TIMEEVENT DESCRIPTIONLOCATIONIMAGES

UNIVERSE
1,000,000,000,000 YBN
1) We are a tiny part of a universe
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
990,000,000,000 YBN
2) There is more space than matter.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
980,000,000,000 YBN
3) All matter is made of particles of
light.10 Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies.11
In this sense light particles are the
most basic atoms.12

The basic order of matter from smaller
to larger is light particles, electrons
and positrons, muons, protons and
antiprotons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular
clusters, galaxies, and then galactic
clusters.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
970,000,000,000 YBN
11) The universe has no start or end.
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
960,000,000,001 YBN
5) Matter and motion can never be
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
950,000,000,000 YBN
6) Light particles become trapped with
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.6

This accumulation of light particles
into atoms may be the result of
particle collision, gravitation, or a
combination of both.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
940,000,000,000 YBN
7) All of the billions of galaxies we
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.6

Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.7

As telescopes grow larger, the number
of galaxies and the distance we can see
will increase.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980). (estimate of how many galaxies)
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
935,000,000,000 YBN
4) There is a pattern in the universe.
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters.
These globular clusters together form
an elliptical galaxy, and then finally
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter in stars, in addition to
matter from external sources.

So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy, an
elliptical galaxy, and finally a
globular galaxy.5

Globular galaxies at our scale may be
light particles at a much larger scale,
just as light particles at our scale
may be globular galaxies at a much
smaller scale. This system may go on
infinitely in both larger and smaller
scale.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg

[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
930,000,000,000 YBN
8) An expanding universe seems unlikely
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because
spectrum size changes the position of
spectral lines (as clearly shown in the
1936 Humason photo)5 , and because the
distance of a light source changes the
position, but not the frequency of
spectral lines6 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
3. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
4. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
5. ^ Humason, M. L., "The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000010.000.
html
6. ^ Ted Huntington, "Spectral line
position depends on distance of light
source - Bragg Equation Effect",
04/03/2012. http://tedhuntington.com/pa
per_Bragg.htm
 
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

LIFE
165,000,000,000 YBN
13) The Milky Way Nebula starts to
form.5

Galaxies may form from accumulation of
light particles and from the collision
of two or more galaxies.

If a galaxy is viewed as an exponential
accumulation of light particles
starting from a single light particle
up until 500 billion stars, only in the
last 16% of that time would a galaxy
have enough matter for even a single
star.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
33,000,000,000 YBN
6180) The first star in the Milky Way
Galaxy forms.8

Stars may form from the accumulation of
matter or from collisions of two or
more large bodies. As time goes by,
less collisions occur around a star,
because most smaller objects are
absorbed by the star and planets.9

Stars and planets may have centers of
densely packed unmoving light
particles. The less dense and colder
area near the surface of planets and
stars may allow atoms and molecules to
form and stay together. Many light
particles must move through the
internal maze of matter inside planets
and stars to eventually reach the
surface and escape into empty space.10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
22,000,000,000 YBN
6181) Living objects in the Milky Way
Galaxy reach another star using a ship,
perhaps 5 billion years after the first
stars formed.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg

[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
10,000,000,000 YBN
6182) The first globular cluster of
100,000 stars forms in the Milky Way
Galaxy.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg

[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
6 		16) The star the Earth orbits forms.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington, guess

MORE INFO
[1]
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/mar
1/nucleo.html (with image of onion
skin layers)
[2] another person declares star
inside to be similar to planets: iron,
oxygen, nickel, etc. do not support
standard solar
model. star_inside_iron.pdf
 
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
5,500,000,000 YBN
9 		17) Planets form around our star from
many collisions. Like the star, they
are red hot with liquid rock and metals
on the surface. Lighter atoms move to
the surface of the planets. Larger
planets are surrounded by gas.6

