) michell_corpuscular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
[5] "John Michell". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052474/John-Michell
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England3   
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 3 		2140) The mass of a light particle is measured to be around 10 nanograms.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771, p389-390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yymkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh257sC
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yymkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh257sC

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestley
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=prOsrElRVHoC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=ac.+par.+1723&
source=web&ots=8KE7ChOjYe&sig=5bJOnyDkXkJNqljVIEI_-nhrl_k&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&resnum=1&ct=result {interesting account about Newton believing inflexion}
[4] "Joseph
Priestley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley (1772)
Leeds, England2   
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2285) Nitrogen gas is isolated.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
3. ^ "Daniel Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford?cat=technology
4. ^ "nitrogen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055947/nitrogen (1772)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Nitrogen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen
Edinburgh, Scotland3   
226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD] 4 5 		2139) Oxygen gas is isolated.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestley
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp204-206.
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestley
(08/01/1774)
5. ^ Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London,
1775, p34. books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA34

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057841/oxygen
[3] "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
[4]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health
Calne, England3   
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 4 5 6 		2200) The element chlorine is isolated, as a gas.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774) (1774)
4. ^ "Karl
Wilhelm Scheele". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology (1774)
5. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology (1774)
6. ^ "chlorine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082243/chlorine (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3] "Chlorine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine
Uppsala, Sweden2   
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 4 		2216) Combustion is shown to be a reaction with a gas in the air (later named
oxygen).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774) (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Laurent_Lavoisier
Paris, France3 (presumably)  
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 8 		2664) The earliest telegraph.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/bluetelephone/html/part4.html
2. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
3. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc, p48.
4. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/bluetelephone/html/part4.html
5. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
6. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc, p48.
7. ^ The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49.
8. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49. (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges-Louis LeSage". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_LeSage
Switzerland7 (presumably)  
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 4 5 6 7 		2201) Eleven new acids are identified (including citric and lactic),1 in
addition to the identification of casein, aldehyde, and glycerol.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
4. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774) (1774)
6. ^ "Karl
Wilhelm Scheele". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology (1774)
7. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3] http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77.html
(starts phramacy position in 1777 in) Uppsala, Sweden3   
219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD] 4 5 		2840) Planet Uranus is identified.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ "Sir William Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1781) (1781)
5. ^
"William Herschel". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?cat=technology (03/13/1781)

MORE INFO
[1] # Full text of The Story of the Herschels (1886) from Project
Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[2] http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar/herschel.html
[3] http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.html
Bath, England3   
217 YBN
[02/01/1783 AD] 5 6 		2183) The motion of the Sun relative to the other stars is recognized.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Herschel, William. "On
the Proper Motion of the Sun and Solar System; With an Account of Several
Changes That Have Happened among the Fixed Stars since the Time of Mr.
Flamstead. By William Herschel, Esq. FRS." Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/philtrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
3. ^ Herschel, William. "On the Proper Motion of the Sun and Solar System; With
an Account of Several Changes That Have Happened among the Fixed Stars since
the Time of Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel, Esq. FRS." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/philtrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
4. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?cat=technology
5. ^ Herschel, William. "On the Proper Motion of the Sun and Solar System; With
an Account of Several Changes That Have Happened among the Fixed Stars since
the Time of Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel, Esq. FRS." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/philtrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
6. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?cat=technology (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040235/Sir-William-Herschel
[2] "William Herschel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herschel
Datchet, near Winsor, England3 |(Slough, England4 )  
217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD] 4 5 		2192) The hot air balloon.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
2. ^ "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
3. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
4. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier (06/04/1783)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217. (06/05/1783)
(06/05/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier
Annonay, France3   
217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD] 4 5 6 		2206) A steam engine boat.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
2. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
3. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
4. ^ http://www.answers.com/steamship (1783)
5. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis de
Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans (1783)
6. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.htm (07/15/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude de Jouffroy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_de_Jouffroy
[2] "Steamboat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat
Saône River, near Lyon, France3   
217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD] 4 5 		2194) Human flight by balloon.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1424455/balloon-flight>.
2. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1424455/balloon-flight>.
3. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=technology
4. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1424455/balloon-flight>.
{11/21/1783}
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
{11/21/1783}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Michel and Jacques
Etienne Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier
[4] "Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(11/21/1783)
Paris, France3   
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 3 		2114) The density of gases is measured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish (1783
(presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish
[2] http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?cat=technology
London, England2   
216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD] 6 7 		2115) Water is shown to be a compound, not an element. The fusion of molecules
using electricity; water is synthesized by using an electric spark in hydrogen
and oxygen gases.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol 74,
1784, pp119-153. http://books.google.com/books?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol 74,
1784, pp119-153. http://books.google.com/books?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On Air", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/books?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202. (01/15/1784)
(01/15/1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish
[2] "Henry Cavendish". History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?cat=technology
London, England5   
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 8 9 10 		2259) The first gas is liquefied, sulfur dioxide.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
3. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
4. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
6. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
7. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
8. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
9. ^ Ren� Taton, Gaspard MONGE (Count
de P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231. (1785) (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Monge
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YrQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:statics&as_brr=
1&hl=en An Elementary Treatise on Statics With a Biographical Notice of the
Author (Biddle, Philadelphia, 1851)
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UjEDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:Gas
pard+inauthor:Monge&as_brr=0&hl=en An elementary treatise on descriptive
geometry, with a theory of shadows and of perspective (Weale, London, 1851)
(École du génie) Angers, France7   
215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD] 3 		3463) The earliest "diffraction" grating (made with hair).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Hopkinson and David Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem, Proposed by Mr.
Hopkinson, and Solved by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
2. ^ F. Hopkinson and David Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem, Proposed by Mr.
Hopkinson, and Solved by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
3. ^ F. Hopkinson and David Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem, Proposed by Mr.
Hopkinson, and Solved by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
} {02/17/1785}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA2   
215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD] 4 5 		2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of gases, and not a single element.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?cat=technology
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?cat=technology
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on Air.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784, pp119-153. http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish
London, England3   
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 6 		2168) Electric and magnetic attraction and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and inversely proportional to distance
squared.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=RCp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism, By Brian Baigrie, 2006
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), p211.
6. ^ "Charles Augustin Coulomb". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+Coulomb+?cat=technology
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Augustin_Coulomb
Paris?, France5 (presumably)  
213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD] 3 		2265) That volume and temperature of a gas are inversely related is known.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?cat=technology
2. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p232. (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9022590/Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar-Charles
[2] "Jacques Charles". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Charles
Paris, France2 (presumably)  
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 6 		2175) Remote neuron activation (or remote neuron writing) by Luigi Galvani. A
muscle is contracted remotely by using a remote electric spark while metal is
connected to the nerve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion", Waverly Press, 1953.
2. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on
Muscular Motion", Waverly Press, 1953.
3. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert
Green, "Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion", Waverly
Press, 1953.
4. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green, "Commentary on the
Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion", Waverly Press, 1953.
5. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035937/Luigi-Galvani
6. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/NatureandArtifice/lecture14.html
Bologna, Italy5   
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 4 5 		2085) The theory of natural selection: that species less adapted are more
likely to die while those better adapted will continue and multiply.1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003). In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's 3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science
and Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
2. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy... by James Hutton,...
A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}
3. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041650/James-Hutton
4. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003). In Retrospect (html). Nature
V. 425 #6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's 3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation
of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
5. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy... by James Hutton,...
A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=b_MkAQAAIAAJ {Hutton_Investigation_of_t
he_Principle_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton (1795)
Edinburgh, Scotland3 (presumably)  
204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD] 4 5 6 		2280) Immunity by vaccination is proven.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
3. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043524/Edward-Jenner
4. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043524/Edward-Jenner (07/01/1796
(injection of small pox)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox) (05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
6. ^ "Edward
Jenner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043524/Edward-Jenner (05/14/1796
(injection of cow pox)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner
[2] http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat=health
[3] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Berkeley, England3 (presumably)  
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 3 		2338) Marble is produced by melting and quickly cooling limestone.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
2. ^ "Sir James Hall 4th
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
3. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hall, 4th Baronet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hall%2C_4th_Baronet
[2] http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/hall_james.htm
[3] http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst2053.html
  
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 6 		2117) The gravitational constant, the mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021916/Henry-Cavendish (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cavendish
London, England5   
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 4 5 6 7 		2315) Elements are shown to combine in definite proportions.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061640/Joseph-Louis-Proust (1793)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246. (1799) (1799)
6. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Louis+Proust?cat=technology (1799)
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm (1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Proust". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Proust
Segovia, Spain3   
200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD] 8 9 		2250) The electric battery (or voltaic pile).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ Volta, "On
the Electricity excited by the mere Contact of conducting Substances of
different Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepidopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
6. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepidopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
7. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9075699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1800) (1800)
9. ^
"alessandro volta". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-volta?cat=technology (03/20/1800(sends
letter to Banks secretary of royal society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta
[2] http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
Pavia, Italy7   
200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD] 10 11 		2179) Invisible light is recognized (infrared light).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an Inquiry into the Method
of Viewing the Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of Large Apertures and High
Magnifying Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
, Vol. 90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA255
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ William Herschel,
"Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and Illuminate
Objects; With Remarks, That Prove the Different Refrangibility of Radiant Heat.
To Which is Added, an Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283. books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA255
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283. books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA255
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283. books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA255
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
9. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040235/Sir-William-Herschel
10. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an Inquiry into the Method
of Viewing the Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of Large Apertures and High
Magnifying Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
, Vol. 90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA255
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1800) (1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herschel
Slough, England9   
200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD] 4 5 		2436) Hydrogen and oxygen gas are collected separately from the electrolysis of
water.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
3. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p244. (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800) (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
5. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.html (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800) (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/dibner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
Jena, Germany3 (presumably)  
200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD] 3 4 		2437) Electroplating.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
3. ^ http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.html (c11/1800 (just a guess after
id2436)
4. ^ Ted Huntington. (c11/1800 (just a guess after id2436)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/dibner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5] http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ritter.htm
Jena, Germany2 (presumably)  
199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD] 4 		2261) The first known asteroid (and minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ1 }, is
recognized.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ceres." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 20 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ceres>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
3. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?cat=technology
4. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?cat=technology (01/01/1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9059895/Giuseppe-Piazzi
[2] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Piazzi
[3] http://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsIII/pdf/3027.pdf
[4] "Ceres (dwarf planet)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dwarf_planet%29
[5] "olbers s paradox". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-paradox?cat=technology
Palermo, Sicily3   
199 YBN
[02/22/1801 AD] 6 7 		2167) The invisible light, ultra-violet light is discovered.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des Violett." Annalen der Physik 7
(1801): 527. http://books.google.com/books?id=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar radiation to the side of violet." {todo:
Determine if there is any English translation of this work}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar radiation to the side of violet." {todo:
Determine if there is any English translation of this work}
5. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
6. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar radiation to the side of violet." {todo:
Determine if there is any English translation of this work}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/dibner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5] http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.html
Jena, Germany5 (presumably)  
199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD] 11 		2405) The frequencies and wavelengths (or particle intervals) of light are
determined. The first glass diffraction gratings. The three color principle
(that only three colors in different proportions are needed to see any other
color7 ). The theory of light interference.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
3. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
4. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
5. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
6. ^ Thomas Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
7. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
8. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young",
Thomas Young, George Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
9. ^ Thomas Young, "The
Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
10. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930", CRC Press, 1995, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0IBC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1 {11/12/1801}
11. ^ Thomas
Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807 edition.} http://books.google.com/books?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
{11/12/1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29
[2] "etalon." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2008. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/etalon>
[3] Thomas Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802), pp12-48.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a9
74a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140
London, England10   
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 8 9 		2365) Spectral lines are identified.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Wollaston+?cat=technology
2. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf}
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Wollaston+?cat=technology
5. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
7. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Wollaston+?cat=technology
8. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Wollaston+?cat=technology (1802)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Francis Wollaston, "The secret history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
[4] "William Hyde Wollaston." Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica
Online. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 May. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646649/William-Hyde-Wollaston>.
London, England7   
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 3 4 		2439) The first dry electric battery.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
2. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ritter.htm
3. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter (1802)
4. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ritter.htm (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter
[3]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[4]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/dibner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[5] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[6] Ritter, Johann Wilhelm. "Neue Versuche über den Galvanismus."
Reichs-Anzeiger (Gotha) 66 (1802): 813-820
Gotha, Germany2   
197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD] 4 5 		2375) That atoms of different elements vary in size and mass is shown. The
first table of elements by atomic mass.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
2. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
3. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9028616/John-Dalton (10/21/1803
(paper to Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society)
4. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
5. ^ John Dalton, "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids."
Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester , Second
Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?id=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1803) (10/21/1803
(paper to Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society)
[4]
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html (1803)
Manchester, England3   
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 3 4 		2400) The steam engine railway train.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9073323/Richard-Trevithick
2. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9073323/Richard-Trevithick
3. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9073323/Richard-Trevithick (1803)
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p268. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevithick%20
South Wales, England2   
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 5 6 		6519) There are 1 billion humans on Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
6. ^ http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopulationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
  
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 4 		2346) Asparagine {e-SPAR-e-JEN1 }, the first amino acid, is isolated.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "asparagine." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/asparagine
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
3. ^ "Nicolas Louis
Vauquelin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253. (1806) (1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin
[2] http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vauquelin+?cat=technology
Paris, France3   
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 3 		2428) The phenomenon of light "polarization" is observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Louis+Malus+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Louis+Malus+?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276. (1808) (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne Louis Malus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Louis_Malus
Paris, France2   
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 6 7 		2466) Gases are shown to combine in small whole number ratios by volume and not
by mass.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay
Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1809) (1809)
7. ^ "Joseph
Louis Gay Lussac". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20Gay-Lussac (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac
Paris, France5 (presumably)  
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 10 		2481) The first electric light; the arc lamp.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "Humphry Davy". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ "Humphry Davy". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^ "Humphry Davy". History
of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
9. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
10. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Davy
[3] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England9   
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 3 		2480) Chlorine is shown to be an element and shown to support combustion like
oxygen does. Hydrogen is shown to be characteristic of acids.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Davy
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
[4] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
London, England2   
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 		2380) "Fourier's theorem": that any periodic oscillation can be reduced to a
sum of simple sinusoidal waves.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Théorie du mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps solides (suite)
p.1-94 Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences de l'Institut de France,
années 1821 et 1822, t. V, p. 153 à 246; 1826. Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier, J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=-N8EAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
3. ^ "Joseph Baron Fourier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
4. ^ http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm (1811)
5. ^ George A. Gibson, "On the
History of the Fourier Series", Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Proceedings of
the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Scottish Academic Press, (5/12/1893) 1893,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=2uoKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146
6. ^ Carslaw, H.S. Introduction to the Theory of Fourier’s Series and
Integrals and the Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of Heat. Macmillan and
Company, Limited, 1906. Introduction to the Theory of Fourier’s Series and
Integrals and the Mathematical Theory of the Conduction of
Heat. http://books.google.com/books?id=RIs9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263. (1807) (1807)
8. ^
Merriman, M. et al. Higher Mathematics: A Text-book for Classical and
Engineering Colleges. J. Wiley & Sons, 1902.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TS4PT_tpjBYC&pg=PA542

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Fourier
[2] "Fourier transform". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035045/Fourier-transform
[3] http://www.answers.com/Fourier+transform?cat=technology
[4] http://www.answers.com/Fourier+integrals?cat=technology
[5] Fourier, J. "Sine and Cosine Series for an Arbitrary
Function in Joseph Fourier 1768-1830 Ed. and annotated by I." Grattan-Guinness
The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1807)
Grenoble, France3   
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 4 		2432) The concept of molecules, and the method to determine correct atomic mass
and molecular formula.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp277-278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp277-278.
3. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9104090/Amedeo-Avogadro
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp277-278. (1811)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Vercelli, Italy3   
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 10 		2571) The spectroscope. That substances emit specific spectral lines is known.4
5 6 The spectrum of planet Venus is found to have the same absorption lines as
the Sun, and the spectrum of other stars are found to have absorption lines
that are different from those of the Sun.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die
Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernrohre.", Akademie Der Wissenschaften zu
München, (1814), 15 Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal" (1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=xS87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313. Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} Original in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF ACHROMATIC
TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
4. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die
Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernrohre.", Akademie Der Wissenschaften zu
München, (1814), 15 Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal" (1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=xS87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313. Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} Original in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF ACHROMATIC
TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
7. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die
Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernrohre.", Akademie Der Wissenschaften zu
München, (1814), 15 Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal" (1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=xS87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313. Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} Original in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF ACHROMATIC
TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
8. ^ William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/413.full.pdf+html
 {Huggins_William_1864.pdf}
9. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304. (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany9   
185 YBN
[11/??/1815 AD] 5 6 7 		2544) The theory that all atomic masses are a multiple of hydrogen.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
4. ^ "William
Prout". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994,
1996, 2005. Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat=technology
5. ^ William Prout (published anonymously), On the
Relation between the Specific Gravities of Bodies in their Gaseous State and
the Weights of their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6, p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowAAAAYAAJ
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1815) (1815)
7. ^
"William Prout". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061643/William-Prout (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Prout
[2]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/history99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
London, England4 (presumably)  
183 YBN
[01/12/1817 AD] 5 6 7 		2408) The theory that light is a transverse wave (oscillates at a right angle
to the direction of travel)1 in an aether medium2 .3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078063/Thomas-Young
2. ^ Young, Thomas. "The Bakerian lecture: On the theory of light and
colours." Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, v92, 1802,
p12-48, p14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/107113
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c
9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.
pdf}
3. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M. Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young, T.,
G. Peacock, and J. Leitch. Miscellaneous Works: Scientific Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
4. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-young?cat=health
5. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M. Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young, T.,
G. Peacock, and J. Leitch. Miscellaneous Works: Scientific Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
6. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078063/Thomas-Young {1817}
7. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm {1809}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29
[2] The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light and
Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772, kraus reprint 1978
[3] "astigmatism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009975/astigmatism
[4] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[5] "Color". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[6] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation: An
Introduction with 400 Problems. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[7] Opticks, Isaac Newton,
Cohen, Dover, 1979
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 The Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and Calculations Relative
to Physical Optics Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf
[9] Great Experiments in Physics, Shamos, 1959,1987
[10] Thomas Young, Philip Kelland, "A
Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts", Taylor and
Walton, 1845. {Contains the lectures which form vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England4   
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 4 5 6 		2600) The theory that chemicals contain light.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence From the Earliest Times Until
1900", American Philosophical Society, 1957, p213-214.
2. ^ Gmelin, L. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen Chemie. Springer-Verlag, 1817. Handbuch Der Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?id=ohUoAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308. (1817) (1817)
5. ^
"Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?cat=technology (1817)
6. ^ "Gmelin (1817)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin (1817) (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Gmelin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gmelin
Heidelberg, Germany3   
180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 10 		2454) Electricity is understood to cause magnetism. The first electromagnet.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the Magnetic Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol.
16, pp. 274-75, October 1820. Translated from a printed account drawn up in
Latin by the author and transmitted by hum to the Editor of the Annals of
Philosophy. reprint is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The
First Law of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p113-117.
2. ^ Hans Christian Oersted,
(title in Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of a Current of Electricity on
the Magnetic Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75, October 1820.
Translated from a printed account drawn up in Latin by the author and
transmitted by hum to the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is in:
Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The First Law of Circulation",
(Pergamon, NY), 1965, p113-117.
3. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in Latin?),
"Experiments on the Effect of a Current of Electricity on the Magnetic
Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75, October 1820. Translated
from a printed account drawn up in Latin by the author and transmitted by hum
to the Editor of the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is in: Tricker, R. A. R.,
"Early Electrodynamics - The First Law of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
4. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of a
Current of Electricity on the Magnetic Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol. 16,
pp. 274-75, October 1820. Translated from a printed account drawn up in Latin
by the author and transmitted by hum to the Editor of the Annals of
Philosophy. reprint is in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The
First Law of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p113-117.
5. ^ "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted (04/21/1820)
6. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057470/Hans-Christian-Orsted (04/1820)
7. ^ "hans
christian rsted". History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
8. ^ "hans
christian rsted". Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1819) (1819)
10. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christian-rsted?cat=technology (1819)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "electromagnetic radiation". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-11356/electromagnetic-radiation
Copenhagen, Denmark4   
180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD] 6 7 8 9 10 		2423) The direction of electric current in a wire is related to magnetic
force.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Analyse des Memoires lus par M. Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre, des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques (published only 1819-1821), 1820, 6:238-257
("Analyse"); p241-257. http://books.google.com/books?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
2. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie royale des Sciences, le 2
octobre 1820, oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce qui avait ete lu a la meme
Academie les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les effets des courans
electriques."," Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76; "Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/books?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
3. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232209
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ampere.htm
6. ^ "Hans Christian Oersted." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christian-rsted?cat=technology
(within one week of Oersted's report: 07/21)
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ampere.htm (but this source has
09/04 in Paris)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (so by: 09/11/1820 according
to this source)
9. ^ "1820)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marie_Amp%C3%A8re (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)
10. ^ "1820)". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "1820)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Andre_Marie_Ampere (hears
9/11 reports:)09/18/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[2] http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
[3] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://gallica.bnf.fr/
Paris, France5   
180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD] 4 5 6 		2424) Magnetism is identified as electricity.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se trouve compris le résumé de ce qui avait
été lu é la méme Académie les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les effets des
courans électriques. Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820, vol. 15, p.
59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1
2. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se trouve compris le résumé de ce qui avait
été lu é la méme Académie les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les effets des
courans électriques. Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820, vol. 15, p.
59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1
3. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ampere.htm
4. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. "Mémoire présenté à l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, où se trouve compris le résumé de ce qui avait
été lu à la même Académie les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les effets des
courans électriques.", Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820, vol. 15, p.
59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typeofbookId=1 {1820) 10/02/1820}
5. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154. {10/20/1820
(mistake}
6. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/ampere.htm c09/30/1820)
(before the end of September) c09/30/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andre Marie Ampere". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
[2] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[3] http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christian-rsted?cat=technology
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xkWxi4C&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22The+mutual+
action+of+two+electric+currents%22&source=web&ots=RDi1vlMrpC&sig=gi8URXRfofk0H64
F6rtiHIYWarw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA70,M1
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What Were Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M. Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans les
seances des 18 et 25 septembre, des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales générales
des sciences physiques (published only 1819-1821), 1820, 6:238-257
("Analyse"); p241-257. http://books.google.com/books?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie royale des Sciences, le 2
octobre 1820, oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce qui avait ete lu a la meme
Academie les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les effets des courans
electriques."," Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76; "Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/books?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
Paris, France3   
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 3 		2486) The electric current meter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p286.
2. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salomo_Christoph_Schweigger
3. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salomo_Christoph_Schweigger (1820)

MORE INFO
[1] http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/schweigger.html
[2] http://www.answers.com/galvanometer?cat=technology
Halle, Germany2   
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 7 		3374) The first gas combustion engine; uses hydrogen gas combustion to create a
vacuum.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
4. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
5. ^ Cambridge Philosophical Society, "Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
6. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
7. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine {1820}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-of-technology>
(Magdalen College5 ) Cambridge, England6   
179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD] 6 7 		2701) The dynamic electric motor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
2. ^ http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
3. ^ http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
4. ^ http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^ Michael Faraday, "On some new Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the
Theory of Magnetism", Royal Institution Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts.
Volume XII, (1822), pp74-96.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22on+some
+new+electro-magnetical+motions%22&source=web&ots=VKIy3FqaNj&sig=YybSGqm9Q6m-Wqj
9LSQTTX8JGDk&hl=en {Faraday_1821_motor.pdf} (09/11/1821)
7. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?cat=technology
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_Faraday
[3] http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2 /
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.1993.0031
[5] Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in Electricity Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 - 1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/calico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109642/Charles-Darwin
[8] http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMaterials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10] Institution of Engineering and Technology, London Archives, Michael
Faraday
(Royal Institution in) London, England5   
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 11 		2397) Thermoelectricity (or the Seebeck (ZABeK1 ) effect) is discovered: that
an electric current flows between different conductive materials that are kept
at different temperatures.2 3 4 5 6
This is the basis of the thermocouple
{tr-mO-KuPL7 } and thermopile {tR-mu-PIL8 }.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
2. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
3. ^ T. SEEBECK, "Ueber den Magnetismus der Galvanischen Kette", Abhandlungen
der Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1821, pp.
289-346. http://books.google.com/books?id=G-JYAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Seebeck, T.J., Magnetische polarisation der metalle und erze durck
temperatur-differenz, Abhandlungen der Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, Berlin, 265, 1823. also printed in: Seebeck, T. J. "Ueber die
magnetische Polarisation der Metalle und Erze durch Temperaturdifferenz."
Annalen der Physik 82.3 (1826):
253-286. http://books.google.com/books?id=RWQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253
5. ^ http://thermoelectrics.caltech.edu/thermoelectrics/history.html
6. ^ Rev. J. Cummings, "On the Development of Electro-Magnetism by Heat,"
Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1823), vol. 2, pp.
47-76. books.google.com/books?id=uv8IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA47
7. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermocouple&submit=Submit
8. ^ http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermopile&submit=Submit
9. ^ Meijer, G. Smart Sensor Systems. Wiley, 2008,
p165. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y1ZdqQc4UiUC&pg=PA165
10. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+Seebeck?cat=technology
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268. (1821) (1821)

MORE INFO
[1] Magnetic polatization of metals and minerals
[2]
http://www.dea.icai.upco.es/romano/sp4/tpares_all.pdf
Berlin, Germany10   
177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD] 5 		3297) The grating equation: the wavelength (or particle interval) of light is
equated to the grating groove spacing. The wavelength of light is calculated by
using a diffraction grating.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fraunhofer, Jos., "Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten neurer Versuche
über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben", Annalen der Physik,
v74, i8, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA337
AND http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.18230740802 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF
LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_von_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
2. ^ Howard-Duff, I., "Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826)", Journal of the British
Astronomical Association, vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
3. ^ https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/astrophysics.html
4. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben", "Annalen der Physik",
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAAAAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF
LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_von_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
5. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben, "Annalen der Physik", LXXIV,
1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAAAAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF
LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra:
Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_von_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} {06/14/1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer
[2] "Joseph von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[3] "josef von fraunhofer". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-fraunhofer?cat=technology (1821)
[4] "Joseph
von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[5] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany4 (presumably)  
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 3 4 5 		2526) The first practical electromagnet.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ "William Sturgeon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070045/William-Sturgeon
3. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturgeon.html (1825)
4. ^ "William Sturgeon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070045/William-Sturgeon (1825)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p295. (1823) (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sturgeon
Surrey, England2 (presumably)  
174 YBN
[07/31/1826 AD] 6 7 		3440) The phenomenon of electrical oscillation is discovered (the basis of
alternating current and radio communication1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and the Direct Experimental Test of
His Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/228514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
3. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
4. ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Savary.html
5. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
6. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf} {07/05/1826}
7. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Savart.html
[2] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry Crew, Williams & Wilkens
Company, 1928, p271
[3] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry Crew, Williams & Wilkens
Company, 1935, p270
[4] Tapan K. Sarkar, "History of Wireless",
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=NBLEAA6QKYkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=felix+sa
vary+france+academy&source=web&ots=1G-QerT8pr&sig=svebXMDBkxIt9XuFntMm0NDttMU&hl
=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result
(Bureau des Longitudes4 ) Paris, France5 (presumably)  
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 7 8 9 		2355) The first permanent photograph4 and photograph reproduction process5 .
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/7.html
2. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055791/Nicephore-Niepce
3. ^ http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/7.html
4. ^ http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/7.html
5. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055791/Nicephore-Niepce
6. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055791/Nicephore-Niepce
7. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9phore+Niepce?cat=technology (1826)
8. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/7.html (1826/7)
9. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055791/Nicephore-Niepce (1826/7)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Niepce
[2] "lithography". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France6   
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 4 		3384) A gas combustion vacuum engine car.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine", Scientific American Supplement (Vol. 19,
#484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scientific-american/484/00.htm#3
2. ^ http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/projects/cecil/history.html
3. ^ http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=50019
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A Practical
Treatise on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA102,M1 {1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Brown (engineer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Brown_(engineer)
[2] http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarsgasa.htm
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911
London, England2 3   
173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD] 3 4 		2606) (Ohm's law) Current is recognized as being equal to voltage divided by
resistance.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology; the lives and achievements of 1195 great scientists from ancient
times to the present, chronologically arranged", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1982), pp309-310.
2. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von
Dr. G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs, v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
3. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr. G.
S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs, v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf} {05/01/1827}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology; the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310. (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Simon Ohm". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simon_Ohm
Berlin, Germany2 (written in Cologne?)  
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 		3591) The earliest electronic printer.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1827}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=alIXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john
+j+fahie&ei=8xfYSLjYNKGutgP_lpXeDg
[2] "Old Time Telegraphic History", Electrical World and Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
New York City NY3 (presumably)  
172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD] 6 7 		2857) The first "organic" molecule (urea) is produced from inorganic sources.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wöhler, Friedrich. "Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs" Annalen
der physik und chemie V12 p253 (1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Wohler-article.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ Wöhler, Friedrich.
"Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs" Annalen der physik und chemie V12
p253 (1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Wohler-article.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
5. ^ "Friedrich Wohler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077322/Friedrich-Wohler
6. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077322/Friedrich-Wohler
(02/1828)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343. (1828) (1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler
[2] http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6hler?cat=technology
[3] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedrich_Wohler
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school)) Berlin, Germany5   
171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD] 11 		2844) Electric current is produced by moving a wire near a magnet.7 8 9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402 {Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
2. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17
Equations That Changed the World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
3. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work
of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the
Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company, 1912. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An
International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and
History of the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
4. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402 {Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
5. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17
Equations That Changed the World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
6. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work
of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the
Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company, 1912. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An
International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and
History of the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
7. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402 {Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
8. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17
Equations That Changed the World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
9. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work
of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the
Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company, 1912. The Catholic Encyclopedia: An
International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and
History of the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
10. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402. Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
11. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia Giornale di
letteratura, scienze ed arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf (03/27/1829)

MORE INFO
[1] The Contribution of Fracesco Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics Faculty of the Padua University, Massimo
Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/1999/Tinazzi.pdf Zantedeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[2] La Electricidad, http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/HistII.pdf
Zantedeschi_HistII.pdf (apparently text identical to
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[4] http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[5] http://www.wordreference.com/
Pavia, Italy10   
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 6 		2767) The theory that space is curved; that a curved surface geometry applies
to space in the universe. The start of "Non-Euclidean" geometry.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
2. ^ NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) "On the foundations of geometry", Kazan Messenger,
1829. reprinted in: Kagan V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete Collected
Works, Vols I-IV (Russian), Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL) 1946-51 German
translation: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, "Zwei geometrische
Abhandlungen" ,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
3. ^ Lobachevski, tr: Halsted "The Theory of
the Parallels", 1914, p3.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326. (1829)
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm (1826 announces) (1829)
6. ^ "Lobachevsky".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=technology (1826
announces)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lobachevsky". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobachevsky
[2] "Kazan State University". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_State_University
[3] http://www.answers.com/parallel+postulate?cat=technology
[4] "Euclid's Elements". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements
[5] "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/345382/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobache
vsky>
[6] Alexander Vucinich, "Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevskii: The Man behind the
First Non-Euclidean Geometry", Isis , Vol. 53, No. 4 (Dec., 1962), pp.
465-481 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History
of Science Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/227721
Kazan, Russia4   
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 26 27 28 29 		4003) Sound vibrations are recorded by a tuning fork moving an attached whisker
onto a sooted glass plate.19 20 21 22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false
3. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake, "The American journal of otology, Volume
1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
4. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French, A. H.
Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine, Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
5. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
6. ^ Schilling musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article Acoustics by William Weber.
7. ^ Franz Josef Pisko,
"Die neueren apparate der akustik: Für freunde der naturwissenschaft und der
...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false
9. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake, "The American journal of otology, Volume
1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
10. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French, A.
H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine, Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
11. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
12. ^ Schilling musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article Acoustics by William Weber.
13. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der akustik: Für freunde der naturwissenschaft
und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false
15. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake, "The American journal of otology, Volume
1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
16. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French, A.
H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine, Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
17. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
18. ^ Schilling musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article Acoustics by William Weber.
19. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der akustik: Für freunde der naturwissenschaft
und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
20. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false
21. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake, "The American journal of otology, Volume
1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
22. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French, A.
H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine, Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
23. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
24. ^ Schilling musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article Acoustics by William Weber.
25. ^ Friedrich A.
Kittler, "Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false
26. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1830}
27. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone, film,
typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=zSrte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20glass%20cylinder&f=false {1830}
28. ^ edited
by Clarence John Blake, "The American journal of otology, Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
29. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French, A.
H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine, Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)
(University of) Göttingen, Germany25   
169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD] 6 		2702) The electrical transformer3 : a device used to transfer electricity from
one circuit to another, in particular a pair of wire coils that can be used to
transfer electricity with a change in voltage, current, or phase4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ "transformer." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transformer
5. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism (02/17/1831 {more full account published:}
08/29/1831)
6. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
(02/17/1831 {more full account published:} 08/29/1831) {02/17/1831 (more full
account published:) 08/29/1831}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday
[2] http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_Faraday
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMaterials.html
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[7] http://www.rigb.org/heritage/faradaypage.jsp
[8] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.htm
[9] The Contribution of Fracesco Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics Faculty of the Padua University, Massimo
Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/1999/Tinazzi.pdf Zantadeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[10] La Electricidad, http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/HistII.pdf
Zantadeschi_HistII.pdf (apparently text identical to
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
[13] "Faradays law of
induction". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033718/Faradays-law-of-induction
[14] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf, p243.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2 /
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.1993.0031
[15] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. "calico".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/calico
[16] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109642/Charles-Darwin
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England5   
169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD] 10 		2705) The (dynamic) electric generator (or "dynamo"). By mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet, a constant electric current is produced.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental Researches in Electricity", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_Electricity_1.pdf}
2. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832), p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_Electricity_1.pdf}
4. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832), p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_Electricity_1.pdf}
6. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm
7. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832), p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_Electricity_1.pdf}
8. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm
9. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109756/Michael-Faraday
10. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm (09/??/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday
[2] http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_Faraday
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2 /
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.1993.0031
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/calico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109642/Charles-Darwin
[8] http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMaterials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England9   
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 13 		2514) The first plastic materials, made of nitrocellulose.8 9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm
2. ^ "major industrial polymers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-76471/major-industrial-polymers
3. ^ http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm
4. ^ "major industrial polymers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-76471/major-industrial-polymers
5. ^ http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm
6. ^ "major industrial polymers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-76471/major-industrial-polymers
7. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p130.
8. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm
9. ^ "major industrial polymers". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-76471/major-industrial-polymers
10. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p130.
11. ^ "nitrocellulose." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 18 Jan. 2013. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic//>.
12. ^ http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm
13. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braconnot.htm (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braconnot
[2] http://www.answers.com/saponification?cat=health
Nancy, France12   
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 3 		2717) The alternating electric current (or AC) generator.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hellemans and Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", 1988, p299.
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.html
3. ^ http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.html (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Pixii". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_Pixii
Paris, France2   
166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD] 		1247) A mechanical reaper; a machine that cuts grain.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/493183/reaper>.
2. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/493183/reaper>.
3. ^ "Robert Hall McCormick". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hall_McCormick

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus McCormick". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCormick
Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA3   
166 YBN
[06/19/1834 AD] 6 7 		2899) The speed of electricity in wire is measured using a rotating mirror.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
2. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of Electric Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834), pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_velocity.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of Electric Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834), pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_velocity.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of Electric Light", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834), pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_velocity.pdf}
7. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatstone?cat=entertainment
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheatstone.html
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5iw5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=faraday+velo
city+of+electricity&source=web&ots=5NZWUd1EhA&sig=NK0D0pm5FFvHZpV7lB3JamIKhoo&hl
=en#PPA311,M1
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=0qSDQldRTFMC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=velocity+of+
electricity&source=web&ots=HZUnerxDqB&sig=XJ1gYT3wGhkgfzjTLNa99vSFNrQ&hl=en#PPA1
32,M1
(King's College) London, England5   
165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD] 4 5 		2810) The electrical relay, a device that allows the electric current of
telegraph signals to be carried over long distances.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ "Joseph Henry". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=technology
4. ^, p1.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00659746/ap030013/03a00120/0 "Contributions to
Electricity and Magnetism. By Joseph Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the College of New Jersey, Princeton, Late of the Albany Academy. No. II. On
the Influence of a Spiral Conductor in Increasing the Intensity of Electricity
from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Single Pair, &c." Joseph Henry
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Ser., Vol. 5. (1837),
pp. 223-231. Henry_1835_relay.pdf (02/06/1835) (02/06/1835)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1835) (1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henry
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_Henry
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6] http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7] http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/joseph21.htm
[8]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[9] Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.pdf APPENDIX.; On
the application of the principle of the galvanic multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2, 1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[10] "armature". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/armature
Princeton, NJ, USA2 3   
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 4 		2813) A high voltage induction coil.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/callan.html
2. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/callan.html
3. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
4. ^ http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/callan.html (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Callan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
[3] http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/page.html
Maynooth2 , Ireland3   
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 7 		2540) The parallax of a different star is measured.3

61 Cygni {SiG-nI4 } is shown to be around 6 light years away.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ "parallax." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
4. ^ "cygni."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 15 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cygni>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
6. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-8233/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1838) (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "popup?va=parallax". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=parallax
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany6   
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 6 		2934) Cell theory:3 the principle that all living objects are made of cells.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
2. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory-1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
4. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory-1
5. ^ "Mathias Jacob Schleiden". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355. (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Matthias Jakob Schleiden". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden
[2] Trisha Creekmore. The Science Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries: Biology.
Discovery Communications.
http://science.discovery.com/convergence/100discoveries/big100/biology.html
[3] "University of Jena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Jena
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany5   
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 3 4 5 		3386) The direct-acting gas combustion engine.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C. Griffin and company, limited, 1896,
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine {1838}
4. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol. 19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scientific-american/484/00.htm#3
{1838}
5. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise on the
Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA102,M1 {1838}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/projects/cecil/history.html
?, England  
161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD] 17 		3308) Light is converted into electricity (the photoelectric or photovoltaic
effect).10 11 12 This is the first photovoltaic (or "solar") cell.13 14 15
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la radiation
chimique de la lumi�re solaire, au moyen des courants �lectriques." CR
Acad. Sci 9 (1839): 145-149. English: "Studies of the effect of actinitic
radiation of sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
2. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires." Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the electric effects produces under the influence
of sunlight" http://books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
3. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552875/solar-cell>.
4. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la radiation
chimique de la lumi�re solaire, au moyen des courants �lectriques." CR
Acad. Sci 9 (1839): 145-149. English: "Studies of the effect of actinitic
radiation of sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
5. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires." Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the electric effects produces under the influence
of sunlight" http://books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
6. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552875/solar-cell>.
7. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la radiation
chimique de la lumi�re solaire, au moyen des courants �lectriques." CR
Acad. Sci 9 (1839): 145-149. English: "Studies of the effect of actinitic
radiation of sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
8. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires." Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the electric effects produces under the influence
of sunlight" http://books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
9. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552875/solar-cell>.
10. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la radiation
chimique de la lumi�re solaire, au moyen des courants �lectriques." CR
Acad. Sci 9 (1839): 145-149. English: "Studies of the effect of actinitic
radiation of sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
11. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires." Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the electric effects produces under the influence
of sunlight" http://books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
12. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552875/solar-cell>.
13. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839): 145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
14. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires." Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the electric effects produces under the influence
of sunlight" http://books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
15. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552875/solar-cell>.
16. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
17. ^ Becquerel,
Alexandre-Edmond. "Recherches sur les effets de la radiation chimique de la
lumière solaire, au moyen des courants électriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149; 561. also Annalen der Physick und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of the chemical radiation of solar light by
means of the electric currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf} {07/29/1839}

MORE INFO
[1] "thermionic power converter." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106050>
[2] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becquerel
[3] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquerel
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-tdm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 19 June 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45872>
[6]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/BecquerelEdmond.html
[7] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isd9IEnR4bw {video of liquid oxygen
paramagnetism}
(University of Paris) Paris, France16   
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 5 		3158) Cell division is described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-remak
2. ^ (presumably this is the paper) Remak, "Teilung roter Blutzellen beim
Embryo." Medizinische Vereinszeitung (1841). English: Remak, Robert "Division
of red blood cells in the embryo"
3. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-remak
4. ^ Record ID2886. Universe, Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Robert Remak." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 May. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-remak (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p740
[2] "Remak, Robert." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9063146>
[3] http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3 4 (presumably)  
158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD] 4 		3171) The first use of an anesthetic for surgery (ether).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1507634/anesthesia>.
3. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048846>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p389. (03/30/1842)
Jefferson, Georgia3   
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 4 5 6 		2929) The Doppler effect: that frequency of light and sound is affected by the
relative motion of the source and observer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030954/Christian-Doppler
3. ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Doppler.html
4. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger
anderer Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RAAAAcAAJ
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p353. (1842) (1842)
6. ^ "Christian
Doppler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030954/Christian-Doppler (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Johann Doppler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Johann_Doppler
[2] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech Technical University)Prague, Czech Republic3
  
157 YBN
[1843 AD] 4 		6240) The first remote controlled wired explosive.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
2. ^ Colby, F.M., and T. Williams. The New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd,
Mead and company, 1918. The New International Encyclopaedia,
p352. http://books.google.com/books?id=WnANAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA352
3. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
4. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/126860/Samuel-Colt>. {1843}
Paterson, New Jersey, USA3 (presumably)  
155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD] 10 11 12 		2839) The spiral shape of other galaxies is recognized.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108449
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^ The Earl of Rosse.
"Observations on the Nebulae." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108449
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
5. ^ The Earl of Rosse.
"Observations on the Nebulae." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108449
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
7. ^ The Earl of Rosse.
"Observations on the Nebulae." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108449
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
9. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/Galaxies.html
10. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108449
11. ^ http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm (04/1845)
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845) (1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Parsons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_Parsons_Rosse
[3] http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.html
[4] http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.html
[5]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/universe/scientists/william_parsons_3rd_earl_
of_rosse#default
[6] Rosse, Earl of. "Observations on Some of the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London 134 (1844):
321-324. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108366
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland9   
154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD] 18 19 20 		3073) Planet Neptune is observed.11 12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Galle, J. G., "Account of
the discovery of Le Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846",
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
4. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly discovered planet." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200 (1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
5. ^ Bericht �ber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen der
K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=Hq0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
7. ^ Galle, J. G., "Account of
the discovery of Le Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846",
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
8. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
9. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly discovered planet." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200 (1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
10. ^ Bericht �ber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen der
K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=Hq0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
12. ^ Galle, J. G., "Account
of the discovery of Le Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846",
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
13. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
14. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly discovered planet." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200 (1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
15. ^ Bericht �ber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen der
K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=Hq0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
16. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean-joseph-leverrier
17. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9047487>.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374. (09/23/1846)
19. ^ "Le Verrier,
Urbain-Jean-Joseph." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 7 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9047487>. (09/23/1846)
20. ^
"Obituary Notices : Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.