As the number of collisions decreases,
and smaller objects are absorbed by the
star and planets, the average
temperature of the star system is
lowered. As the temperature of the
planets and moons decreases, their
surfaces solidify, and water and other
molecules condense at the surface.7

Perhaps most outer planets are larger,
because their orbit covers a larger
space which includes more matter.8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg


[2] This artist’s impression shows
the disk of gas and cosmic dust around
the young star HD 142527. Astronomers
using the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)
telescope have seen vast streams of gas
flowing across the gap in the disc
UNKNOWN
source: http://l2.yimg.com/bt/api/res/1.
2/kB0xEBWbOe3fUGcRF7Y3RA--/YXBwaWQ9eW5ld
3M7Zmk9aW5zZXQ7aD00MDg7cT03OTt3PTU3NQ--/
http://media.zenfs.com/en_US/News/SPACE.
com/Never-Before-Seen_Stage_of_Planet_Bi
rth-893372caafae611ec5e71458c2f79fb8
4,600,000,000 YBN
21) The moon of Earth is captured.4

The moon of Earth may form as a planet
that is captured by the Earth, or a
planet that collides with the Earth and
then reforms from the remaining matter
of the collision, or forms in orbit of
the Earth at the same time the Earth
forms.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg

[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg

4,600,000,000 YBN
6 7 		30) Planet Earth cools. Molten liquid
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
2. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
3. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
4. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
5. ^ part about rain and streams going
to bottom of land:
http://www.ersdac.or.jp/Others/geoessay_
htm/geoessay_e/geo_text_09_e.htm
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg

[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
4,600,000,000 YBN
7 		50) The start of the "Precambrian" and
the Hadean {HA DEen5 } Eon.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
3. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

6. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
7. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4,571,000,000 YBN
7 8 		31) The oldest meteorite yet found on
Earth: 4.57 billion years old.5 6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
3. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
4. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
5. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7830
48.stm
7. ^
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/288/5472/1819?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits
=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=zag+morocco&s
earchid=1129920472874_9236&stored_search
=&FIRSTINDEX=0#RF2 (4.7 +- .2 billion
years)
8. ^ sci has 4.7 +- .2 by where did
4.571 come from?
 
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
4,530,000,000 YBN
33) The oldest Moon rock returned from
the Moon (4.53 billions old).3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
2. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
3. ^
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
 
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
4,404,000,000 YBN
34) The oldest "terrestrial" zircon;
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of Earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
2. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
3. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/links/01011
1/010111-1.html
 
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
4,400,000,000 YBN
18) Larger molecules form on Earth,
like amino acids, phosphates, and
sugars, the components of living
objects.10

These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of Earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with high frequency from the
Sun, and from ocean floor volcanoes.11


The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult. Amino acids link up to form
polymers called proteins, simple fatty
acids plus alcohols link up to form
lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars
like glucose and sucrose link together
to form complex carbohydrates and
starches, and finally, the nucleotide
bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link
up to form nucleic acids, the genetic
code of organisms, known as RNA and
DNA.12

Perhaps all proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and DNA are strictly the
products of living objects, while RNA
can assemble without the help of any
living objects.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p150.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p150.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted
Huntington.
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters", 2007, p150.
13. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
4,395,000,000 YBN
19) Nucleic acids form on Earth.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
4,385,000,000 YBN
167) The first proteins on Earth.
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules ("messenger"
or mRNA molecules), as a template.

This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.6

Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, while another part
has a 3 nucleotide sequence that bonds
with an opposite matching 3 nucleotide
sequence on an mRNA molecule.7

Perhaps this system, where tRNA
molecules build proteins directly from
free floating RNA strands, evolves
before the first ribosome and the first
cell.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,380,000,000 YBN
40) A protein can copy RNA. This
protein is called an RNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS5 }.