MORE INFO
[1] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p538
[2] "celestial
mechanics." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-77432>
Berlin, Germany16 (and Paris, France17 )  
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 3 4 5 		2828) The liquid explosive nitroglycerine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
2. ^ Icilio Guareschi (1913).
"Ascanio Sobrero nel centenario della sua nascita". Isis 1 (3):
351-358. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753%281913%291%3A3%3C351%3AASNC
DS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U {Sobrero_Ascanio_224137.pdf}
3. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 15 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-82367>. (1846)
4. ^ "Ascanio
Sobrero." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 16 May. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sobrero
(1846)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp379. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ascanio Sobrero". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascanio_Sobrero
[2] Ascanio Sobrero, "Memorie scelte di Ascanio Sobrero pubblicate
dall'Associazione chimica industriale di Torino con discorso storico-critico
ed annotazioni di I. Guareschi", pp42-53.
http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/s/sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_ascanio_sobrer
o_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/pdf/memori_p.pdf "Sopra alcuni nuovi composti
fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle sostanze
organiche vegetali" in "Memorie della Reale accademia delle scienze di Torino",
series 2, volume 10,
02/21/1847 http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/s/sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_asca
nio_sobrero_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/pdf/memori_p.pdf {Sobrero_1847_memori_p.
pdf}
Torino, Italy2 (presumably)  
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 4 		3225) The percussion gun cartridge, a casing containing an explosive charge and
a bullet or shot1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cartridge." The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2002. Answers.com 01 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cartridge
2. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 2 June 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020562>.
3. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020562>.
4. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 2 June 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020562>. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cartridge (firearms)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_%28firearms%29
[2] "Bullet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet
Paris, France3   
152 YBN
[06/05/1848 AD] 4 5 		3477) The absolute temperature scale is created, with -273°C as absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Thomson, William. "On an
absolute thermometric scale founded on Carnot's theory of the motive power of
heat and calculated from Regnaut's observations.", Cambridge Philosophical
Society Proceedings for June 5, 1848. also in: THOMSON, W. MATHEMATICAL AND
PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NGGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
3. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin." Biographies. Answers Corporation,
2006. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-thomson-1st-baron-kelvin
4. ^ Thomson, William. "On an absolute thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and calculated from Regnaut's
observations.", Cambridge Philosophical Society Proceedings for June 5,
1848. also in: THOMSON, W. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NGGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-thomson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-thomson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p315
[8]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Kelvin_online/introduction.htm
[9] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P. Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[10] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin" (obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland3   
152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD] 4 5 		2880) A constant high voltage is applied to gas-filled evacuated tubes.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?id=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
2. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?id=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
3. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?id=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
4. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?id=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
5. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/books?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/antithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot, John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10439
[4] Grove, William Robert. "On the electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101. http://books.google.com/books?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[5] Grove, William Robert. "On the electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 142 (1852): 87-101;
89-90. http://books.google.com/books?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[6]
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1440-1622.2000.01745.x?cookie
Set=1
[7] Grove, William Robert. "On the electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;95. http://books.google.com/books?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[8] Grove, William Robert. "On the electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;97. http://books.google.com/books?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[9] "Sir William Robert Grove". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
[10] "William Robert Grove". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Robert_Grove
[11] "On the Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
London, England3 (presumably)  
151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD] 3 4 		3290) The speed of light is measured using a terrestrial method.1 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ William Tobin, "The Life
and Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge University Press, 2003, p122-124.
3. ^ William
Tobin, "The Life and Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p122-124. {07/23/1849}
4. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies. Answers Corporation,
2006. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-fizeau
(09/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-fizeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-fizeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_Hippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p254
[6] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>
Paris, France2   
150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD] 4 		3281) Light is shown to move more slowly in water than in air.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil
des travaux scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
2. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil
des travaux scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
3. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bernard_Leon_Foucault
4. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil
des travaux scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 (05/06/1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucault
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." Biographies. Answers Corporation,
2006. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucault
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernard_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut Feb 7
1849. Léon Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil
des travaux scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix (1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One - Recueil des travaux scientifiques de Léon
Foucault 1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/513/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two - Recueil des travaux
scientifiques de Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.htm>
[11] http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France3 (presumably)  
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 4 5 		3332) The speed of electricity in nerves is measured.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106281>.
2. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von. "Messungen über
den zeitlichen Verlauf der Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und die
Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library/data/lit1862? {Helmholtz_Herm
ann_1850_lit1862_Lo.pdf} "Of the methods of measuring very small intervals of
time and their application to physiological purposes", Phil. Mag., 6, 1853,
313-325. {Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
3. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p408-410.
4. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 June
2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106281>. {1850}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 23
Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von-helmholtz
[4] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[5] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[6] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "body heat." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 23 June 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9080373>
[8] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermann-helmholtz/
[9] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz", Clarendon
Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+intervals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
(University of Königsberg) Königsberg, Germany3   
149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD] 4 5 		3282) The rotation of the Earth around its own axis is proven experimentally
with a pendulum.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>.
3. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bernard_Leon_Foucault
4. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851, p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf} (02/03/1851)
5. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucault
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucault
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernard_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut Feb 7
1849. Léon Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil
des travaux scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix (1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One - Recueil des travaux scientifiques de Léon
Foucault 1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/513/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two - Recueil des travaux
scientifiques de Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.htm>
[9] http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>
[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulum
Paris, France3 (presumably)  
148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD] 4 		3489) The theory of "valence": that each type of atom has a fixed capacity for
combining with other atoms.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ E. Frankland, "On a New
Series of Organic Bodies Containing Metals", Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London (1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=38cdc316
b887400e8b6f958d2d4a2d27π=1 {Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf} and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p434. {05/10/1852}
4. ^ {05/10/1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-frankland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Frankland
[5] http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfrankland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton University, 2001. Answers.com 26
Aug. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edward_Frankland
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England3   
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 3 4 		3104) A practical passenger elevator.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 13 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032371>.
2. ^ "Otis, Elisha Graves." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057648>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp377. (1852)
4. ^ "elevator."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032371>. (1853)
Yonkers, NY, USA2   
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 3 4 		2945) The theory that an electrical mass will not be influenced by the
electrical force if moving with a velocity at least the speed of light.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der Stromintensitäts-messungen auf mechanisches
Maass.", Abhandlungen der Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der Wissenschaften
zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel, 1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By Wilhelm Eduard
Weber, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Weber,
Woldemar Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Königliche
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published by J. Springer,
1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei galvanischen Strömen durch den Querschnitt der
Kette fliesst", Annalen der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9, (1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch,
translated by Susan P. Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht, "On the Amount of
Electricity which Flows through the Cross-Section of the Circuit in Galvanic
Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text: Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.html
3. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber, "Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der Stromintensitäts-messungen auf mechanisches
Maass.", Abhandlungen der Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der Wissenschaften
zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel, 1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By Wilhelm Eduard
Weber, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Weber,
Woldemar Voigt, Eduard Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto Fischer,
Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Königliche
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published by J. Springer,
1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch, "Ueber die
Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei galvanischen Strömen durch den Querschnitt der
Kette fliesst", Annalen der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9, (1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch,
translated by Susan P. Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht, "On the Amount of
Electricity which Flows through the Cross-Section of the Circuit in Galvanic
Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text: Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.html {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
[2] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
[3] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
[5] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+Weber+?cat=technology (1849)
[6] Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (obituary), Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
v.27 (1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
(University of) Göttingen, Germany2   
143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD] 3 4 5 6 		3999) The earliest extant sound recording.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VDJXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%201855%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/27soun.html
3. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent - as far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder - the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf} {03/24/1857}
4. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The
New international encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VDJXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%201855%20phonautograph&f=false
5. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel, "The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false {1855}
6. ^ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false {1856}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usnews.com/articles/science/2009/06/01/earliest-known-sound-recording
s-revealed.html
[2] http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/scott.html
[3] "Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville
[4] "acoustics." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 2 Sept. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-64050>
[5] edited by Clarence John Blake, The American journal
of otology, Volume 1, 1879,p4.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph&f=false
[6]
http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachinein00mitcu
oft_djvu.txt
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph&f=false
[8]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
[9] Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville, "Principes de Phonautographie",
1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
Paris, France2   
142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD] 12 13 		3033) The theory of evolution is popularized; the theory that life descends
from a single common ancestor6 , and that through natural selection only the
best adapted survive to pass on their successful traits while the less adapted
die out7 .8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of species to form
varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of
selection." Journal of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London.
Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
2. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life on Earth-Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
4. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life on Earth-Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
6. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life on Earth-Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "natural
selection."Answers.com 23 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/natural-selection
8. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of species to form
varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of
selection." Journal of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London.
Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
9. ^ Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural
selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.
London: John Murray. {1st edition}
http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_OntheOriginofSpecie
s.html http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1859_Origin_F373.pdf
10. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109642>.
11. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred Wallace. "On
the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties
and species by natural means of selection." Journal of the proceedings of the
Linnean Society of London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
12. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of species to form
varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of
selection." Journal of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London.
Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
13. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109642>.
(07/01/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Robert_Darwin
(Linnean Society), London, England10 11   
141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD] 9 10 11 12 		3087) The spectral lines emitted when a substance is burned are used to
determine the atomic composition of the substance. That each element emits and
absorbs light at the same specific frequencies is recognized.4

The first element is identified from the light of the Sun; sodium. The finding
that a spectral emission line can only be reversed to an absorption line when
the absorber is colder than the emitter.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
2. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
3. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
4. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
5. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of the Sun", Macmillan and co., 1887,
p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54
7. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-bunsen
8. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
9. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien," Monatsberichte der
Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp. 662-665
(presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprinted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's} Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English translation in
George Gabriel Stokes, "On the Simultaneous Emission and Absorption of Rays of
the same definite Refrangibility; being a translation of a portion of a paper
by M. Leon Foucault, and of a paper by Professor Kirchhoff," Philosophical
Magazine, 1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/books?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf} {10/20/1859}
10. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff: Two Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/230562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {10/20/1859}
11. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/bunsen.html (1859)
12. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018091>. (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-bunsen
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bunsen
[3] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] (English translation of 1860 paper) Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
"Chemical Analysis by Observation of Spectra", Annalen der Physik und der
Chemie (Poggendorff), Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[8] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p.
vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary_PRS.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany7 8   
140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD] 4 5 6 7 		3088) The element cesium is identified, the first element to be discovered
spectroscopically1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cesium." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 8 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9022171>.
2. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861). "Chemische Analyse
durch Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as "Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22, 329-49, 498-510 (1861).
3. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-bunsen
4. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The establishment
of spectro-chemical analysis as a practical method of qualitative analysis,
1854-1861", Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf} {04/16/1860}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429. {05/10/1860}
6. ^ Klaus Hentschel, Mapping the Spectrum,
p483. http://books.google.com/books?id=WceRw3sr-rQC&pg=PA483&lpg=PA483&dq=bunse
n++ueber+ein+neues+dem+kalium&source=web&ots=MyI0GGw5c3&sig=uUJ6C2djUKdMeVVp3eWm
wEjwe1g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result {05/10/1860}
7. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9022171>. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08
May. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-bunsen
[3] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bunsen
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[6] G. Kirchhoff, R.
Bunsen, "Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[7] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045597>
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany3   
139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD] 12 13 		3997) The first microphone, speaker, and telephone. Sound is converted to
electricity and back to sound again.8 9

Sound can be sent farther as electric current in a wire than mechanically in
air and travels silently.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telephone.pdf}
2. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/books?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
3. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telephone.pdf}
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/books?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of the telephone: A
biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telephone.pdf}
6. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/books?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telephone.pdf}
9. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/books?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking
phonograph, and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
12. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false {10/26/1861}
13. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] Herbert Newton Casson, "The history of the telephone",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=4iU1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
History+of+the+Telephone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[2] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel, "The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=seQOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false
[3] W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone, Its History and Its Recent Improvements",
Nature, vol19, 11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?id=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false
[4] The Talking Machine
Industry http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachin
ein00mitcuoft_djvu.txt
(built in workshop behind Reis's house and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany11
  
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 3 		3645) The first color image is projected.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The Codachrome Process of Color Photography",
Bulletin of Photography: The Weekly Magazine for the Professional Photographer,
F.V. Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSMaoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
2. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
3. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586-588. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell." History of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Clerk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6] Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8] http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/index.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10] http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?id=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[13]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

[14] J.C. Maxwell, On the theory of three primary colours, Proc R Inst G B 3
(1861), pp. 370–374. From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, p445-450
[15] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p454-456
(King's College, exhibit at the Royal Institution) London, England2   
138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD] 3 4 5 		3219) The machine gun (or Gatling gun).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jordan_Gatling
3. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jordan_Gatling (11/04/1862)
4. ^
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.htm (11/04/1862)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396. (11/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jordan-gatling
[3] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFyJ8 {modern Gatling guns on
helicopters}
[4] "Machine-Gun". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Machine-Gun
Indianapolis, Indiana2 (presumably)  
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 5 6 		3375) The first direct-acting internal combustion gas engine car.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
2. ^ "Étienne Lenoir."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
3. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise on the
Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA102,M1
4. ^ http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/projects/cecil/history.html
5. ^ "Étienne Lenoir." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>. {1862}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p415-416. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-of-technology>
[2] "Étienne Lenoir". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lenoir
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engine
[4] http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/projects/cecil/engine.html
Paris3 , France4 (presumably)  
137 YBN
[02/19/1863 AD] 4 5 		3427) Spectral lines from elements are matched to spectral lines from other
stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Huggins." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
2. ^ William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "Note on the Lines in the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also {Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir William Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "Note on the Lines in the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also {Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf} {02/18/1863}
5. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[2] "William Huggins." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15
Jul. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[3] "William Huggins". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Huggins
[4] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Huggins, William", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p441
[6]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[7] William Huggins, edited by Sir William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
(Tulse Hill) London, England3   
136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD] 4 5 		3428) The spectra of nebulae and galaxies are seen. Unlike stars, nebulae are
shown to have no spectrum except for a few emission lines, and therefore to be
composed of gas by using spectral comparison.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller, M.D.,
LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864, p437-444 (and plate
10). http://books.google.com/books?id=YVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA437
AND http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/437.full.pdf+html {Hugg
ins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller, M.D.,
LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf} {09/08/1864}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 15
Jul. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Huggins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_William_Huggins
[6] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9] https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11] William
Huggins, William Allen Miller, "Note on the Lines in the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854-1905), Volume 12
- 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5de51469415a3π=54
(Tulse Hill) London, England3   
136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD] 3 		3657) The theory that light is an electromagnetic transverse wave.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1, p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
2. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Oct. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
3. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field", Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155, 1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_Clerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, vol1, p526-597. and with selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I {10/27/1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell." History of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Clerk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6] Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8] http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/index.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10] http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?id=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[13] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Oxford Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 09 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk-maxwell
[14] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The Codachrome Process of Color Photography",
Bulletin of Photography: The Weekly Magazine for the Professional Photographer,
F.V. Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSMaoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
[15] "photography, history of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457919/photography>
[16] "Louis Ducos du Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>
[17] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of Colours in relation to Colour-Blindness",
A Letter to Dr. G. Wilson., From the "Transactions of the Royal Scottish
Society of Arts", Vol IV, Part III. From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
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le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[18] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on colour as perceived by the eye, with remarks
on colour-blindness, Trans R Soc Edinburgh 21 (1857) (2), pp. 275–298.
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890,
p126-155. http://books.google.com/books?id=d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intit
le:Papers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[19] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A. Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and now: James
Clerk Maxwell and colour, Optics & Laser TechnologyVolume 38, Issues 4-6, ,
Colour and Design in the natural and man-made worlds, June-September 2006,
Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
[20] J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of compound colours and the relations of the
colours of the spectrum", Philos Trans R Soc London 150 (1860), pp. 57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_part
nerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1860.0005&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b70a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers of
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[21] H. Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie der zusammengesetzten Farben", Ann Phys
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rName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18521630904&_acct=C0
00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
Helmholtz, Translation (On the theory of compound colours), Philos Mag 4 (1852)
(4), pp.
519–534. http://books.google.com/books?id=gVQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:Magazine+date:1852-1852&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=Cu_vSO24CJqktAOL99Fy#
PPA519,M1
[22] "color." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The
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[23] "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[24] Robinson, J., Schmitt, E.A., Harosi, F.I., Reece, R.J., Dowling, J.E.
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localization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90, 6009–6012
[25] J. Challis, "On Theories
of Magnetism and other Forces, in reply to Remakrs by Professor Maxwell.",
Philosophical Magazine, vol 21, 1861,
p250-254. http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0kf07AScqJgldbXXuiSHICi&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA250,M1
[26] "dielectric." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 16
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[27] "elasticity." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House,
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[28] Andre Assis, "Weber's electrodynamics", Kluwer Academic
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[29] J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines of Force",
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http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
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_brr=1#PPA281,M1 and Vol. 22 (Part 3 and 4 ) Vol
23 http://books.google.com/books?id=XZQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=%22On+Physical+Line
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Q31SPv2BZjMMPzvnd4I#PPA85,M1 Also in: James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
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[30] "James Clerk Maxwell." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
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[31] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A History of the Theories of Aether and
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[32] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A History of the Theories of Aether and
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from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century", Longmans,
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p284-285. http://books.google.com/books?id=CGJDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA2
74,M1
[33] Electrodynamische Maassbestimmungen. Leipzic Trans. vol. i. 1849, and
Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. v. art. xiv
[34] "Explicare tentatur quomodo fiat
ut lucis planum polarizationis per vires electricas vel magneticas declinatur"
— Halis Saxonum, 1858
[35] "On the Possible Density of the Luminiferous Medium,
and on the Mechanical Value of a Cubic Mile of Sunlight", Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh (1854), p.57
[36] Experimental Researches, Series 19
[37]
Comptes Rendus (1856, second half year, p. 529, and 1857, first half year,
p.1209)
[38] Faraday, Exp. Res. Series XI.; Mossotti, Mem. della Soc. Italiana
(Modena), vol. XXIV. part II. p. 49
[39] As, for instance, the composition of
glue, treacle, etc., of which small plastic figures are made, which after being
distorted gradually recover their shape
[40] James Clerk Maxwell, "A treatise on
electricity and magnetism.", 2 vol., 1st ed, Oxford, 1881, p27. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
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[41] "Maxwell's equations". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
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[42] (original footnote:) Leipzig Transactions, Vol. v. (1857), p. 260, or
Poggendorff's Annalen, Aug. 1856, p. 10
[43] (original footnote:) Comptes Rendus,
Vol. XXIX. (1849), p. 90
[44] (original footnote:) Ibid. Vol. LV. (1862), pp. 501,
792
[45] (original footnote:) Philosophical Magazine, 1852
[46] (original footnote:)
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854 ("Mechanical Energies of
the Solar System")
[47] (original footnote:) The horizontal magnetic force at Kew is
about 1.76 in metrical units
[48] Maxwell, article "Ether" for the Encyclopedia
Britannica (9th ed., Vol. 8, 1878); Scientific Papers, Vol. 2, p. 772
[49] "light."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 04 Nov. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/340440/light>
[50] Cyril Domb, "Book Review: The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", Journal of Statistical Physics, Vol. 67, Nos. 3/4, 1992,
p.837. http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2735011t646864x/fulltext.pdf
[51] James C. Maxwell, "On a method of making a direct comparison of
electrostatic with electromagnetic force; with a note on the electromagnetic
theory of light.", Phil. Trans 158, 1868, pp643-658; Royal Soc. Proc. 16, 1868,
pp449-450; Phil. Mag 36, 1868, pp. 316-317; Brit. Assoc. Rep. 39, 1869,
pp436-438. Scientific Papers Vol. 2. pp 125-143
[52] James Clerk Maxwell, "A treatise
on electricity and magnetism.", 2 vol., 1st ed, Oxford, 1881. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=92QSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd edition, 1881: vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=FjwXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=e_UEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1
[53] P. M. Heimann, "Maxwell, Hertz, and the Nature of Electricity", Isis, v62,
1971, p149-157
[54] Duhem, Les theories electriques, p. 223
[55] "The Mechanical Universe"
(Video), Episode 39 "Maxwell's Equations", California Institute of Technology
and Intelecom, 1985,
10:00. http://www.learner.org/resources/series42.html also: http://video.goog
le.com/videoplay?docid=1691222471449734099&ei=TZw4SYTMAoTyqAPn8fDKCA&q=james+cle
rk+maxwell&hl=en
[56] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p279-281
[57] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, Second Edition, 1935, p271
[58] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics",
Williams and Wilkens, First Edition, 1928, p147-148
[59] Herbert Dingle, "Science At The
Crossroads", 1972, p130-133
[60] Augusto Righi, tr: Augustus Trowbridge, "Modern Theory
of Physical Phenomena", 1909, p12
(King's College) London, England2   
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 4 5 		3403) The law of genetic inheritance (the 1:2:1 ratio of inheritance of a
trait).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gregor Mendel." History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mendel
2. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
3. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Who2? Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mendel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p418-419. {1865}
5. ^ "Gregor
Mendel." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
{1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gregor Mendel." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mendel
(Natural Science Society) Brünn2 , Austria3 (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic)  
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 3 4 5 6 		3695) Dynamite.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-nobel/
3. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2008 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056007>.
{1867}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463. {1866}
5. ^ "Nobel, Alfred
Bernhard", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p650. {patent)1867}
6. ^ Henry De Mosenthal, "The Life-Work of
Alfred Nobel", Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June
1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobel
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobel
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobel
[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bernhard_Nobel
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_Bernhard_Nobel
[6] http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/industrial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
[7] Nobel's US patent with description of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France2 (guess)  
132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD] 3 		3435) The Doppler effect is used to estimate the relative radial (or line of
sight) velocity of celestial objects by comparing the position of spectral
lines from the celestial object to those of a terrestrial light source.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Huggins, William. "Further Observations on the Spectra of Some of the
Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt to Determine Therefrom Whether These Bodies
are Moving towards or from the Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra of the
Sun and of Comet II., 1868." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 158 (1868): 529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108925
2. ^ "Sir William Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
3. ^ Huggins, William. "Further Observations on the Spectra of Some of the
Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt to Determine Therefrom Whether These Bodies
are Moving towards or from the Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra of the
Sun and of Comet II., 1868." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 158 (1868): 529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/108925

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 15
Jul. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-huggins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Huggins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_William_Huggins
[6] http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9] https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ExploringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11] William
Huggins, William Allen Miller, "Note on the Lines in the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854-1905), Volume 12
- 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller, M.D.,
LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70, No.
2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/230787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggins_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star in
Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867, p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum of Comet 1, 1866",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_comet2_1868.pdf}
[19] William Huggins,"Note on the Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of Comet
I., 1871", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (1854-1905), Volume 19,
1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_Uranus_1871.pdf}
(Tulse Hill) London, England2   
132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD] 3 		3648) The first permanent color photograph.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
2. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
3. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 10 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
{11/23/1868}
?, France2   
125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD] 6 		5575) The first direct neuron reading (the electricity in nerve cells is
measured).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
5. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
6. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} {08/28/1875}
Liverpool, England5   
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 3 4 		3819) The first practical refrigerator.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493.
2. ^ "Linde, Carl von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048354>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493. {1876}
4. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p351. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_Gottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refrigerating
[3] "Linde, Carl Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p545
[4] "Karl Paul Von Linde", Journal of the
Franklin Institute, Pergamon Press, 1914, v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMGJOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
(Technische Hochschule) Munich, Germany2   
123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD] 6 7 		4002) A sound recording is played back out loud.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VDJXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%201855%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison "improvements to phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade, "Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VDJXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%201855%20phonautograph&f=false
4. ^ Edison "improvements to phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Edison "improvements to phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
6. ^ Edison "improvements to phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ {12/24/1877}
7. ^ Francis
Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva Edison: sixty years of an inventor's life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false {12/24/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edison
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_Alva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison / General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+edison))
[7] http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edison:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8] http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a great
inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/microphone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life and
inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel, "The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=seQOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte), "Exposé des applications de l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22&f=false
[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician, Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/plumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rheostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. 02 Sep.
2009. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rheostat>
[23] http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30, 1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patents?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] "Edison, Thomas Alva." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 1 Sept. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106218>
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?id=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] The Iron age, Volume 94, Issues
14-27 http://books.google.com/books?id=Na0vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT22&dq=edison+phonograp
h+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[28] http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtime.html
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA5   
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 3 		3576) A practical electric light bulb.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
2. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Joseph_Wilson_Swan
3. ^ "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 . {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008
[2] "Joseph Swan." A Dictionary
of British History. Oxford University Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 15 Sep.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan
[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan
[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wilson_Swan
Newcastle, England2 (presumably)  
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 6 7 		3790) Synthetic fabric. The first synthetic silk (rayon).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487.
2. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487.
4. ^ "Chardonnet, Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), p183-184.
5. ^ "Hilaire Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1878}
7. ^ "Hilaire Bernigaud,
count de Chardonnet". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.

MORE INFO
[1] "rayon." How Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
[2] "Hilaire de Chardonnet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_de_Chardonnet
[3] http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blfabric.htm
[4]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/Chardonnet-Hilaire.html
Paris, France (presumably)5   
120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD] 4 		4038) Sound is sent and received using light particles.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118, October,
1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=en&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=false
2. ^ U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=235199
3. ^ http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.html
4. ^ http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/photophone.htm
{06/03/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-graham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 22
Sep. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-graham-bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell
[4] "Alexander Graham Bell". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexander_Graham_Bell
[5] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp76-77
[6] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the telephone: A biographical sketch, with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?vid=174465
[8] "Photophone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[9] "Charles Sumner Tainter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter
(top of Franklin School) Washington, D. C., USA3   
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 6 7 		4348) Piezoelectricity {PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-1 2 3 } is
discovered: when pressure is applied to certain crystals, an electric potential
is created, and the opposite effect, when an electric potential is applied,
these crystals vibrate at a regular rate.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Piezoelectricity." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan.
2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Piezoelectricity>.
2. ^ "piezoelectricity." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com
21 Jan. 2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/piezoelectricity
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piezoelectricity&submit=Submit
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curie-scientist
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1880}
7. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Développement, par pression, de l’électricité
polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g988721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curie
[2] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062057>
[3] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences, 383
[4] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois
du dégagement de l’électricité par pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881), 186
[5]
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur les phénomènes électriques de la tourmaline
et des cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de l’Académie des sciences, 350
[6] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Les cristaux héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme sources constantes
d’électricitè", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie
des sciences, 93 (1881), 204
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Contractions et
dilatations produites par des tensions électriques dan les cristaux
hémièdres à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137
[8] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882), 914
(Sorbonne) Paris, France5   
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 7 		5839) An artificial muscle.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ W. C.
Röntgen, "Ueber die durch Electricität bewirkten Form- und Volumenänderungen
von dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages
771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf} English: "About the changes in shape and
volume of dielectrics caused by electricity"
5. ^
http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p02-elact-pol.htm
6. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf} English: "About the changes in shape and
volume of dielectrics caused by electricity"
7. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf} English: "About the changes in shape and
volume of dielectrics caused by electricity" {09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Konrad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_rays
[6] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch Bewegung eines im homogenen electrischen
Felde befindlichen Dielectricums hervorgerufene electrodynamische Kraft", Ann.
Phys. Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche über
die electrodynamische Wirkung bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt wurden", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[8] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083885>
[9] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm Conrad",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p751-752
(University of Giessen) Giessen, Germany6   
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		6577) Slavery is ended.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
2. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
  
119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD] 4 5 		3608) The electronic camera and electronic image. An image is captured and sent
electronically.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shelford Bidwell, "Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23, Number 589, 10
February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
2. ^ Shelford Bidwell, "Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23, Number 589, 10
February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?target=SeeMedium&ObjectID={362EAEAA-D808-2BE4-8
8E7-CAB0D5B92C95}&s=S1&SearchString=bidwell&source=Search&viewby=images&
4. ^ Shelford Bidwell, "Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23, Number 589, 10
February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf} {01/05/1881}
5. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhistory.htm {1881}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wNURAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA546&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+photo
telegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOuuTeDg#PPA546,M1
[2] Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOuuTeDg#PPA12,M1
[3] "Electricity". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electricity
[4] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegraph
[5] "Shelford Bidwell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelford_Bidwell
[6] Shelford Bidwell, "Telegraphic Photography and Electric Vision", Nature,
Volume 78 Number 2014 pp97-120, (04 June 1908),
p105. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/index.html http://www.nat
ure.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/pdf/078105a0.pdf
London, England3 (presumably)  
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 8 9 10 		4157) Light is found to have the same speed in any direction horizontal to the
Earth; this causes doubt about the existence of an aether medium and about the
wave theory for light.1 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ "Michelson, A.A.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052478>.
3. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
5. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The
relative motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous ether", The American Journal
of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
6. ^ "Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052478>.
7. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons,
2008. 371-374. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California -
Irvine. 6 Nov. 2009 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
8. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The relative motion of the Earth
and the Luminiferous ether", The American Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p540-542. {1881}
10. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052478>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abraham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abraham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abraham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference phenomena in a new form of refractometer",
Philosophical magazine. 1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+interference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HPcQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=false
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p478
[7] Albert Michelson,
"Interference Phenomena in a new Form of Refractometer", Philosophical
Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+interference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882-1882%20interference&f=false
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany6 7   
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 14 15 		3620) The first invisible frequency light particle communication. The first
radio communication. The sending and receiving of a message using light
particles by electrical induction.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
2. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5, 1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number 571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
5. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5, 1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
6. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number 571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
8. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5, 1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
9. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number 571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
10. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
11. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5, 1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
12. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number 571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
13. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5, 1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
14. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric Communication",
Patent number: 350299, Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
15. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1 {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Dolbear, A.E. �On the Development of a New Telephonic System.�
Telegraph Engineers and of Electricians, Journal of the Society of 11.41
(1882): 130�144. books.google.com/books?id=nBE4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA130
(employed at Tuft's College) Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA13   
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 3 		6604) The first steel-framed building.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN - USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series, p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN - USA, 2006. Building
Amazing Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN - USA, 2006. Building Amazing Structures
Series, p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
Chicago, Illinois, USA2   
114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD] 8 9 10 		4096) Positively charged ion beams are discovered ("Kanalstrahlen" or "channel
rays").1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ E. Goldstein, "On the Canal Ray Group", Phil Mag,S6, V15, N87,March 1908,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=f_dbTfAUVZEC&pg=PA372&dq=intitle:Philoso
phical+Goldstein&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophical%20Goldstein&f=
false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525.
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays
of Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Califano, S. Pathways to Modern Chemical Physics. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2012. SpringerLink?: B�cher,
p112. http://books.google.com/books?id=s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA112
6. ^ Dick, W.R., and K. Fritze. 300 Jahre Astronomie in Berlin Und Potsdam:
Eine Sammlung Von Aufs�tzen Aus Anlass Des Gr�ndungsjubil�ums Der
Berliner Sternwarte. Deutsch Harri GmbH, 2000. Acta Historica Astronomiae,
p186. http://books.google.com/books?id=F-PyBbBVLzkC&pg=PA247
7. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {07/27/1886}
9. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {1886}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037282>
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-goldstein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284
[5] Sir Joseph John Thomson, Rays of positive electricity and their
application to chemical analyses,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=tcxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+no
ch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Thomason, "Rays of Positive Electricity", Nature, Vol 79, Num 2037,
11/12/1908,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=OtYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=intitle:Nature+Ka
nalstrahlen#v=onepage&q=intitle%3ANature%20Kanalstrahlen&f=false
(Potsdam Observatory) Berlin, Germany5 6 7   
113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD] 4 5 		3713) The gasoline internal combustion engine car.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engine
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p359.
3. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-daimler
4. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engine {03/04/1887}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2008 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-daimler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Vehicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled Vehicles:
A Practical Treatise on the Theory, Construction, Operation, Care and
Management of All Forms of Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[5] Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine", Scientific American Supplement (Vol. 19,
#484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scientific-american/484/00.htm#3
[6] William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise on
the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA102,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany3   
113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD] 4 		4285) The phenomenon of electrical resonance is discovered (this allows
specific frequencies of light to be singled out which improves radio
communication1 ).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=WhY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations", Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=WhY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations", Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=WhY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations", Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false {03/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com 07 Apr.
2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[4] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[5] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones, Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=WujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[6] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz
[7] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones, "Electric waves: being researches on the
propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect of Light on the Electric Discharge", The
Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+discharge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[9] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet Light on the Electric Discharge", Journal
of the Chemical Society: Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany3   
113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD] 8 9 10 		4245) The alternating current electric motor.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071814>.
3. ^ Tesla patent 391,968 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
4. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patents?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
5. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071814>.
7. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patents?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
9. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071814>. {1883}
10. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons,
2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesla
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesla
[3] list of Tesla's patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/317ntcp.htm
[4] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-1861?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[7] Tesla patent 11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City, NY, USA4 5 |(earlier claim of)Strasbourg,
France6 7   
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 6 		4369) The electricity of a heart beat is measured and recorded.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A Demonstration on Man of Electromotive Changes
accompanying the Heart's Beat", J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
2. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale. The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
3. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A Demonstration on Man of Electromotive Changes
accompanying the Heart's Beat", J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
4. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale. The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
5. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
6. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A Demonstration on Man of Electromotive Changes
accompanying the Heart's Beat", J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. D. Waller Obituary", Nature, Vol 109, N2735, April 1, 1922, p
418. http://books.google.com/books?id=xvARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=obitua
ry+einthoven+intitle:nature&source=bl&ots=ku9EmPPB1V&sig=WZRcbRFA9qoQo4ip0qYobAQ
rYLk&hl=en&ei=1Wz9S6riB4XENr_F3d4H&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=obituary%20einthoven%20intitle%3Anature&f=false
[2] "Augustus Desiré Waller". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Desir%C3%A9_Waller
[3]
http://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0043-314420050003
00012&lng=en&nrm=
(St. Mary's Hospital) London, England5   
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 3 		4288) Light interference between two radio sources is demonstrated. Electrical
induction is confirmed to have the speed of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamischen
Wirkungen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&pg=59
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung
auf eine benachbarte Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb 1888,
p155-170. books.google.com/books?id=_D0bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTART
{Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamischen
Wirkungen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false {02/02/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com 07 Apr.
2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-rudolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/228514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/227753?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/228108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones, Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=WujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones, "Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/books?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany2   
111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD] 3 		211) Electricity is used to restart a heart beating.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical stimulation of the heart in man". Br Med
J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
2. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical stimulation of the heart in man". Br Med
J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
3. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical stimulation of the heart in man". Br Med
J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen, Scotland2   
111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD] 3 		6255) An automatic telephone exchange allows people to connect their own phone
calls.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped World History", 1993, p60.
2. ^
U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange" March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange" March
10, 1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCAAAAEBAJ {03/12/1889}
Kansas City, Missouri, USA2   
111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD] 3 		4117) The theory that matter contracts depending on its velocity relative to
the speed of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
2. ^ George FitzGerald, "The
Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=false
3. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=false {05/02/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "FitzGerald, George Francis." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034429>
[2] "George FitzGerald." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-fitzgerald
[3] "George Francis Fitzgerald". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Francis_Fitzgerald
[4] translated in: H. A. lorentz, A. Einstein, H. Minkowski, and H. Weyl, "The
Principle of Relativity", 1923 "Michelson's Interference Experiment,",
pp3-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=yECokhzsJYIC&dq=The+Principle+of+Relati
vity&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=tQNZxQlfjG&sig=BAnbHCYtDPVgWl4c2gYRscPMrt
I&hl=en&ei=fQbZSrHrAoLusgOA-MyiDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB
MQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Dublin, Ireland2   
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 18 19 20 21 		4021) The motion picture camera and projector. Moving images are captured,
stored on plastic film, and projected onto a screen.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
2. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=false
3. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in the public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
4. ^ Josef Eder, "History
of Photography", 1945, p515.
5. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in Colors",
Technical World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
6. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=false
7. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in the public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
8. ^ Josef Eder, "History
of Photography", 1945, p515.
9. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in Colors",
Technical World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
10. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=false
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in the public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
12. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
13. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false
14. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=false
15. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in the public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
16. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
17. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948. {ULSF:
copyright on work was now renewed and so the book is now in the public domain
in the USA. Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of being labeled a
"rat"?}
18. ^ "William Friese-Greene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Friese-Greene {06/21/1889}
19. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an Inventor", Marsland
Publications, 1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now renewed and so the book
is now in the public domain in the USA. Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there
was fear of being labeled a "rat"?} {06/21/1889}
20. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasimeter&f=false {1882}
21. ^ Cecil Bembridge,
"Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=false {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/508948/index.html (note:
seems somewhat biased against Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of Motion Prior
to the Advent of the Screen", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture
Engineers, Volumes 20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/journalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0
[3] http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm
(Piccadilly) London, England17   
111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD] 6 7 8 		3818) A planet of a different star is detected.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der Vorsitzende berichtete über die Resultate
spectrographischer Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch die", Sitzungsberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof. H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy of Sciences)
2. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications, 1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
3. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der Vorsitzende berichtete über die Resultate
spectrographischer Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch die", Sitzungsberichte
der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof. H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy of Sciences)
4. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications, 1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
5. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Jan. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075639>.
6. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der Vorsitzende
berichtete über die Resultate spectrographischer Beobachtungen des Sterns
Algol durch die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+date:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English translation: "The Chairman reported on the results of
spectrographic observations of the star Algol by prof. H. C. Vogel and Dr.
Scheiner" (Transactions of the Prussian Academy of Sciences) {11/28/1889}
7. ^ Hector
Macpherson, "A century's progress in astronomy", Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I#PPA175,M1 {1889}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p370. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-karl-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Carl_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p910
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Gekronte Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. in Kopenhagen,
Leipzig, 1874. Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C. "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel, "Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/books?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel" (obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6JcsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcKPzZQI
[8] http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/vogel/
[9] "Antonia Maury." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonia-maury
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam) Potsdam, Germany5   
106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD] 4 		4258) The speed of cathode rays is shown to be less than the speed of light.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
2. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
4. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false {10/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson
[2] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University
Press, 2008. Answers.com 03 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons,
2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England3   
105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD] 4 		3842) The element Argon and the series of inert gases is identified.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
3. ^ "Strutt, John William, Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p844.
4. ^ Lord
Rayleigh, William Ramsay, "Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf} {01/31/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayleigh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayleigh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rayleigh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jan. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron Rayleigh".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays, and the Light of the Sky.", Philosophical
Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871, p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.", Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering
[10] By John William Strutt, Baron Rayleigh, "Scientific papers (1869-1919)",
University Press, 1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2MSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWMSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-sPAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJDKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=ThtWAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[11] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA311,M1
[12] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14
Jan. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayleigh
[13] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative Densities of Hydrogen and
Oxygen", Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&ei=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad. Proc.,'
vol 23, 1887
[15] (original footnote:) Address to Section A, British Association
'Report,' 1882
[16] (original footnote:) "On the Composition of Water by Volume," by
A. Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887 (vol. 42, p. 396)
[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On
an Anomaly encountered in Determination of the Density of Nitrogen Gas.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_brr=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
[18] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities of the Principle Gases.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England3   
105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD] 5 6 7 		4141) The element (and inert gas) helium is found on Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062617>.
2. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing the
Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the Coronal
Spectrum. Preliminary Note.", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol.
58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Cause+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062617>.
4. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing the
Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the Coronal
Spectrum. Preliminary Note.", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol.
58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Cause+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Cause+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false {03/26/1895}
6. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062617>. {1895}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ramsay
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 04
Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ramsay
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ramsay
[4] "Ramsay, William." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>
[5] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ramsay
[6] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
(University College) London, England3 4   
105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD] 10 11 		3936) X-rays are discovered.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays", Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23,
1896, p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,
"Über eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays", Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23,
1896, p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
5. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,
"Über eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays", Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23,
1896, p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
7. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,
"Über eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays", Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan. 23,
1896, p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx42ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roentgen.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
9. ^ "Röntgen, Wilhelm
Conrad." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083885>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504. {11/05/1895}
11. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
{11/05/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-conrad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Konrad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm Conrad", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen,
"Ueber die durch Bewegung eines im homogenen electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys. Chem. 35,
264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche über
die electrodynamische Wirkung bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt wurden", Annalen
der Physik und Chemie, Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century",
Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1tPDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10] http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200708/history.cfm
[11] R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature, n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
[12] Rene Blondlot, tr:Julien Francois William Garcin, "'N' rays", Longmans,
Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4TckASbmYHLAw
[13] www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg, Germany9   
104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD] 3 		4151) Radioactivity is discovered: invisible rays are detected from a uranium
salt.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?id=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodies.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphorescent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html
2. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {02/24/1896}
{03/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Henri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France2   
103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD] 7 8 		4260) Cathode rays are shown to be made of particles (the electron).1 This is
the first particle (besides light2 ) known to be smaller than an atom.3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
4. ^ Thomson J J "Cathode
Rays", Royal Institution Friday Evening Discourse, 30 April 1897, published
in: Prof. J. J. Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The Electrician Volume 39, 21 May
1897, p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
5. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32 226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9120/32/4/015)
{Falconer_1997.pdf}
6. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293
7. ^ Thomson J J "Cathode Rays", Royal Institution Friday Evening Discourse, 30
April 1897, published in: Prof. J. J. Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The Electrician
Volume 39, 21 May 1897, p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
8. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32 226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9120/32/4/015)
{Falconer_1997.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson
[2] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University
Press, 2008. Answers.com 03 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38, 1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays." Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9] J.J.
Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.) On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 9,
1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On the discharge of electricity produced by the
Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc. 59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=mYyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England5 6   
103 YBN
[08/07/1897 AD] 3 		6658) The velocity of cathode ray particles is found to increase with electric
potential and with tube exhaustion.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269, p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
2. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269, p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
3. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269, p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/122313#page/321/mode/1up