For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building proteins (with the help of
tRNA molecules) and also as a template
for building other nucleic acid
molecules.6

An RNA polymerase must be one of the
first useful proteins to be assembled
by the early (presumably) precellular
protein production system. Eventually
an RNA strand that codes for the RNA
polymerase and the tRNA needed to make
the polymerase may be copied many
times.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Polymerase."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Polymerase."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Schuppli, Daniel et al.
“Altered 3′-terminal RNA Structure
in Phage Qβ Adapted to Host
Factor-less Escherichia Coli.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 94.19 (1997): 10239 –10242.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/94/1
9/10239.abstract
 
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif

[2] [t Notice that many RNA molecules
are being produced all in sequence,
with each RNA molecule getting longer
as each protein reaches the end of the
DNA molecule.] Micrograph of gene
transcription of ribosomal RNA
illustrating the growing primary
transcripts. ''Begin'' indicates the 5'
end of the coding strand of DNA, where
new RNA synthesis begins; ''end''
indicates the 3' end, where the primary
transcripts are almost
complete. This is an alternate
version of
Image:RibosomaleTranskriptionsEinheit.jp
g, original author identified as Dr.
Hans-Heinrich Trepte, labeled in
German. This version with English
labels is from en:Image:Transcription
label fromcommons.jpg, by
en:UserOpabinia regalis, licensed under
GFDL. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Transcription_label_e
n.jpg
4,370,000,000 YBN
168) The ribosome evolves. The first
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
polymerase, tRNA, and ribosomes.
Alternatively the first ribosome may
not evolve until after the first cell.

All cells contain ribosomes.4
Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
These molecular machines are
responsible for accurately translating
the linear genetic code on the
messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28 Nov.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
2. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
3. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
5. ^ "ribosome." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 28
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ribosome
 
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png

[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
4,365,000,000 YBN
166) The first Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
allows the assembly of DNA from RNA; a
ribonucleotide reductase.5

This protein changes ribonucleotides
into deoxyribonucleotides, which can
then be assembled into the first DNA
molecules on Earth.6

DNA has the advantage of being more
stable than RNA and can hold together
in longer strands.7 Longer strands
allow for a more complex organism.8
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
2. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
3. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen JB
(March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Elledge SJ, Zhou Z, Allen
JB (March 1992). "Ribonucleotide
reductase: regulation, regulation,
regulation". Trends Biochem. Sci. 17
(3): 119–23.
DOI:10.1016/0968-0004(92)90249-9. PMID
1412696.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Lurquin, P.F. The Origins
of Life and the Universe. COLUMBIA
University Press, 2003, p.
132. http://books.google.com/books?id=2
-qdwqOd1BsC&pg=PA132
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png

[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
4,360,000,000 YBN
212) A protein can copy DNA molecules,
a DNA polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS6 }.7
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
2. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
3. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
4. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
5. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
6. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
7. ^ "DNA polymerase." Genetics. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2003. Answers.com 04
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dna-polymer
ase
 
[1] A look at DNA replication, with the
inset showing a larger and general
view. ''Pol'' stands for polymerase, a
key enzyme. Note how each enzyme works
in a 'biochemical team' to complete the
process efficiently COPYRIGHTED
source: http://genmed.yolasite.com/resou
rces/DNA20replication.jpg

[2] Description Diagram of DNA
polymerase extending a DNA strand and
proof-reading. Date Source Own
work Author Madprime GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/DNA_polymerase.svg
4,360,000,000 YBN
6409) Transcription evolves. A protein
(an RNA polymerase) assembles RNA from
DNA.
 