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson
[2] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University
Press, 2008. Answers.com 03 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38, 1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays." Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9] J.J.
Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.) On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 9,
1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On the discharge of electricity produced by the
Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc. 59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=mYyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[15] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072205>
[16] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions produced by incandescent
platinum.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[17] Thomson, J. J., Phil Mag,
S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[18] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/books?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20thomson&f=false
[19] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[20] George William Clarkson Kaye, "X rays", 1918,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=UFhDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=lenard+showed+tha
t+for+fast-moving+1895&hl=en&ei=uzi2S_fjBYOyswPx7MSBAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=lenard%20showed%20that%20for%20fast-mo
ving%201895&f=false
[21] Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England2   
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 8 9 10 		4088) The first electronic display (the oscilloscope).4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016270>.
3. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium
des zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
vol. lx., 1897, p. 552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A Method
of Demonstrating and Studying the Time-relations of Variable Currents.",
Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
5. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016270>.
6. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium
des zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
vol. lx., 1897, p. 552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A Method
of Demonstrating and Studying the Time-relations of Variable Currents.",
Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
7. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium
des zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying the Time-relations of Variable Currents.",
Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Time-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
8. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium
des zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
vol. lx., 1897, p. 552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A Method
of Demonstrating and Studying the Time-relations of Variable Currents.",
Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
9. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016270>.
{1897}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdinand-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761583126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdinand-braun
(Physikal Institute) Strassburg, France7   
102 YBN
[01/21/1898 AD] 4 5 6 		4436) Kanalstrahlen rays are shown to be made of positively charged particles
with a mass to charge ratio similar to a hydrogen ion, These are later called
protons.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography". Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
2. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die electrostatische und magnetische Ablenkung der
Canalstrahlen.... Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
3. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik, Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

4. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die electrostatische und magnetische Ablenkung der
Canalstrahlen.... Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
5. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography". Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
6. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik, Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART
 {11/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294 (June 1896), 662–669, also in English
trans: "On the Division of Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a Black Body",
Philosophical Magazine, 5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über
die elektrische Entladung in verdünnten Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume
310, Issue 6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

[5] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313, Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

[6] W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der positiven Elektronen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 314, Issue 11, Date: 1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg, Germany3   
102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD] 6 7 8 9 		3824) Hydrogen is liquefied.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993,
1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
4. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and Helium", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_James_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
5. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030182>.
6. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on the
Liquefaction of Hydrogen and Helium", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_James_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
{05/10/1898}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1898}
8. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030182>. {1898}
9. ^ "James Dewar." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar
[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_James_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James Dewar, "Collected Papers on Spectroscopy",
University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary of James Dewar". Journal of the Chemical
Society: 1056 – 1076. doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/article.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[6] http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7] http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[10] James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott Dickson,
"Collected Papers of Sir James Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+James+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQS2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England5 (presumably)  
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 8 		4698) Magnetic writing and reading of data. Sound is recorded and played back
magnetically.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
2. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061097>.
3. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
4. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061097>.
5. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
6. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061097>.
7. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061097>.
8. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061097>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Valdemar Poulsen." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/valdemar-poulsen-danish-engineer
[2] "Valdemar Poulsen." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit: Gale, 2000. 612. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX3408503938&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Valdemar Poulsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen
[4] Compilation of Oberlin Smith biographical and technical information of his
inventions
(Copenhagen Telephone Company) Copenhagen, Denmark7   
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 		4177) The theory that mass and time change for a body depending on its motion
relative to the speed of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light", Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of
Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/search/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_phenomena
2. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lorentz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 25
Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lorentz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lorentz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern", (Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald' Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp. 199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/227959.pdf
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's Interference Experiment",
translated from: "Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern", (Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at: http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorentz/
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048963>
[10] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox. "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons,
2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California -
Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>
[11] Albert Michelson, "Studies in Optics", Chicago
Universityt Press, 1927, p156
[12] Frederick Seitz, "James Clerk maxwell
(1831-1879)", Proceedings, American Philosophical Society, vol 145, num 1,
2001,
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=tkQJFNlSbzAC&pg=PA34&dq=lorentz+transform
ations+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[13] Florian Cajori, "A history of mathematics", Edition: 2, 919.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bBoPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&dq=lorentz+transformati
ons+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands2   
100 YBN
[01/29/1900 AD] 4 5 6 		4155) Beta rays of radioactivity are identified as electrons by showing that
their charge to mass ratio is the same as the electron.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Becquerel, Henri." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Nov. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014051>
2. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium", Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/books?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/books?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
5. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {03/26/1900}
6. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {1899-1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Henri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence".
Comptes Rendus 122: 420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this appears to be not as accurate as the one
above)
[6] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?id=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodies.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphorescent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122 (1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquerel&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%20becquerel&f=false
[8] "Sur diverses propriété des rayons uraniques", 123 (1896), 855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different Properties of Uranium Rays", Proceedings of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becquerel&f=false
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen; des
corps radio-actifs", Comptes Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%20on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[10] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER." By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France3   
100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD] 3 4 		4327) "Quantum theory", the theory that all energy exists in discrete units.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993,
1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
2. ^ "Planck, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 13 May 2010 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108525>.
3. ^ M. Planck, "Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der
Energieverteilung in Normalspektrum," Verhandlungen der Deutsches
Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2 (1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and "Uber das Gesetz
der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum", Annalen Der Physik, 4 (1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6AqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English translation: Max Planck, Alexander Ogg,
"On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum",
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p571-573. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Planck." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 13
May. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
[2] "Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Ernst_Ludwig_Planck
[3] "quantum mechanics." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-77502>
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany2   
99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD] 3 		6342) X-rays are shown to kill Guinea pigs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills", Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
2. ^ Ronald L. Kathren, "William H. Rollins (1852-1929) X-ray Protection
Pioneer", J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1964
Jul;19:287-94. http://jhmas.oxfordjournals.org/content/XIX/3/287.full.pdf
{Ronald_William_Rollins_196407xx.pdf}
3. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills", Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
Boston, Massachusetts, USA2   
99 YBN
[10/10/1901 AD] 4 5 		4148) The first synthesized protein.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Gale. University of California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GVRL&u=univca20>. {1901}
5. ^ "Emil Fischer -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 11 May 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html


MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emil-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Hermann_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren, Polypeptide und Proteine,
1899–1906 (Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Proteine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Yk&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe, 1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPyTLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 4 Nov. 2009 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034371>
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emil-fischer
[7] Fischer, E. "Die Hydrolyse der Proteinstoffe." Zeitschrift für
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und-Forschung A 5.24 (1902):
1207-1208. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02506767?LI=true
[8] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau. "Ueber einige Derivate des Glykocolls."
Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3   
98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD] 4 		4734) Radioactivity is recognized as atomic decay in which one atom decays into
another kind.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The
Cause and Nature of Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81,
1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 10 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The
Cause and Nature of Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81,
1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
4. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The
Cause and Nature of Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81,
1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false {c03/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-rutherford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive transformations", C. Scribner's Sons, 1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected papers., New York, Interscience Publishers,
1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves, and
Some of its applications", Philosophical Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American Philosophical Society, delivered April 18,
1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270, Nov
1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+gases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford publications: http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produced+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduction%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compound", Phil
Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity Produced in
Substances by the Action of Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnwX4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20the%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[15] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-soddy
[16] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 24
Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-soddy
[17] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Soddy
[18] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[19] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[20] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxojtCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[21] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957 3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.jstor.org/stable/769361
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3   
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 6 7 		4493) The airplane. The first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane
flight.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026>.
2. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026>.
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026>.
4. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026>.
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 6 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 6 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/17/1903}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
{12/17/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010. http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers
[3] Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] "airfoil." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
[5] Wright, Wilbur and Orville. Video. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-127561>
[6] aviation: flight of the first military airplane, 1909. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-15290>
Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA5   
97 YBN
[12/05/1903 AD] 7 8 9 10 11 		4462) The Saturnian {Sa-TR-nE-iN1 } model of the atom (negatively charged
electrons rotate around a large mass positively charged particle).2 3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Saturnian." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saturnian
2. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 28 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser., 2 (1904),
92–107; and H. Nagaoka, "Kinetics of a System of Particles illustrating the
Line and the Band Spectrum and the Phenomena of Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904), 445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA392
5. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 28 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA392
7. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA392 {12/1903}
8. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser., 2 (1904),
92–107; and H. Nagaoka, "Kinetics of a System of Particles illustrating the
Line and the Band Spectrum and the Phenomena of Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904), 445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA392 {later nature article:)
01/18/1904}
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p605-606. {1904}
11. ^ "atom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-48357>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hantaro Nagaoka." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hantaro-nagaoka
[2] "Hantaro Nagaoka". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka
[3] G. A. Schott, "A Dynamical System illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature, V69, N1793, March 10, 1904,
p43. http://books.google.com/books?id=33YCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA437&dq=Nagaoka&hl=en&ei
=OxEpTL-bFIHanAfIz_R1&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q=Nagaoka&f=false
(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan5 6   
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 4 		5099) Radar: Radio light is used to determine the location of distant objects.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488278/radar>.
2. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488278/radar>.
3. ^ US patent 810,150 dated Jan. 16,
1906. http://www.google.com/patents?id=2Ao_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/488278/radar>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p732-733
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735
[3] "Watson-Watt, Robert Alexander." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 977-978.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Watson-Watt." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-watson-watt
[5] Frank Adcock, Improvement in Means for Determining the Direction of a
Distant Source of Electro-magnetic Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7, 1919
[6]
Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F. Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct Reading
Goniometer,” J. IEE (London), vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless World vol.
18 p. 366, 1926
[7] http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
[8] "Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>
Düsselsorf, Germany3 (presumably)  
95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD] 4 		4929) The special theory of relativity.1

The theory that the speed of light is constant independently of the motion of
all other objects. The theory that motion changes mass and time is adopted, but
that an aether medium for light is unnecessary.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_19050630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
2. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_19050630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
3. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_19050630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
4. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_19050630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf} {06/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 4.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
[7] "List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] Panovsky, "Classical Electricity and Magnetism", 1953, p266
[13]
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p407
Bern, Switzerland3   
94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD] 3 		4743) Alpha particles of radioactivity are identified as helium.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October 1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+the%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWYB4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
2. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October 1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+the%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWYB4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October 1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+the%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWYB4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false {07/20/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-rutherford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive transformations", C. Scribner's Sons, 1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected papers., New York, Interscience Publishers,
1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves, and
Some of its applications", Philosophical Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American Philosophical Society, delivered April 18,
1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270, Nov
1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+gases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford publications: http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produced+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduction%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compound", Phil
Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity Produced in
Substances by the Action of Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnwX4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20the%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and Soddy,
"The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23, July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil.
Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the condensation points of thorium and radium
emanations", Proc Chem Soc 219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+emanations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thorium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil Mag
ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford, "Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada2   
94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD] 10 11 12 		4788) The electric switch and vacuum tube amplifier.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411.
2. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411.
4. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411.
6. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411.
8. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
9. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
10. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532, Filing date:
Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false {12/21/1906}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1906}
12. ^ "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-forest {1907 (patented}

MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest
[3] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/diathermy
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New York City, New York, USA9   
93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD] 6 		4269) The mass spectrometer, a device that can separate atoms with an electric
charge (ions) by their mass.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561
6. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of Positive Electricity", Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561 {05/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson
[2] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University
Press, 2008. Answers.com 03 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1, 1890
49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20thomson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38, 1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag., S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays." Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9] J.J.
Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.) On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 9,
1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On the discharge of electricity produced by the
Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc. 59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=mYyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/books?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+thomson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atoms%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays' Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16] Isobel
Falconer, "J J Thomson and the discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9120/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions produced by incandescent platinum.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the Ions in
Gases at Low Pressures", Phil Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+charge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosophical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the number of corpuscles in an atom.", Phil.
Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture: Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a
Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England5   
93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD] 6 		354) The helicopter.4 A helicopter achieves free flight while carrying a
passenger.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259992/helicopter>.
2. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259992/helicopter>.
3. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259992/helicopter>.
4. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259992/helicopter>.
5. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259992/helicopter>.
6. ^ http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18.htm
{11/13/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Cornu." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/138077/Paul-Cornu>
  
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 5 6 		4438) The theory of space and time as a four dimensional structure called
"space-time".1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052860>.
2. ^ Minkowski, Hermann (1908/9). "Raum und Zeit". Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung: 75–88. English translation: Space and
Time. In: The Principle of Relativity (1920), Calcutta: University Press,
70-88 http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Raum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599.
4. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052860>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p599. {1907}
6. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052860>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Minkowski." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-minkowski
[2] "Hermann Minkowski." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-minkowski
[3] "Hermann Minkowski". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen, Germany4   
92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD] 6 		3616) The first images sent and received by radio.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
2. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE
ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
3. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE
ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
4. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE
ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
5. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE
ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
6. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE
ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1
page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf} {06/06/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead &
Co.,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result
London, England5   
91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD] 3 		4729) The mass and size of an electron is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie et
de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thought_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910), p50. http://www.archive.org/details/brownianmovement00perr
2. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et Realite Moleculaire",
Annales de chimie et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thought_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910). http://www.archive.org/details/brownianmovement00perr
3. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et Realite Moleculaire", Annales de
chimie et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thought_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910). http://www.archive.org/details/brownianmovement00perr

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptiste-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary Terry, "Introduction to general chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes Rendus,
V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=false
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%20Perrin&f=false
[7] "Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059322>
[8] Jean Perrin, translated by Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[9] Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN
[10] American Chemical Society. Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical abstracts,
Volume 3, Part 1, 1908, p862.
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abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
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[11] "mastic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mastic
[12] M. Chaudesaigues , "Le mouvement brownien et la formule d'Einstein",
Comptes Rendus, V147,
1908. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k31014.image.f1044.langEN
[13] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptiste-perrin
[14] Perrin, "Le Atoms",
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=p206AAAAMAAJ&dq=le%20atoms%20perrin&sour
ce=gbs_slider_thumb translated to English: "Atoms",
1916 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z_kJAAAAIAAJ&dq=le+atoms+perrin&source=gb
s_navlinks_s
(École Normale, University of Paris) Paris, France2   
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 5 		4899) A wireless telephone.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of Spacep119.
2. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of Spacep119.
3. ^ B.
Jacot, "Marconi-Master of Spacep119.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of Spacep119.
{1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-marconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy", proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy", Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901), 247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts. Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E. Dunlap,
Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78
[9]
British patent No. 12,039, Date of Application 2 June 1896; Complete
Specification Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by
Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193 "Transmitting electrical signals", (using Ruhmkorff
coil and Morse code key) filed December 1896, patented July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDAAAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyWPJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 19 Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England3 (verify4 )  
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 4 		4908) The theory of atomic isotopes: that an element can have a different
atomic mass, but the same position on the periodic table.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The
chemistry of mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticlePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticlePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
4. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticlePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[2] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-soddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 24
Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-soddy
[4] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Soddy
[5] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[7] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxojtCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957 3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.jstor.org/stable/769361
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[10] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99 (1921), 98
[11] D. Strömholm and T.
Svedberg, Zeitschrift für Anorganische chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12] Frederick
Soddy, The chemistry of the radio-elements, Part 1,
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ho86AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland3   
88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD] 3 		4939) The diffraction of x-rays by atomic planes in crystals is discovered. The
wavelength (or particle interval) of x-rays is determined to be smaller than
ultraviolet light, which suggests that x-rays are very high frequency light.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Friedrich, W., P. Knipping, and M. V. Laue. "Interferenz-Erscheinungen
bei Röntgenstrahlen", Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch–physikalische Klasse
der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen, , V42, 1912,
p303-322. Reprinted in: W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik, Volume
346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} English: "Interference Phenomena with Rontgen Rays." J.
J. Stezowski, in "Structural Crystallography in Chemistry and Biology", 1981,
p23-39. http://books.google.com/books?id=pKEsAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 27 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 27 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {05/04/1912} {announced) 05/04/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max von Laue." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-von-laue
[2] "Max von Laue". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue
[3] http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1914/laue-bio.html
[4] M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract {La
ue_Max_19070730.pdf}
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany2   
88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD] 7 8 		4404) Diffraction is explained as particle reflection.3 4 The dispersion of
light by a grating or prism into a spectrum of increasing frequencies is
explained as particles of the same spacing as the grating groove at a specific
angle of incidence, all reflecting in the same direction.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/docs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf}
2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The Specular Reflection of X-rays.", Nature, vol
90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHTMiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf}
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The Specular Reflection of X-rays.", Nature, vol
90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHTMiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHTMiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
7. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf} {11/11/1912}
8. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.", Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHTMiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {12/08/1904} {12/08/1912} {and Nature article: 12/08/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University
Press, 2008. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg, Concerning
the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&ots=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis (1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe of
Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the Absorption of X-rays, and on the Classification of
the X-rays of Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine, 6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/books?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classification+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the lonization Curves of Radium,” Philosophical
Magazine, 726–738. Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and X-rays,
and the Range of β Rays”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20 (Sept. 1910),
385–416; Studies in Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg,
William Henry." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and Natures of Various Electric Radiations",
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449. Read before the
Royal Society of South Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Electric%20Radiations&f=false
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England6   
87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD] 4 5 		4932) The general theory of relativity,1 space and time are restricted to a
curved surface geometry2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann, "Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244, 245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M. Grossmann" The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK {Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Albert Einstein." Biographies. Answers Corporation,
2006. Answers.com 24 Feb. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
4. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann, "Entwurf einer
verallgemeinerten Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie der Gravitation. I.
Physikalischer Teil von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil von M. Grossmann",
Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244, 245–261. "Outline of
a Generalized Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation. I. Physical
Part by A. Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M. Grossmann" The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK {Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf} {before 05/28/1913}
5. ^ A. Einstein, M.
Grossmann, "Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten Relativitätstheorie und eine
Theorie der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil von A. Einstein II.
Mathematischer Teil von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik,
62, 225–244, 245–261. "Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and
of a Theory of Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A. Einstein II. Mathematical
Part by M. Grossmann" The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The
Swiss years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK {Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf} {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University
Press, 1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 4.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
[7] A. Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[8] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[9] http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[13] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a Crossroads", 1972
[14] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[15] A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip und
die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hist/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna Beck;
Peter Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton University
Press, v2, The Swiss years, writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
[16] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press, 1987
[17] "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen
Relativitaetstheorie" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1916_49_
769-822.pdf
[18] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1922PA.....30..199P
(Federal Institute of Technology) Zurich, Switzerland3   
87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD] 4 		4863) The Andromeda galaxy is claimed to have a very high velocity relative to
the Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial velocity of the Andromeda Nebula", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
2. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqHhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
3. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial velocity of the Andromeda Nebula", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
4. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial velocity of the Andromeda Nebula", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1913LowOB...2...56S {Slipher_19131020
.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-slipher
[2] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 3 Nov. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvin_Slipher
[4] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1, pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1912LowOB...2...19S
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p556
[6] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the rotation period of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[7] Hartmann, J., "Investigations on the spectrum and orbit of delta Orionis.",
Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1904ApJ....19..268H
[8] "Vesto Melvin Slipher." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 03 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>
[9] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1913PA.....21..186S
(Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA3   
87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD] 4 		5039) The frequency of secondary x-rays emitted from atoms is shown to increase
with atomic mass.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag, V26,
p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
3. ^ "Moseley, Henry Gwyn
Jeffreys." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903063&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag, V26,
p1024-1034, 1913
http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_191312xx.
pdf} {12/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C. G., "The Reflection of the X-Rays.",Nature,
Volume 90, Issue 2257, pp. 594
(1913). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913Natur..90Q.594M
[2] H Moseley, "Atomic models and X-ray spectra", Nature, Volume 92, Issue
2307, pp. 554 (1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1914Natur..92..554M
[3] H Moseley, "The number of ions produced by the β and γ
radiations from radium", Philosophical Magazine Series 6, 1914
[4] Moseley, H.;
Darwin, C. G., "The Reflexion of X Rays", Philosophical Magazine, 26 (1913),
p210–232
[5] Moseley, H., "The Number of β Particles Emitted in the Transformations of
Radium", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 87A (1912), 230–255;
(University of Manchester) Machester, England3   
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 3 4 		5085) Gamma rays from radioactivity are found to have wavelengths in the X-ray
region.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma
Rays from Radium B.", Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C. Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.", Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} {05/1914}
4. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C. Andrade,
"The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B.", Philosophical Magazine
27, 1914, 854–868.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-rutherford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive transformations", C. Scribner's Sons, 1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected papers., New York, Interscience Publishers,
1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves, and
Some of its applications", Philosophical Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American Philosophical Society, delivered April 18,
1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270, Nov
1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+gases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford publications: http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produced+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduction%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compound", Phil
Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity Produced in
Substances by the Action of Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnwX4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20the%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and Soddy,
"The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23, July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil.
Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the condensation points of thorium and radium
emanations", Proc Chem Soc 219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+emanations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thorium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil Mag
ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α and β Rays of
Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of Counting the Number of α Particles
from Radio-active Matter", Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1908, V52, N9, pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia
of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26]
Rutherford, "The Scattering of the α and β Rays and the Structure of the
Atom", Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8
[30]
Rutherford, Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919,
s6, 37, pp537-61
(University of Manchester) Manchester, England2   
86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD] 4 5 		4792) Sound is recorded and played back with motion pictures on plastic film.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sipilä, Kari (April 2004). "A Country That Innovates". Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland. Retrieved 2009-12-08. "Eric Tigerstedt". Film Sound
Sweden. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel/tigerstedt.html See also A. M.
Pertti Kuusela, E.M.C Tigerstedt "Suomen Edison" (Insinööritieto Oy: 1981).
2. ^
"Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigerstedt
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigerstedt {07/28/1914}
5. ^
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel/tigerstedt.html {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Eric Tigerstedt German Patent #309535, 1914
Berlin, Germany2 (verify3 )  
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 6 7 		4977) The theory that spiral "nebulae" are other galaxies.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427.
4. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
5. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, "Stellar movements and the structure of the
universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427. {1914}
7. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stanley-eddington
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England5   
83 YBN
[10/04/1917 AD] 4 		6508) The electric propulsion engine.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Choueiri, Edgar Y. "A critical history of electric propulsion: The first
50 years (1906-1956)." Journal of Propulsion and Power 20.2 (2004):
193-203. http://waterocket.explorer.free.fr/pdf/Electric%20Propulsion.choueiriJ
PP04a.pdf
2. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/patents/US1363037
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/patents/US1363037

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Goddard
[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2 (1919) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[4] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3 (1936)
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket apparatus
- R. H. Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1103503
[8] "Robert Hutchings Goddard." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-goddard
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[10] Goebel, D.M., and
I. Katz. Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. Wiley,
2008. JPL Space Science and Technology
Series. http://books.google.com/books?id=P5OGFXcBKcwC&pg=PA237
[11] R. H. Goddard, The Green Notebooks, vol. 1, The Dr. Robert H. Goddard
Collection at the Clark university Archives, Clark university, Worchester,
Massachusetts
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA (presumably)3   
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 5 		4761) Ultrasonic sound (sound with a frequency too high to be heard by the
human ear1 ) is produced by piezoelectricity and used to determine the location
of objects by reflection (sonar).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ultrasonic." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ultrasonic
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
3. ^ "Paul Langevin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langevin
4. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 8.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langevin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langevin
[2] P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et théeorie des électrons” in Annales de
chimie et de physique, 5 (1905), 70-127;
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Aug.
2010 <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028253>
(Collège de France) Paris, France4 (presumably)  
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 6 		4765) The theory that the universe is expanding.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-sitter
2. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
3. ^ de Sitter, W., "On Einstein's theory of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Second paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Vol. 77,
p.155-184. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916MNRAS..77..155D {De_Sitter_Willem
_part2_191610xx.pdf}
4. ^ De Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
5. ^ "Willem de Sitter." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-sitter
6. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-sitter {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sitter, Willem de." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068024>
[2] Kragh, Helge. "Sitter, Willem De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 455-458. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830906095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Willem de sitter". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_sitter
(University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands5   
82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD] 6 		5008) The Sun is determined to be in the outer part of our galaxy.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Universe&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
4. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Universe&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
5. ^ Shapley, H., "On the Nature and Cause of Cepheid Variation", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
6. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Universe&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false {04/1918}
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA5   
82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD] 8 		6199) The first electronic read and write memory.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_electronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
2. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19 September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol. 83,
page 298. {Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Reprinted in: Radio Review, vol.
1, no. 3, pages 143–146 (December 1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
3. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred
Jordan, "Improvements in ionic relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed:
21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_electronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
4. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19 September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol. 83,
page 298. {Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Reprinted in: Radio Review, vol.
1, no. 3, pages 143–146 (December 1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
5. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred
Jordan, "Improvements in ionic relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed:
21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_electronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19 September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol. 83,
page 298. {Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Reprinted in: Radio Review, vol.
1, no. 3, pages 143–146 (December 1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
7. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred
Jordan, "Improvements in ionic relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed:
21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_electronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
8. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_electronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
{06/21/1918}
(City and Guilds Technical College) London, UK7   
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 13 		4750) Atomic transmutation and atomic fusion. Atoms of Nitrogen are changed
into atoms of Oxygen by high speed alpha particles colliding with Nitrogen
gas.9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company.
18 May. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fusion>.
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms", Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company.
18 May. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fusion>.
9. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms", Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
10. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company.
18 May. 2013. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fusion>.
12. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms,
Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.
pdf}
13. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
{04/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-rutherford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive transformations", C. Scribner's Sons, 1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected papers., New York, Interscience Publishers,
1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves, and
Some of its applications", Philosophical Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American Philosophical Society, delivered April 18,
1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270, Nov
1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+gases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford publications: http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produced+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduction%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compound", Phil
Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity Produced in
Substances by the Action of Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnwX4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20the%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and Soddy,
"The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23, July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil.
Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the condensation points of thorium and radium
emanations", Proc Chem Soc 219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+emanations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thorium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil Mag
ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α and β Rays of
Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of Counting the Number of α Particles
from Radio-active Matter", Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1908, V52, N9, pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia
of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26]
Rutherford, "The Scattering of the α and β Rays and the Structure of the
Atom", Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Rutherford, "Radiations from Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8
[29] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June 1919,
s6, 37, pp581-87. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherford.html
(University of Manchester) Manchester, England12   
77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD] 3 		3613) Electronic moving images are transmitted and received by radio.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkins.htm ?
2. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.html
3. ^ http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkins.htm ? {06/14/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Francis JENKINS, "Transmitting Pictures by Electricity", The
Electrical Engineer, 25 July 1894
[2] http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins1894.htm
[3] "television." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1262241/television-technology>
[4] http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/htmlJ/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
[5] Thomas Streissguth, "Communications: Sending the Message", Oliver
Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&source=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
Washington, D.C., USA.2   
75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD] 4 5 		5060) Spiral nebulae are proven to be other galaxies containing stars and to be
very far away.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E. P., "Cepheids
in spiral nebulae", The Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
3. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M., "Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p.
425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
4. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M., "Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p.
425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html {01/01/1925}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The realm of the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&ots=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA3   
75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD] 3 		5059) A color image electronic scanning camera.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925, patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
3. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925, patented 1928). "Television System". Patent
No. 1,691,324,. United States Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
{07/13/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zworykin
[2] VK Zworykin, "Electric high-frequency signaling apparatus", US Patent
1,484,049,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1484049&id=vBFCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=zworykin&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=zworykin&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)   
75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD] 6 		5292) The transistor or solid-state electronic switch and amplifier.3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bllilienfeld.htm
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number: 1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bllilienfeld.htm
4. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number: 1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number: 1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number: 1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false {10/22/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lilienfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928, Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=jvhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying Apparatus for Alternating Current", Patent
number: 1611653, Filing date: Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical Condenser Device", Patent number: 1906691,
Filing date: Mar 28, 1928, Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA5   
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 8 		5268) The circular particle accelerator (the cyclotron).1 2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen, "On the Production of High Speed
protons", Science, 72, No. 1867, 376 (1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
2. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
3. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H. Sloan, "The Production of High Speed Canal
Rays without the Use of High Voltages", Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86074 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H. Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High Speed
ions Without the Use of High Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v38/i4/p834_1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
7. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and
David H. Sloan, "The Production of High Speed Canal Rays without the Use of
High Voltages", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86074 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
8. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E. Edlefsen, "On the Production of High Speed
protons", Science, 72, No. 1867, 376 (1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
{10/10/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961 (1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams, "On the Nature of
Light", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The Photoelectric Effect in Potassium Vapour as
a Function of the Frequency of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE UNIVERSITY,
1925.Source: American Doctoral Dissertations, Source code: L1925., page: 0094
[5]
John H. Lawrence, Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest O. Lawrence, "Comparative
Effects of X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor Tissue", Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A. 1936 September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1076813/
[6] John H. Lawrence and Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Biological Action of Neutron
Rays", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86398
(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA7   
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 3 		6578) Women gain the right to vote.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
2. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
3. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
  
69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD] 10 		5446) The electron microscope.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
2. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78, Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerlink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska
5. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
6. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78, Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerlink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
8. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska
9. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
10. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} {09/10/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll, Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12, 389,
448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der Stellung der
Konzentrierspule.", Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik 12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am 28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany9   
69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD] 4 5 		5161) The first synthetic rubber: neoprene.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-carothers
2. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira. Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E. Kirby,
"ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf}
3. ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
4. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira. Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E. Kirby,
"ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf} {10/03/1931}
5. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-carothers {1931}
( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company) Wilmington, Delaware, USA3   
68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD] 4 5 		5086) The neutron is identified and distinguished from a hydrogen atom.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
2. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
3. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 17.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 2 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf} {possible neutron:) 02/17/1932}
5. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873 (Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96561
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber, "Disintegration by slow neutrons", Mathematical
Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, (1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807 (Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1, 1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40 (1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A. S.,
"The Excitation of γ -Rays by the α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a
Mathematical and Physical Character, Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93322
[7] "radiothorium." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothorium
[8] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect a neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934), 30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England3   
68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD] 10 		5182) Atomic fission. Lithium atoms are split by protons.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcroft
2. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
3. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcroft
4. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
5. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcroft
6. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
7. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcroft
8. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
9. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
10. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf} {04/16/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walton
[2] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66, (1920)
[3] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag einer
Wechselspannung ohne Transformer" Bulletin des Schweizerischen
Elektrotechnischen Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer Elektrizitätswerke,
V11, p59-66, 1920
[4] Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis L. Reginato, Michael
C. Vella, Simon S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC Accelerators for BNCT
Applications, 04/1994
[5] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Greinacher
[6] http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_page/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp. 477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95496
[8] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of protons and electrons
in the excitation of x-rays by impact Original Research Article", Journal of
the Franklin Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January 1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[9] "Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 23 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951". Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/
[11] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13 February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[12] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT & E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[13] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[14] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England9   
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 4 		5381) The positive electron (the positron) is identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
2. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
3. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
4. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} {08/02/1932}
(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California3   
66 YBN
[03/09/1934 AD] 5 		4755) The atomic fusion of two Hydrogen atoms into a Helium atom.1 2 3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 10 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation Effects
observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3359/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
3. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation Effects
observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3359/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation Effects
observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3359/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-rutherford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive transformations", C. Scribner's Sons, 1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected papers., New York, Interscience Publishers,
1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of Electrical Waves, and
Some of its applications", Philosophical Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American Philosophical Society, delivered April 18,
1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.", Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270, Nov
1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+gases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford publications: http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical
Conduction Produced by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produced+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduction%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compound", Phil
Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14 1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity Produced in
Substances by the Action of Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=oEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnwX4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20the%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and Soddy,
"The Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/books?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23, July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil.
Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the condensation points of thorium and radium
emanations", Proc Chem Soc 219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+emanations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thorium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil Mag
ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α and β Rays of
Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A Method of Counting the Number of α Particles
from Radio-active Matter", Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1908, V52, N9, pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia
of science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26]
Rutherford, "The Scattering of the α and β Rays and the Structure of the
Atom", Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95, 1915,pp494-8
[30]
Rutherford, Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919,
s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms",
Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear Constitution of
Atoms Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The Disintegration of Elements by α-Particles",
Nature, March 10, 1921, 107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford, "Artificial Disintegration
of the Elements", Proceedings of the Physical Society, August 1924, 36,
pp417-22
[35] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
[36] Ernest Rutherford,
"Disintegration of Atomic Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115, pp493-4
[37] Rutherford,
Wynn-Williams, Lewis, Bowden, "Analysis of α-Rays by an Annular Magnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, 139, 1933, pp617-37
[38] Oliphant,
Rutherford, "Experiments on the Transmutation of Elements by Protons,
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, 141, 1933, pp259-81
[39] Oliphant, Harteck,
Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings
of the Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England4   
66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD] 5 6 		5275) Atomic fission of uranium by neutrons.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di produrre elementi di numero
atomico maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
2. ^ Enrico Fermi,
"Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature 133,
898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
3. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
4. ^ Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}
5. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di produrre
elementi di numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934, p452,536. E.
Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934)
452; {05/1934}
6. ^ Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number
Higher than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/content/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36, Numbers 11-12, 902-912. "The
quantization of the ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/content/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il Nuovo
Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3, Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6] E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January 1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/content/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 17.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652, 21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and D'Agostino, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,' "Radioactivity Induced by
Neutron Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757, 898 (1934). See also Fermi, '
Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p. 452
(1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim. Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi,
O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 146, No. 857
(Sep. 1, 1934), pp. 483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935604
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy4   
63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD] 4 		5548) The first transuranium elements. Elements 93 through 96 are identified
from the collision of neutrons with uranium.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die Umwandlungsreihen des
Urans, die durch Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4, 249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerlink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
2. ^ "Otto Hahn - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
3. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die Umwandlungsreihen des
Urans, die durch Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden", Zeitschrift für Physik
A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4, 249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerlink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
4. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4, 249-270,
DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerlink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation" {05/14/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitner-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 260-263.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol.
17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993,
1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] Otto Hahn, "Über ein neues
radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number 5,
84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerlink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany3   
63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD] 10 11 		5515) The first image of individual atoms. Atoms are visually confirmed to be
about 0.1 nm in size.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von
Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106,
Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: "Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode"
2. ^ "Erwin Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von
Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106,
Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: "Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode"
4. ^ "Erwin Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
5. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von
Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106,
Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: "Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode"
6. ^ "Erwin Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
7. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von
Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106,
Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: "Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode"
8. ^ "Erwin Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
9. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-mueller
10. ^ Erwin W. Müller, "Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von
Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106,
Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: "Electron microscopic observations of
field cathode" {05/22/1937}
11. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-mueller {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erwin Wilhelm Mueller". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_Mueller
(Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany9   
63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD] 8 		5364) Element 43, the first completely artificial element, the radioactive
metal1 technetium {TeKnEsEuM2 } is created by particle collision.3 4 5 6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "technetium." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
2. ^ "technetium." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/technetium>.
3. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
4. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of Element 43. II", J.
Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvips&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
5. ^ E. Segrè, "Artificial Radioactivity and the Completion of the Periodic
System of the Elements", The Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57 page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209 {Segre_Emilio_194307xx.pdf}
6. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio-gino
7. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
8. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df} {06/30/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "technetium (Tc)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/585354/technetium-Tc>
(Royal University) Polermo, Italy7   
62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD] 5 		5382) Charged particles with masses in between an electron and proton are
recognized (muons1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
2. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and
Carl D. Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54,
88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
3. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
4. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
5. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} {06/16/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1936". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1936/
[2] Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives",
Science, 1932, V76, (pp. 238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1658257
[3] Carl D. Anderson and Seth H. Neddermeyer, "Cloud
Chamber Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300 Meters Elevation and Near
Sea-Level", Phys. Rev. 50, 263
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v50/i4/p263_1
(California Institute of Technology) Pasadena, California4   
62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD] 5 		5448) The first image of a virus (150nm in size).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
2. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
3. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
4. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
5. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} {06/22/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll, Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12, 389,
448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78, Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerlink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der Stellung der
Konzentrierspule.", Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik 12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am 28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935). "Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper". Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[9] E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im Bau und in der Leistung des magnetischen
Elektronenmikroskops.", Z. Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html En
glish: "On progress in construction and performance of the magnetic electron
microscope."
[10] "Ernst Ruska." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513086/Ernst-Ruska>
(Berliner Medizinischen Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society) Berlin, Germany4
  
61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD] 11 12 		5835) The bipedal (or two leg walking) robot.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elektro1.htm
2. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey, "Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C:
Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number 1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublishing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
3. ^ http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elektro1.htm
4. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey, "Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C:
Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number 1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublishing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
5. ^ http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elektro1.htm
6. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey, "Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C:
Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number 1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublishing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
7. ^ http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elektro1.htm
8. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey, "Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C:
Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number 1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublishing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
9. ^ Scott Schaut, Robots of Westinghouse 1924-today, 2006, p91,185.
10. ^ "Elektro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro
11. ^
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/new-york-worlds-fair-opens {around)
04/30/1939 (opening of World's Fair}
12. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elektro1.htm {1939 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuyTRbj8QSA&feature=related
[2] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay225WkU4Gs&feature=related
[3] Scott Schaut, "Robots of Westinghouse, 1924-today",
Mansfield, Ohio : Scott Schautt, Mansfield Memorial Museum, 2006
[4]
http://www.archive.org/details/middleton_family_worlds_fair_1939
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation) Mansfield, Ohio, USA9 10   
58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD] 8 		5277) A self-sustained uranium fission reaction.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried Out by the Physics Division", Report CP-387 for
month Ending December 15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers,
v2, 1965, p270.
2. ^ "Experimental production of a Divergent Chain Reaction",
American Journal of Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
4. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried
Out by the Physics Division", Report CP-387 for month Ending December 15, 1942.
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
5. ^ "Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain Reaction", American Journal of Physics, 20,
1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
{12/02/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/content/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36, Numbers 11-12, 902-912. "The
quantization of the ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/content/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il Nuovo
Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3, Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6] E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January 1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo, E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/content/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 17.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5, p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1,
pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi, D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652, 21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and D'Agostino, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,' "Radioactivity Induced by
Neutron Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757, 898 (1934). See also Fermi, '
Nuovo Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p. 452
(1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim. Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi,
O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 146, No. 857
(Sep. 1, 1934), pp. 483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements of
Atomic Number Higher than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi: Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago (Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi, "Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il progresso, 1934
[16] Fermi, Amaldi, Pontecorvo,
Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
[17] E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino,
E. Fermi, B. Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr.
10, 1935), pp. 522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/96379
[18] ENRICO FERMI, "Reactions Produced by Neutrons in Heavy
Elements", Nature 146, 640-642 (16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[19] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v50/i10/p899_1
(University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA7   
57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD] 3 		4916) The DNA molecule is recognized as being responsible for the creation and
inheritance of structural changes in a body.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty. “Studies on the Chemical Nature of the
Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/content/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
2. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty. “Studies on the Chemical Nature of the
Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/content/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
3. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty. “Studies on the Chemical Nature of the
Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/content/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf} {11/1/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oswald Avery." Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/oswald-avery
[2] "Avery, Oswald T." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 342-343. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CCX2830900196&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Oswald Theodore Avery". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theodore_Avery
[4] Maclyn McCarty and Oswald T. Avery, "STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE
SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: III. AN IMPROVED
METHOD FOR THE ISOLATION OF THE TRANSFORMING SUBSTANCE AND ITS APPLICATION TO
PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPES II, III, AND VI J Exp Med 1946 83:97-104. Published February
1, 1946, doi:10.1084/jem.83.2.97
http://jem.rupress.org/content/83/2/97.full.pdf
(Rockefeller Institute, now called Rockefeller University) New York City, New
York, USA2   
55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD] 4 		5311) The first atomic fission bomb is exploded.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
3. ^ http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/coldwar/p7_image.shtml
4. ^ http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/coldwar/p7_image.shtml
{07/16/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "Manhattan Project." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press., 2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manhattan-project
[2] "Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Orion_(nuclear_propulsion)
(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA3   
55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD] 4 		6272) The microwave oven.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued 1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
2. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued 1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
3. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued 1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
4. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued 1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
{10/08/1945}
(Raytheon Manufacturing Company) Newton, Massachusetts, USA3   
53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD] 3 		5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83 (bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions, or neutrons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D. H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium, Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
2. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D. H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium, Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
3. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D. H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium, Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} {06/26/1947}
(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA2   
52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD] 4 5 		5295) The semiconductor transistor.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain, "The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode",
Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
2. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, "Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials", Patent number: 2524035, Filing date: Jun
17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain, "The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode",
Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
4. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, "Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials", Patent number: 2524035, Filing date: Jun
17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false {06/17/1948}
5. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H.
Brattain, "The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf} {06/25/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Shockley." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-shockley
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956". Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/
[3] W. Shockley, "A "try simplest cases" approach to the heredity-poverty-crime
problem.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1967 June; 57(6): 1767–1774.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC224545/
[4] Shockley, William B., "Negro IQ and Heredity." SCHOOL AND SOCIETY, 1968,
96:127-128
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA3   
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 3 		5553) The fission of medium weight elements (copper, bromine, silver, and
tin).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T. Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528-528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
2. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
3. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {03/15/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg, "Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015 (1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg, "A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
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(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v12/i1/p30_1
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[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
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"Element 97", Phys. Rev. 77, 838–839
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(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA2   
50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD] 3 		5555) Atomic fusion of large atoms: carbon-12 ions are fused with both aluminum
and gold atoms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron", Phys.
Rev. 80, 486–486
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}
2. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron", Phys.
Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
3. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron", Phys.
Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} {09/11/1950}