[1] Transcription: DNA-> RNA In E. coli
it is possible to see the strands of
RNA transcripts under the electron
microscope. Relate the image seen under
an electron microscope with the drawing
in your book in Figure 13-3. Why do you
not see any protein strands coming from
the mRNA in the electron microscope
image? UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utexas.edu/courses/zo
o325/13-4.gif

[2] RNA is a versatile molecule. In
its most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
4,355,000,000 YBN
20) The first cell on Earth evolves.
This is the first prokaryotic cell and
first bacterium. DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes;
the first cytoplasm.15

This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.16

The DNA of this cell is a template
containing the code for a copying
molecule (DNA polymerase
{PoL-u-mu-rAS17 }), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied.18

This is the start of binary cell
division. DNA polymerase duplicates DNA
within the cell and then the cell
divides into two parts.19 A system of
division may evolve in which the
original and the newly synthesized copy
of DNA are each attached to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated,
and the growing mass can eventually
divide into two cells.20

This is also the start of passive
transport. Amino acids, nucleotides,
water, and other molecules enter and
exit the cytoplasm only because of a
difference in concentration from inside
and outside the cell. This represents
the beginnings of the first digestive
system.

This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on Earth. These first cells are
probably anaerobic (or anoxygenic- do
not require free oxygen) and are
heterotrophic, meaning that they do not
make their own food (amino acids,
nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars)
but instead depend on obtaining these
molecules from external sources.21
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p145-154.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Ted
Huntington.
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p145-154.
11. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted
Huntington.
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Prothero, "Evolution:
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p145-154.
17. ^ "Polymerase."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 26 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Ted Huntington.
20. ^ Ted
Huntington.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
4,350,000,000 YBN
11 		183) Cells make the first lipids on
Earth; (fats, oils, and waxes8 )9 by
making proteins that can assemble
lipids.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ find biomarker evidence
2. ^ "lipid." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "lipid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lipid
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg

[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
4,345,000,000 YBN
27) A phospholipid bilayer evolves
around the cell, providing added
protection from the external
environment.4 All extant cells have
this phospholipid bilayer.5

When phospholipids are added to water,
they self-assemble into double-layered
aggregates, or bilayers, with the
phosphate part of the molecule on the
outside and the fatty acid tail part on
the inside.6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Campbell, N.A.,
and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Alternative
eText Formats Series, p76-77.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p76-77.
6. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p76-77.
7. ^ Sadava, D. et al. Life: The
Science of Biology. W. H. Freeman,
2009,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ANT8VB14oBUC&pg=PA107
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p77.

[2] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
4,340,000,000 YBN
26) Possibly DNA that is connected in a
circle allows the DNA polymerase to
make continuous copies of the cell,
which may increase the speed of cell
growth, duplication, and division.1

As far as is known bacteria do not die
of old age, but if a mutation stops
them from dividing, then they die.
Bacteria can also die from physical
destruction in addition to lack of food
and water.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Hardy, S. Human
Microbiology. Taylor & Francis, 2002.
Lifelines Series.
 
[1] PLATE IV. Autoradiographs showing
examples of the replicated portion of
both symmetrically aud asymmetrically
reinitiated chromosomes. Spores of B.
subtilis 168 thy-trp- were
germinated in t,he absence of thymine
and allowed to incorporate
[methyZ-3H]thymine as follows: (a) and
(b), 160 to 190 min; (d), (e) and (f),
160 to 200 min; (c) and (g), 150 to 200
min. Autoradiographs were prepared in
the usual manner. The scale shows 100
pm. See Materials and Methods for
other details. Wake, R.G.
“Visualization of Reinitiated
Chromosomes in Bacillus Subtilis.”
Journal of Molecular Biology 68.3
(1972):
501–509. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/0022283672901027 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0022283672901027

[2] Electron Micrograph of RecA
protein-coated DNA trefoil knot
generated by E.coli DNA topoisomerase 1
acting on nicked circular DNA.
Micrograph courtesy of A. Stasiak,
University of Lausanne. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/i
ssues/20/assets/images/wertheim1.jpg
4,340,000,000 YBN
64) Operons evolve. An operon is a
sequence of DNA which a protein binds
with in order to block RNA polymerase
from building an mRNA molecule, from
part of the sequence, which would be
translated into a protein. Operons
allow a bacterium to produce certain
proteins only when necessary. Bacteria
before now can only build a constant
stream of all proteins encoded in their
DNA.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

2. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
3. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

4. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
5. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

6. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
7. ^
http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/03441/Te
rmPapers/99TermPapers/GenEvo/operon.html

8. ^
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gen
e-regulation.html#table
9. ^ "operon." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/operon
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a

[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
4,340,000,000 YBN
6340) Facilitated diffusion evolves.
Proteins in the cell membrane allow
only certain molecules to enter the
cell.3

"Facilitated diffusion" is passive
transport aided by proteins.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
2. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
3. ^ Daniel V. Lim, "Microbiology",
2002,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA101
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P134-135.
 
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.

[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
4,335,000,000 YBN
28) Cellular respiration. Glycolysis
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now
make ATP (adenosine {oDeNoSEN8 }
triphosphate) by converting glucose
into pyruvate {PIrUVAT9 }. This is the
beginning of cellular respiration, how
cells convert food into ATP and waste
products.10

ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.11

That glycolysis is the most widespread
metabolic pathway, that it occurs in
the cytoplasm, not in an organelle, and
that it is the first stage in
fermentation all imply an ancient
origin.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
4. ^
"adenosine." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adenosine
5. ^ "pyruvate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyruvate
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162.
7. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition,
2008, p162.
8. ^ "adenosine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adenosine
9. ^ "pyruvate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyruvate
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162.
11. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p179.
 
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png

[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
4,330,000,000 YBN
44) Fermentation evolves in the cell
cytoplasm. Cells can make lactic acid.4


These cells, which are anaerobic, can
now convert pyruvate, the final product
of glycolysis, into lactate (an ionized
form of lactic acid), and in the
process refuel glycolysis and the
production of ATP molecules.5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
2. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
3. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
4. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
5. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008, p162-184.
6. ^
http://216.239.63.104/search?q=cache:3s2
stckAJoMJ:www.nmc.edu/~ftank/115f04/Ch%2
5209%2520Notes.pdf+cellular+respiration+
oldest&hl=en
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
pnghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skeletal
.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.png

4,325,000,000 YBN
213) A second kind of fermentation
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) into
ethanol.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p178. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p178.

[2] Ethanol Full structural
formula, Ball and Stick Model, and
Space-Filling Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.pnght
tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.pnghttp://uplo
ad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/
Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
4,315,000,000 YBN
196) Active transport evolves. Proteins
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.7 8 9

Active transport enables a cell to
maintain internal concentrations of
small molecules that differ from the
cell's surroundings.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
2. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
3. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
4. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
5. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
6. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
7. ^
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser/biotuto
rials/eustruct/cmeu.html
8. ^ "active transport." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
9. ^ "active transport." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 10 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/active-tran
sport
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
 
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.

[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
4,200,000,000 YBN
5 6 		292) The prokaryote flagellum evolves.4

Prokaryotic cells now have more
mobility, and can make more choices
about their location.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^
conjugation in protists, flagella in
eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa
and Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^ conjugation in
protists, flagella in eukaryotes:
Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).
4. ^ conjugation in protists,
flagella in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The Timetree
of Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Pallen MJ, Matzke NJ (October
2006). "From The Origin of Species to
the origin of bacterial flagella".
Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4 (10):
784–90. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1493. PMID
16953248. http://www.nature.com/nrmicro
/journal/v4/n10/full/nrmicro1493.html
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[4] David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
[5] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L.
TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[6] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
 