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[1] Luis W. Alvarez et al, "TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL LENS",
Patent number: 3305294, Filing date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
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20lens&f=false
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968". Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
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[3] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog, "He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379 (1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v56/i4/p379_2
(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA2   
47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD] 14 		5660) The double helix structure of DNA is understood.10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p859-861,863,874,886-887.
3. ^ "Francis Harry Compton
Crick." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p859-861,863,874,886-887.
6. ^ "Francis Harry Compton
Crick." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
7. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p859-861,863,874,886-887.
9. ^ "Francis Harry Compton
Crick." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
10. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p859-861,863,874,886-887.
12. ^ "Francis Harry Compton
Crick." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
13. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
14. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a
structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue:
4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} {04/02/1953}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England13   
46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD] 26 27 		5649) The MASER ("microwave amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation").19 20 21 22 23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
2. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev. 99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
3. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR) English:
4. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, J.
Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27, 431 (1954) English:
5. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 28, 249 (1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP
1, 184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
6. ^ "Charles Hard Townes." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
7. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
8. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev. 99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
9. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR) English:
10. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, J.
Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27, 431 (1954) English:
11. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 28, 249 (1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP
1, 184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
12. ^ "Charles Hard Townes." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
13. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
14. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev. 99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
15. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR) English:
16. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, J.
Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27, 431 (1954) English:
17. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 28, 249 (1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP
1, 184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
18. ^ "Charles Hard Townes." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
19. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
20. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev. 99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
21. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR) English:
22. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov, J.
Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27, 431 (1954) English:
23. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 28, 249 (1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP
1, 184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
24. ^ "Charles Hard Townes." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
25. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
26. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3", Phys.
Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} {first publication:) 05/05/1954}
27. ^ "Charles Hard Townes." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
{12/1953}

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[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-townes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H. Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory of
the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
[4] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray, and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221 (1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
(Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA25   
45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD] 3 4 		5366) The antiproton is identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys. Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
2. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys. Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
3. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys. Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} {10/24/1955}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p803, 873-874. {1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio-gino
[2] E. Segrè, "Artificial Radioactivity and the Completion of the Periodic
System of the Elements", The Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57 page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209
[3] "technetium." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[4] "technetium." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959". Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1959/
[6] Seidel, Robert. "Segrè, Emilio Gino." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 407-411. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 Feb. 2011. Document
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[7] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712 (1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6/v5/i9/p712/s1
[8] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical Properties of
Element 43. II", J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvips&prog=normal
[9] Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58.672
[10] O. Chamberlain, W. W. Chupp, G. Goldhaber, E. Segrè, C. Wiegand, E.
Amaldi, G. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, C. Franzinetti and A. Manfredini, "On the
observation of an antiproton star in emulsion exposed at the bevatron", Il
Nuovo Cimento (1955-1965), Volume 3, Number 2, 447-467, DOI:
10.1007/BF02745430. http://www.springerlink.com/content/74740076316k6m36/
(University of California) Berkeley, California, USA2   
43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD] 6 		5486) The first human-made satellite.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561534/Sputnik>.
3. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561534/Sputnik>.
4. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561534/Sputnik>.
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
6. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561534/Sputnik>. {10/04/1957}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam) Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.5   
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 12 		5606) The first atomic explosion in empty space.6 7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
2. ^ http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johsland.htm
3. ^ http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2Fmarshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20april%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq085Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
5. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDfZQ
6. ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
7. ^ http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johsland.htm
8. ^ http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Hardtack1.html
9. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2Fmarshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20april%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq085Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
10. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDfZQ
11. ^ http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Hardtack1.html
12. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
{08/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hardtack Teak". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Teak
(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean11   
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 4 		6550) The integrated circuit (or IC).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
2. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
3. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
4. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
(Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor)3   
41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD] 6 		5597) A ship impacts the moon.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
3. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
6. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
{09/14/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.5   
41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD] 4 		191) A device inside the body is controlled remotely;. An artificial heart
pacemaker is remotely controlled with radio.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The Radiofrequency
Cardiac Pacemaker. Remote stimulation of the heart by radiofrequency
transmission. Clinical application to a patient with Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New
Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
2. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The Radiofrequency
Cardiac Pacemaker. Remote stimulation of the heart by radiofrequency
transmission. Clinical application to a patient with Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New
Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
3. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The Radiofrequency
Cardiac Pacemaker. Remote stimulation of the heart by radiofrequency
transmission. Clinical application to a patient with Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New
Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
4. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The Radiofrequency
Cardiac Pacemaker. Remote stimulation of the heart by radiofrequency
transmission. Clinical application to a patient with Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New
Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
(Yale University School of Medicine) New Haven, New Jersey, USA3   
40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD] 5 		5774) Photons are proven to have mass. Gravity is shown to change the speed and
frequency of light.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer, and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of the
Gravitational Red Shift Using the M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 4, 163-164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
2. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an Accelerated System Using the M�ssbauer
Effect in Fe57", Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 165-166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
3. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys. Rev.
Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
4. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys. Rev.
Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
5. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys. Rev.
Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf} {03/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Rudolf L. Mössbauer, "Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von Gammastrahlung in
Ir191", Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/content/p4335870w53k7834/
English: "Nuclear resonance fluorescence of gamma radiation in Ir191"
[2] P B Moon,
"Resonant Nuclear Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and Preliminary
Experiments", Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section A Volume 64
Number 1, p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-1298/64/1/311
[3] JASCHA HOFFMAN, "Robert Pound, Physicist Whose Work Advanced
Medicine, Is Dead at 90", NY TImes, April 19,
2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/20/us/20pound.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=130491
7624-dPEMK8cOyCU8ikOVg6k5pA
(Harvard University) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA4   
40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD] 8 		5768) The LASER ("light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation").5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
2. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser Systems", Patent number: 3353115, Filing
date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
4. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser Systems", Patent number: 3353115, Filing
date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
5. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
6. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser Systems", Patent number: 3353115, Filing
date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
7. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
8. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf} {04/22/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Martin (May 11, 2007). "Theodore Maiman, who built the first
laser, dies at 79". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/world/americas/13iht-obits.1.5685872.html
[2] T. H. MAIMAN, "Stimulated Optical Radiation in Ruby", Nature 187, 493 - 494
(06 August 1960);
doi:10.1038/187493a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v187/n4736/abs/187493
a0.html
[3] T. H. Maiman, "Stimulated Optical Emission in Fluorescent Solids. I.
Theoretical Considerations", Phys. Rev. 123, 1145–1150 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/i4/p1145_1
[4] T. H. Maiman, R. H. Hoskins, I. J. D'Haenens, C. K. Asawa, and V. Evtuhov,
"Stimulated Optical Emission in Fluorescent Solids. II. Spectroscopy and
Stimulated Emission in Ruby", Phys. Rev. 123, 1151–1157 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/i4/p1151_1
[5] "List of laser types". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_types
(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu, California7   
40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD] 6 		5705) Messenger RNA and the system that regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes called "operons") are identified.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz, C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
2. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
3. ^ "François Jacob." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
4. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/429974/operon>.
5. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of
proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
6. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of
proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_Francois_19601228.pdf} {12/28/1960
(verify - could be earlier in French paper}
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France5   
39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD] 6 		5601) The first human to orbit the Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
5. ^ "Google Maps - Vostok 1 Landing Site - Monument".
http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=51.270682+N,+45.9972
7+E&sll=51.270689,45.997599&sspn=0.003296,0.00868&ie=UTF8&ll=51.270716,45.997385
&spn=0.003296,0.00868&t=k&z=17.
6. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
{04/12/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Yury Alekseyevich Gagarin." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223437/Yury-Alekseyevich-Gagarin>
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p895-896
Saratovskaya oblast, U.S.S.R.5   
39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD] 3 		5663) That DNA nucleotides code for amino acids in proteins is understood.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December
1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html {Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.pdf}
2. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN,
"General Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html {Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.pdf}
3. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN,
"General Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html {Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.pdf} {12/30/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p859-861,863,874,886-887
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England2   
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 5 		6201) Laser writing and reading of data.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed, High Density, Optical Recording System",
Patent number: 3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed, High Density, Optical Recording System",
Patent number: 3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed, High Density, Optical Recording System",
Patent number: 3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed, High Density, Optical Recording System",
Patent number: 3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed, High Density, Optical Recording System",
Patent number: 3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H9x0AAAAEBAJ {10/26/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl H. Becker, "LASER RECORDER WITH VAPORIZABLE FILM", Patent
number: 3314073, Filing date: Oct 20, 1964, Issue date: Apr 11,
1967. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT3314073
[2] Joseph T. Mcnaney, "SYSTEM FOR EFFECTING TRANSFER OF CATHODE RAY TUBE
DISPLAYS ONTO A RECORD MEDIUM", Patent number: 2898176, Filing date: Aug 26,
1957, Issue date: Aug 4, 1959 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6DsCAAAAEBAJ
[3] David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC",
Patent number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[4] Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical recording medium and method of optically
recording information thereon", Patent number: 4298975, Filing date: Mar 19,
1979, Issue date: Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false
[5] Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical Disk Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No. 4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
862-868. Published by: American Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
(Winston Research Corporation) Los Angeles, California, USA4   
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 4 		3980) The liquid crystal display (LCD).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmeier_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
2. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmeier_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RCA_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey
4. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmeier_George_LCD_1976.pdf} {1964}
RCA Labs2 , Princeton, New Jersey, USA3   
35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD] 4 		5615) The first ship to reach Mars and to return images of the surface.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
{07/14/1965}
Planet Mars3   
34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD] 5 		5613) The first ship to impact a different planet, Venus.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1965-092A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1965-092A
3. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1965-092A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1965-092A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1965-092A {03/01/1966}
Planet Venus4   
34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD] 3 		5599) The first ship to orbit a body beyond the Earth; the Moon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1966-027A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1966-027A
3. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1966-027A
{04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunarussr.html
[4] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.2   
32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD] 5 		5739) Pulsars, stars that emit regularly timed bursts of radio light, are
identified.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.880-881.
3. ^ "Antony Hewish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/264514/Antony-Hewish>.
4. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
5. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf} {02/09/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pulsar". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England4   
31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD] 6 		655) Humans land and walk on the surface of the moon of Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
6. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
{07/21/1969} {Armstrong walks on Moon on:) 07/21/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7MmT4
Moon of Earth5   
31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD] 7 		5753) A DNA molecule is broken with an enzyme.1 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Smith, H. 0. & Wilcox, K. W. (1969). Fed.Proc. 28, 465.
2. ^ Hamilton O.
Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae : I.
Purification and general properties, Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume 51,
Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
3. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O. Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base sequence of the recognition site, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages 393-409, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
5. ^ "Hamilton Othanel
Smith." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/549744/Hamilton-Othanel-Smith>.
6. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and general properties, Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
7. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and general properties, Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} {09/15/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] W Arber, and S Linn, "DNA Modification and Restriction", Annual
Review of Biochemistry, Vol. 38: 467-500 (Volume publication date July 1969),
DOI:
10.1146/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343 http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.114
6/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343
[2] Werner Arber, "Host-controlled modification of bacteriophage", Annual
review of microbiology, (1965) volume: 19 issue: 1 page:
365. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.002053
[3] Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan, "DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue: 5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html
(Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland, USA6   
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 6 		5851) The Internet (people use computers to communicate over the telephone wire
network).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc.,
2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
6. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc.,
2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet {1969}
(University of California at Los Angeles) Los Angeles, California,
USA|(Stanford Research Institute) Stanford, California, USA|(University of
California Santa Barbara) Santa Barbara, California, USA|(University of Utah)
Salt Lake City, Utah, USA5   
30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD] 8 		5836) The digital electronic camera.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
2. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept", Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
3. ^ http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldigitalcamera.htm
4. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
5. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept", Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
6. ^ http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldigitalcamera.htm
7. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
8. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April 1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf} {01/29/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willard S. Boyle - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/boyle-lecture.html
{Boyle_Willard_S_20091208.pdf
[2] Jeffrey, Davene. "Willard Boyle, Nova Scotian Nobel Prize winner, dies at
86". The Chronicle Herald.ca. http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/1242428.html.
Retrieved 9 May 2011
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA7   
30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD] 7 		5716) Two DNA molecules are combined using an enzyme.3 The first artificial
gene is synthesized.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA, "Total synthesis of the gene for an alanine
transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pdf}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
3. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande, and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining Reaction Catalyzed by the T4-Polynucleotide
Ligase", PNAS November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3 1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

4. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA , "Total synthesis of the gene for an alanine
transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pdf}
5. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
6. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA , "Total synthesis of the gene for an alanine
transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pdf}
7. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA , "Total synthesis of the gene for an alanine
transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pdf} {06/16/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University
Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-khorana
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu, E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the 64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob, H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.' Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to the
Genetic Code. General Introduction" J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc., 24, 1473 (1965)
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan and
H. G. Khorana, "Studies on polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in vitro of
polypeptides containing repeating tetrapeptide sequences dependent upon
DNA-like polymers containing repeating tetranucleotide sequences: Direction of
reading of messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28
June 1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S. KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965 Vol
206 No 4988 p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN, "Base Composition of Nonsense
Condons in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site
in Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June 1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v206/n4988/index.html
[10] "kinase." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kinase
(University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA6   
29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD] 5 		5618) The first ship to orbit another planet (Mars).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
{11/14/1971}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.astronomy.csdb.cn/ceps/rpif/mariner9/mariner9_archive.htm
Planet Mars4   
29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD] 5 		5619) A ship impacts Mars.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-045D
{11/27/1971}
Planet Mars4   
29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD] 6 		5620) The first ship to soft land on planet Mars and return data.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
6. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
{12/02/1971}
Planet Mars5   
28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD] 6 		5751) Proteins are synthesized by using a virus to add DNA into bacteria.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical Method
for Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular
SV40 DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of
Escherichia coli", PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10 2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/61698/Paul-Berg>.
3. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical Method for
Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40
DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of
Escherichia coli", PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10 2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
4. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/61698/Paul-Berg>.
5. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical Method for
Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40
DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of
Escherichia coli", PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10 2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
6. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical Method for
Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40
DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of
Escherichia coli", PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10 2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
{07/31/1972}
(Stanford University Medical Center) Stanford, California, USA5   
27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD] 6 		5622) A ship reaches Jupiter and sends the first close-up images.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
6. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2003/03_25HQ.html
{12/03/1973}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.html
Planet Jupiter5   
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 7 8 		5846) The personal computer.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p577.
2. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p577.
4. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
5. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc.,
2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
6. ^ "Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instrumentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
7. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company Inc.,
2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/altair {1974}
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p577. {1975}
(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA5 6
(verify)  
25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD] 8 		5623) A ship orbits, lands on, and transmits images from the surface of Venus.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
2. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
4. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
6. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
8. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
{10/20/1975}
Planet Venus7   
25 YBN
[1975 AD] 3 		6371) An external object is moved by thought (electricity in the brain).2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine", National Geographic (1975)
2. ^ "The Incredible
Human Machine", National Geographic (1975)
3. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine",
National Geographic (1975)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/paralyzed-woman-uses-her-mind-control-robot-arm-181141007-
-finance.html
[2] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4396387.stm
  
24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD] 3 		5624) The first images and soil samples from the surface of Mars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-075C {07/20/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of Mars rotating:
http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/detail/NSVS~3~3~9446~109446:Mars-Rotate--
True-Color-
Planet Mars2   
24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD] 3 		5695) The complete DNA sequence of a virus is determined.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R., Fiddes,
J.C., Hutchison III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977. Nature (London)
265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
2. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R., Fiddes,
J.C., Hutchison III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977. Nature (London)
265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
3. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R., Fiddes,
J.C., Hutchison III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977. Nature (London)
265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf} {11/30/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1958/
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/
[3] F. Sanger, "The free amino groups of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1258275/
[4] "Frederick Sanger." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-sanger
[5] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson, "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1198157/
[6] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson, "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3): 366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1198158/
[7] "insulin." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
(Cambridge University) Cambridge, England2   
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 7 		6312) A self-driving car.1 2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision Systems
and Driving Control Systems.” Industrial Electronics, 1993. Conference
Proceedings, ISIE’93 - Budapest., IEEE International Symposium On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
2. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based vehicles in Japan: machine vision systems and
driving control systems," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.41, no.4, pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi: 10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
3. ^ http://www.markelic.de/professional/milestonesDrivingTable.html
4. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/features/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
5. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895 (1979).
6. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan and Future Issues", Proceedings of the 2008
IEEE International Conference on Vehicular Electronics and Safety Columbus,
OH, USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
7. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car Technology Lurches Forward", Motor Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/features/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab) Japan  
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 6 		388) A ship reaches Saturn and sends the first close-up images.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
3. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
5. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
6. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
{09/01/1979}
Planet Saturn5   
20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD] 6 		6189) The Scanning Tunneling Microscope.1 2 Individual atoms and molecules of
many kinds can be seen.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980, Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
2. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
3. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v49/i1/p57_1
4. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
6. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980, Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 {09/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] Gerd Binnig & Heinrich Rohrer, "The Scanning Tunneling Microscope",
Scientific American 253, 50 - 56 (1985) doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0885-50
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory) Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland5
(presumably)  
16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD] 6 		5814) A multicellular organism is "cloned" (genetically identical copies are
made) by replacing the nucleus of one ovum with a different one.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p594.
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A simple
procedure for the production of identical sheep twins", Veterinary Record
1984;114:240-243 doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p594.
5. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A simple
procedure for the production of identical sheep twins", Veterinary Record
1984;114:240-243 doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/1984}
6. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/1984} {03/10/1984}
(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology) Cambridge, UK5   
15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD] 9 		5804) Polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS1 } chain reaction (PCR), a simple technique that
allows a specific segment of DNA to be copied billions of times in a few
hours.2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Polymerase>.
2. ^ "Kary B. Mullis." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396935/Kary-B-Mullis>.
3. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Mullis, KB et al. "Process for amplifying, detecting, and/or-cloning
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,195. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683195&id=fCYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec=abstract
5. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1696982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf}
6. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona, "Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via a
polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction", Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
7. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ^ "Kary Mullis." A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford University Press, 1993,
1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/kary-mullis
9. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis for
Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia", Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1696982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf} {09/20/1985}

MORE INFO
[1] Randall K. Saiki, David H. Gelfand, Susanne Stoffel, Stephen J.
Scharf, Russell Higuchi, Glenn T. Horn, Kary B. Mullis, Henry A. Erlich,
"Primer-Directed Enzymatic Amplification of DNA with a Thermostable DNA
Polymerase", New Series, Vol. 239, No. 4839 (Jan. 29, 1988), pp.
487-491 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1700278
(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville, California, USA7 8   
14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD] 10 		5628) A ship reaches Uranus and sends the first close-up images of the planet,
its moons, and its rings.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^ http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uranus.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^ http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uranus.html
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^ http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uranus.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
8. ^ http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uranus.html
9. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {01/24/1986}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Uranus9   
12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD] 6 		6194) A microscopic electric motor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
3. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
4. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
5. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
6. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical Digest.,
International , vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi: 10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
{12/11/1988-12/14/1988}
(University of California at Berkeley), Berkeley, California, USA5   
11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD] 6 		5629) A ship reaches Neptune and sends the first close-up images of the planet,
its moons and rings.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
5. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
{08/25/1989}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Neptune5   
10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD] 6 		6191) Individual atoms are moved.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
2. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
3. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
4. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
5. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
6. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning
tunnelling microscope", Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html {01/17/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. "Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy."� Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
(IBM Research Division, Almaden Research Center) San Jose, California, USA5
  
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 5 		5635) A ship reaches and sends close-up images of an asteroid.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gallery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/index.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gallery/top10science-3.cfm
5. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gallery/top10science-3.cfm
{10/29/1991}
Asteroid Gaspra4 (Ida encounter must occur later)  
7 YBN
[08/28/1993 AD] 5 6 		5636) A ship discovers the first known moon of an asteroid.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gallery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/index.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^ http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
5. ^ http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/jupiter-timeline.cfm
6. ^ http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
Asteroid Ida4   
5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 5 6 		396) The first ship to orbit Jupiter.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
2. ^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
3. ^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftOrbit.do?id=1989-084B
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftOrbit.do?id=1989-084B {12/07/1995}
6. ^
http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN02-09-01/galileo/timeline_story.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
[2] http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gallery/top10science-3.cfm
Jupiter4   
4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 4 		186) An animal is cloned by replacing the nucleus of an ovum with the nucleus
from a somatic cell.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619 (1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
2. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult Mammalian
Cells." Nature 385.6619 (1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
3. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S. Campbell,
"Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells", Nature 385,
810 - 813 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
4. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult Mammalian
Cells." Nature 385.6619 (1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html {
Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
(University of Edinburgh, Roslin Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK3   
1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD] 4 		5639) The first ship to land on an asteroid.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
4. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
{02/12/2001}
Asteroid Eros3   
1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD] 6 		6192) A microscopic radio chip (or RFID chip).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.html
2. ^ http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.html
3. ^ http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.html
4. ^ http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.html
5. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the “µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/2001/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf}
6. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the “µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/2001/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf} {06/28/2001}

MORE INFO
[1] "World's tiniest RFID tag unveiled", BBC,
02/23/2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6389581.stm
[2] http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/337
[3]
http://www.thelibertyvoice.com/hitachi-develops-a-new-rfid-with-embedded-antenna
-%C2%B5-chip
(Hitachi) Japan5   
2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD] 4 		6332) A remote control device emits drugs inside a human body.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Farra, Robert et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a Wirelessly Controlled
Drug Delivery Microchip.” Science Translational Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
2. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD, "Remote-controlled chip implant delivers bone drug",
02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-controlled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
3. ^ Farra, Robert et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a Wirelessly Controlled
Drug Delivery Microchip.” Science Translational Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
4. ^ Farra, Robert et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a Wirelessly Controlled
Drug Delivery Microchip.” Science Translational Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/photos/health-1316123812-slideshow/device-may-someday-allo
w-patients-avoid-daily-injections-photo-191903806.html
(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark3   
3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD] 5 		6195) A nanometer scale electric motor.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. M. Fennimore, T. D. Yuzvinsky, Wei-Qiang Han, M. S. Fuhrer, J. Cumings
& A. Zettl, “Rotational actuators based on carbon nanotubes.” Nature
424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al. “Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al. “Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
4. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al. “Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
5. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al. “Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
{04/04/2003}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.htm
(University of California at Berkeley), Berkeley, California, USA4   
4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD] 5 		5641) The first ship to orbit Saturn.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
5. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {07/01/2004}

MORE INFO
[1] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn4   
4 YAN
[07/22/2004 AD] 3 		6655) The first image of a planet of a different star.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange, C. Dumas,
B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I. Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 425 (October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode: 2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
2. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange, C. Dumas,
B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I. Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 425 (October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode: 2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
3. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange, C. Dumas,
B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I. Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 425 (October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode: 2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056

MORE INFO
[1] "Ross 458(AB) c". The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopaedia.
Exoplanet.eu. http://exoplanet.eu/catalog/?f=%22imaging%22+IN+detection
(European Southern Observatory) Santiago, Chili2   
4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD] 		5832) Stem cells are used to repair damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed human
to walk.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
2. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
3. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient, transplanted of multipotent stem cells from human
UC blood, with improved sensory perception and mobility, both functionally and
morphologically: a case study". Cytotherapy 7 (4): 368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID 16162459
[2] "team co-headed by researchers at
Chosun University", Seoul National University and the Seoul Cord Blood Bank
(SCB) Umbilical cord cells 'allow paralysed woman to walk' By Roger Highfield,
Science Editor. Last Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 Nov 2004
(Chosun University) Kwangju, South Korea3   
5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD] 4 		5642) A ship lands on a moon of Saturn (Titan).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/saturntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {01/14/2005}

MORE INFO
[1] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn, moon Titan3   
8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD] 6 		3886) Remote neuron reading. An image of what the eyes are seeing is captured
remotely using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y., Tanabe, H.
C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction from human
brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image decoders. Neuron,
60, 5, 915-929. http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6
2. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito,
Y., Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6
3. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y., Tanabe, H.
C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction from human
brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image decoders. Neuron,
60, 5, 915-929. http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6
4. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito,
Y., Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6
5. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y., Tanabe, H.
C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction from human
brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image decoders. Neuron,
60, 5, 915-929. http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6
6. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H., Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito,
Y., Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y. (2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(08)00958-6 {12/10/2008}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thought-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technology-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
(Collaboration between researchers at two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto, Japan5
  
12 YAN
[01/31/2012 AD] 5 6 		276) Sound a brain hears is recorded directly from the brain.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N, Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1): e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

2. ^ "Researchers tune into what brain hears", ABC News, 02/01/2012.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/02/01/3419795.htm
3. ^ "Science decodes 'internal voices"', BBC News,
01/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-16811042
4. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N, Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1): e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

5. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N, Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1): e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2015}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
(University of California at Berkeley) Berkeley, CA, USA4   
FUTURE
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 5 		332) Sound a brain hears is recorded remotely.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html {2015}
  
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		6394) A microscopic radio (or particle transmitter and receiver).
  
18 YAN
[2018 AD] 		6208) A radio device functions inside a cell. The first human-made cell
organelle.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 2 		4559) Walking robots are produced in mass quantity, and are available for the
public to buy.1

This is the start of the "robot revolution"; how robots replace humans in most
manual labor tasks, which greatly increases the quantity of food and humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2020}
  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6197) The first remote control microscopic flying device.
  
23 YAN
[2023 AD] 		6552) The first wireless microscopic microphone. The "micro-mic".

MORE INFO
[1]
  
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		337) Remote neuron writing using microscopic devices in neurons. Microscopic
devices enter the human body by the lung, enter the blood circulation which
connects directly to all cells, and position themselves as organelles inside
each neuron. External devices communicate with the intracellular devices to
read the voltage and to remotely make the neuron cell fire.4

Sounds, images, smells, touches, emotions, and muscle contractions can now be
remotely activated in a brain by sending light particles to intracellular
devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thought-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technology-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
[3] personal communication, see most of Kamatani's email correspondence with me
at: http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_reading_and_writing.htm
  
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6193) The first wireless microscopic camera. The "micro-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
  
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6198) The first remote controlled microscopic flying camera.
  
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6375) The wireless microscopic maser.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6395) The wireless nanometer scale radio transmitter and receiver (the
nano-radio).

MORE INFO
[1]
  
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 5 		365) The first thought-audio is recorded. Thought-audio is recorded using
remote neuron reading and played out loud publicly. The first recorded thought
audio may sound like this: "1 2 3". Humans start to communicate by
thought-image and thought-sound only.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 1 		366) The first artificial muscle bipedal robots. These robots are lighter and
more electrically efficient, than motor robots.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
  
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 5 		680) The first images of thought are seen. Thought-images are recorded remotely
using remote neuron reading and shown publicly.4

The first thought-image may be the image of a triangle.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 3 		791) Bipedal robots start replacing humans in most low-skill jobs (for example
as walking security cameras, in fast-food, and fruit picking).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
  
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		6391) The first wireless nanometer scale camera. The "nano-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
  
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6553) The first use of remote writing to motor neurons to stop an act of
violence.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 5 		790) Humans walk around with robot servants.4 These robots clean and cook for
their owners.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050 (my own
estimate}
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4564) An artificial muscle robot can fly by flapping wings.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 2 		4566) The first air highway, for autopiloted flying cars, is established.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050}
  
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 1 		6300) Bacteria are identified and destroyed by microscopic devices inside an
animal body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100} {2050}
  
51 YAN
[2051 AD] 5 6 7 		6520) There are 10 billion humans on Earth.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopulationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
7. ^ Ted Huntington
  
55 YAN
[2055 AD] 1 		6302) Cancer cell growth is stopped by microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2055}

MORE INFO
[1] Schroeder, Avi et al. “Treating Metastatic Cancer with
Nanotechnology.” Nat Rev Cancer 12.1 (2012):
39–50. http://www.nature.com/nrc/journal/v12/n1/full/nrc3180.html?WT.ec_id=NR
C-201201
  
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 1 		6301) A virus is identified and destroyed by microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
  
75 YAN
[2075 AD] 2 		6445) Humans stop unwanted weather (for example tornadoes and hurricanes), by
changing air temperature using millions of distributed remote control nanometer
sized devices.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
80 YAN
[2080 AD] 		6392) Accelerated nanocamera ships reach another planet and return closeup
images.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		367) Most humans communicate only by images and sounds of thought.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 5 		793) Helicopter-cars form a second line of traffic above the streets.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington (my own estimate)
{2100 my own estimate}

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.sdi.gov/curtis/Trans_Trends.html
[2] future_est.xls
  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		794) 100 ships with humans orbit Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		4569) Most vehicles are machine controlled.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4575) Robots walk on the moon of Earth and build buildings.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
moon of Earth  
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 3 		4613) Humans conquer all bacteria and viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify
and destroy all known bacteria and viruses anywhere inside or outside of the
body.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
  
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 2 		4583) Robots land and walk on an asteroid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2220}
  
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4584) Robots walk and build buildings on Mars.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars  
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 1 		687) Large scale transmutation: Humans can convert most common atoms (like
Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) into much more useful atoms (like
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen). This allows many humans to live independently
of Earth, in ships, and on planets and moons without water, because they can
produce all the air, fuel, water and food they need from the common atoms found
on planets and moons.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
[2] future_est.xls
  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		659) The first major nation to be fully democratic.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. (50 years to get progressive president, 50 years to get
pro fully democratic, 50 years for actual full democracy to be integrated (in
courts, military, laws))
  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		4592) The first humans land on Mars.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		6223) The first "Moon colony". Humans permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
  
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		6304) Nucleic Acids are changed by remote control nanoscale devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058} {2150}
  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		4590) Robots land and walk on planet Mercury.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		4591) Robots land and walk on a moon of Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
Jupiter  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 2 		6642) Humans orbit Venus.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus  
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4594) Humans live permanently on Mars. The first Mars colony. The first city of
another planet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars  
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 3 		4606) Humans land on Mercury.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 6 		792) Robots and other machines have replaced humans in most manual labor tasks
(driving, cleaning, and food planting, harvesting, preparing and serving).4
Robots also do the most dangerous parts of police, and fire fighting.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington (my own
estimate) {2200 my own estimate}
  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 5 		795) 1000 human-filled ships orbit Earth.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
2. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
3. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted
Huntington future_est.xls
5. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls (my own estimate)
  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 2 		4607) Humans live permanently on Mercury.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2350}
Mercury  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		6305) Microscopic devices repair, regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
  
210 YAN
[2210 AD] 2 		4585) Humans land and walk on an asteroid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2240}
  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4589) The end of arrests for recreational drugs in most major nations.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 4 		4611) Humans land on a moon of Jupiter.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter  
275 YAN
[2275 AD] 		661) Most humans are not religious.

MORE INFO
[1] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN EMPIRICAL
ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James Gibbon Princeton
University November 2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[2] MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL CHANGE, AND THE
PERSISTENCE OF TRADITIONAL VALUES* Ronald Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of Michigan religion_inglehart_backer.pdf
[3] future_est.xls
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4595) All money is electronic.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 3 		4598) Humans live permanently in a ship that orbits the Sun.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 1 		4620) Humans land on a moon of Saturn.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Saturn  
290 YAN
[2290 AD] 2 		4599) The first ships that regularly transport humans from Earth to the moon of
Earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2290}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 2 		4581) The end of arrests for nudity in public.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2200}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 4 		4627) Humans land on Uranus and its moons.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
Uranus  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 2 		4609) Humans switch to a single time system for all places in the universe.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2350}
  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 2 3 		4630) Humans reach Neptune and land on its moon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {2900}
Neptune  
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 		6393) The first microscopic ships to reach another star (Alpha Centauri) and to
return the first closeup images of the planets around another star.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
370 YAN
[2370 AD] 1 		6209) Living objects on planets of a different star are identified (bacteria
made of DNA on planets around Centauri).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2760} {2765}
Alpha Centauri  
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 2 		4612) Humans send ships with robots to the stars of Alpha Centauri.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2400}
  
420 YAN
[2420 AD] 		779) Most humans in developed nations reject the theory of gods.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/services/index.html
[2] future_est.xls
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 1 2 		683) The removal and conversion of the Venus atmosphere is started.

This is the first major "conversion of a gas atmosphere" engineering work of
humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/venusfact.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 6 7 		686) The end of death by aging.4
Using genetic editing, humans can reach any
developmental stage, and then hold that body shape indefinitely, dying only
from physical destruction. Humans now live for thousands of years. This causes
the human population to grow at an extremely fast rate.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html {2500}
7. ^ future_est.xls
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		4588) The end of arrests for all forms of trading money for consensual physical
pleasure.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6546) Microscopic ships reach Barnard's star, the second closest star, 6 light
years away, and send back the first images of the planets around Barnard's
star.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6554) The end of homicide, by remote neuron writing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 1 		4617) An asteroid is moved by propulsion, either by cables or by embedded
engines.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		6547) Microscopic ships reach Sirius, 8 light years away, and send back the
first images of the planets around Sirius.

MORE INFO
[1]
Sirius  
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 5 		4619) Humans create atoms from light particles. Photon fusion: the reverse of
separating atoms into light particles.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2650}
  
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 		6555) The first images of large living objects on a planet of another star are
seen.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri  
700 YAN
[2700 AD] 		4605) Robots land and walk on Venus.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus  
750 YAN
[2750 AD] 1 		4622) The first large ship to reach a different star (Alpha Centauri).

Smaller robot ships then land on all the planets and moons of Centauri.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Alpha Centauri  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		24) Humans consume an asteroid.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 2 		4615) Humans live on Venus. The first Venus colony.
Humans live on and under the
surface of Venus in cooled buildings.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2550}
Venus  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4624) Ships containing humans leave for the stars of Alpha Centauri and will
arrive successfully perhaps 400 years later. This begins the colonization of
other stars.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4628) Humans change the motion of a moon. (A moon of Jupiter).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
Jupiter  
850 YAN
[2850 AD] 2 		4580) Humans change the motion of a planet (planet Earth).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800} {2850}
Earth  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		29) A ship impacts the surface of Jupiter. The first image of the surface of
Jupiter is captured. The solid and liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to be 6
times the diameter of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		775) A ship from Centauri leaves for Earth carrying matter from Centauri. This
is part of a long term project of bringing back matter from around Centauri to
be used around the star Earth orbits where consumable atoms are in great
demand.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		4629) Human anatomical changes start to become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. Humans may start to look like ocean organisms
which do not walk but instead move by pushing water using their appendages.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 		4631) The start of the removal of the Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may fear
Jupiter exploding.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter  
1,150 YAN
[3150 AD] 1 		4638) Ships with robots reach the second closest star, Barnard's star.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Barnard's Star  
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4614) A ship from Centauri reaches Earth and returns the first objects from a
different star. Robots around Centauri build ships to go to other stars and
pull them closer.

MORE INFO
[1]
Earth System  
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 5 		4637) Humans reach a different star (Alpha Centauri). Humans now live around
two star systems and so the chance of extinction is greatly decreased.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {3100} {3200 (100
years per light year 400 years}
Alpha Centauri  
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 1 		4639) Humans completely control the motion of planet Mercury.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
1,300 YAN
[3300 AD] 		777) The end of major religions. Most humans belong to no major religion.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald Inglehart University of Michigan Wayne E.
Baker University of Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF ALL
NATIONS: AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy Reynolds, Conrad Hackett,
James Gibbon Princeton University November 2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
  
1,350 YAN
[3350 AD] 1 		4640) Ships with robots reach Sirius.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sirius  
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 3 		4643) The motion of Mars is controlled by orbiting ships.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {3600}
Mars  
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 1 2 		684) The Atmosphere of Venus is completely removed. The surface of Venus
becomes much colder.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
Venus  
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 3 		4645) The motion of Jupiter is controlled.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {3800}
Jupiter  
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4644) The atmosphere of Jupiter is completely removed.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter  
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4646) Humans have robot ships at 10 different stars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 1 		4651) The rings of Saturn are consumed by humans living there.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
Saturn  
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 3 		6379) Humans land on Jupiter.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {4300}
Jupiter  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 1 2 		4579) The Venus atmosphere is like the atmosphere of Earth.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html {4500}
2. ^ future_est.xls {4500}
Venus  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4652) The first ships to hold an orbit above or below the planetary plane.
Ships can get closer to the Sun by occupying an orbit above or below the
planetary plane. They either need to thrust against the y component of the
Sun's gravity or cross the planetary plane.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4655) Humans live on the surface of Jupiter.
Jupiter  
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 2 		4662) The motions of all the planets are under human control.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4500}
  
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 2 		4669) Jupiter is the most populated planet, overtaking the Earth in number of
humans living in, on, and in orbit of it.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {4800}
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4656) The atmosphere of Jupiter is now Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay
gaseous.
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 2 3 		4666) More humans live in ships than live in and on the surface of all the
planets, moons and asteroids.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {4700}
  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4668) Humans have robot ships at 50 different stars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 5 		4671) The first image of advanced living objects that evolved around a
different star.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {5100}
  
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 2 		4673) Humans inhabit 10 stars and have robot ships around 100 stars.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {5200}
  
3,500 YAN
[5500 AD] 		6176) The position of the Sun is under human control and is moved in the
direction of Centauri.
Sun  
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4674) The stars of Centauri are moved towards the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1]
Centauri  
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 5 		4675) Humans touch advanced living objects that evolved around a different
star.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {6000}
  
4,500 YAN
[6500 AD] 		4676) Humans form a cluster of 4 stars (the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri) and start to look like an "open cluster".

Each star is within 1 light year from each other.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sun-Centauri cluster  
5,000 YAN
[7000 AD] 1 2 		678) One trillion humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
2. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html {15,505 YAN (rate=0.033%)
(at current rate is 2600}
  
9,000 YAN
[11000 AD] 2 		4680) Genetic engineering may produce humans that use photosynthesis, only
needing water, oxygen, and light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {11000}
  
10,000 YAN
[12000 AD] 2 		4681) Genetic engineering may remove the requirement of humans to urinate,
defecate, and sleep.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {12000}
  
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 		679) One quadrillion humans (1015).

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 1 		4683) Our descendents probably will look very different from humans now,
adapted for efficiency and to low gravity space.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
15,000 YAN
[17000 AD] 		6570) More humans live around other stars than live around the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
19,000 YAN
[21000 AD] 		6548) One quintillion humans (1018).

MORE INFO
[1] http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
  
25,000 YAN
[27000 AD] 		4677) Humans have robot ships around 1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form an
open cluster of 10 stars.
  
45,000 YAN
[47000 AD] 		4679) Humans have robot ships around 10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and form
a cluster of 100 stars.
  
50,000 YAN
[52000 AD] 		4658) All asteroids are consumed.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
63,000 YAN
[65000 AD] 		6171) Humans reach the center of the Earth.

MORE INFO
[1] Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth  
65,000 YAN
[67000 AD] 2 		6174) Earth is completely filled with living objects, and has a population of
10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN1 } (1019) humans.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed matter was extracted, cooled and consumed,
mostly as building materials, fuel, and food. Earth is completely filled with
tunnels, rooms, and living objects.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quintillion." The American Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/quintillion
2. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth  
70,000 YAN
[72000 AD] 		4684) Humans have robot ships at 100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars, and form
a cluster of 1,000 stars.
  
90,000 YAN
[92000 AD] 2 		6210) Humans form a globular cluster of 10,000 stars. This cluster starts to
leave the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy.

The human population is now around 50 sextillion (50 x 1021).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington based on 0.03% growth from 2000 to 90000
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
{10000} {92,108 YAN (0.01% growth rate) (was 10000}
  
121,000 YAN
7 8 9 10 		681) The Moon of Earth population reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
9. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html {3800}
10. ^ future_est.xls {3800}
Moon of Earth  
125,500 YAN
4672) Planet Mercury is completely filled with living objects.
Mercury  
127,000 YAN
7 8 9 		682) The population of humans on planet Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1
quintillion (1 x 1018) humans. 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^ http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
8. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
9. ^ future_est.xls
Mars  
138,000 YAN
4678) All the planets of the Sun are consumed.

All that remains are ships that orbit the Sun; most matter must now be taken
from the Sun and other stars.

MORE INFO
[1] Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
  
148,000 YAN
1 		100) The Sun is consumed.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
  
205,000 YAN
6317) Sirius is consumed.
Sirius  
630,000 YAN
106) Ten to the power 100 humans.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
1,000,000,000 YAN
3 4 		4685) All the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy belong to a globular cluster. The
Milky Way is now an elliptical galaxy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington. {100002000}
Milky Way Galaxy  
25,000,000,000 YAN
4686) The star clusters in the outer areas are pulled closer to the center
making the galaxy more spherical, and the galaxy develops a massive propulsion
system in order to go get more matter to consume. The Milky Way is now a
spherical globular galaxy.
Milky Way Galaxy  
30,000,000,000 YAN
4687) The Milky Way Globular Galaxy integrates the matter of the two Magellanic
Cloud galaxies.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy  
40,000,000,000 YAN
4688) The Milky Way and Andromeda globular galaxies join.4

The Andromeda and Milky Way globular galaxies may merge into a single larger
galaxy, which then resumes the search for a smaller galaxy to consume. Natural
selection must also create a large scale "eat or be eaten", "predator-prey"
existence for galaxies similar to that on Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy and Andromeda Galaxy  
"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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