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m

[2] Description English: A
Gram-negative bacterial flagellum. A
flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long,
slender projection from the cell body,
whose function is to propel a
unicellular or small multicellular
organism. The depicted type of
flagellum is found in bacteria such as
E. coli and Salmonella, and rotates
like a propeller when the bacterium
swims. The bacterial movement can be
divided in 2 kinds: run, resulting from
a counterclockwise rotation of the
flagellum, and tumbling, from a
clockwise rotation of the
flagellum. Français : Flagelle de
bactérie Gram-négative. Le flagelle
est une projection longue et fine hors
du corps cellulaire, dont la fonction
est de propulser l'organisme. Ce type
de flagelle est présent dans des
bactéries comme Escherichia coli et
Salmonella, et tourne comme une hélice
quand la bactérie se déplace. Le
flagelle peut provoquer deux types de
déplacement selon son sens de
rotation. Date November 2007 Source
self-made References: [1],[2], [3]
(main 3), [4], [5] (propeller
rotation), PMID 17142059
(bend). Author LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flagellum_base_
diagram_en.svg/1000px-Flagellum_base_dia
gram_en.svg.png
4,193,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 		77) The Archaea (also called
archaebacteria) evolve according to
genetic comparison.13 The Phylum
Nanoarcheota.14 15

Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes.16 17 18 19
20 21 22

Archaea have a variety of shapes,
including spherical, rodlike, and
spiral forms.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
5. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel, R.,
Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and Stetter,
K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
7. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
9. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
10. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
11. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
12. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
14. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p102. http://timetree.org/pdf/Battistuz
zi2009Chap06.pdf
15. ^ Huber, H., Hohn, M.J., Rachel,
R., Fuchs, T., Wimmer, V.C., and
Stetter, K.O. "A new phylum of Archaea
represented by a nanosized
hyperthermophilic symbiont." Nature
(2002)
417:63-67. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v417/n6884/full/417063a.html
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
17. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
18. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 2300my
19. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu)
20. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo, "Archaebacteria
vs Metabacteria : Phylogenetic tree of
organisms indicated by comparison of 5S
ribosomal RNA sequences.", (Tokyo:
Springer, Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution
of Life", pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my
21. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {4000my}
22. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
3970my
23. ^ "archaebacterium." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 21 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaebacte
ria
24. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life",
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/pdf/H
edges2009Chap05.pdf
26. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html
27. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996). 2142-1873my
(2142-1873my)
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 2300my (2300my)
29. ^
Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic
timescale of prokaryote evolution:
insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). 4100my (has arche b4
eu) (4100my)
30. ^ Osawa, S., Honjo,
"Archaebacteria vs Metabacteria :
Phylogenetic tree of organisms
indicated by comparison of 5S ribosomal
RNA sequences.", (Tokyo: Springer,
Tokyo/ Berlin eds.:"Evolution of Life",
pp. 325-336,, 1991). 1800my (1800my)
31. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). 4000my
(4000my)
32. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). 3970my (3970my)
 
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg

[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
4,189,000,000 YBN
11 12 		193) The Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles"
evolve (the ancestor of Aquifex and
Thermotoga).7 8

Aquifex and Thermotoga are the only two
major genera {JeN-R-u9 } of eubacteria
that are hyperthermophiles. They grow
best in a environment that is around 80
degrees Celsius (176 degrees
Fahrenheit).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
3. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
4. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A reconstruction
of Archean biological diversity based
on", Geochimica et cosmochimica acta,
(2003).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A
reconstruction of Archean biological
diversity based on", Geochimica et
cosmochimica acta, (2003).
7. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
8. ^ Brocks, Buick, "A reconstruction
of Archean biological diversity based
on", Geochimica et cosmochimica acta,
(2003).
9. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
10. ^ Munn, C.B. Marine Microbiology:
Ecology and Applications. Taylor &
Francis Group, 2004. Advanced Text,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
_S4cJYT3DUC&pg=PA78
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p107-110. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
4,187,000,000 YBN
12 13 		180) The Archaea Phylum: Crenarchaeota
evolves (the ancestor of Sulfolobus).7
8

The Crenarchaea include many organisms
that are extremely thermophilic
{tR-mu-FiL-iK9 } (heat-loving) and
cryophilic {KrI-e-FiL-iK10 }
(cold-loving).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
9. ^ "thermophilic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
hermophilic>.
10. ^ "cryophilic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cryophilic
11. ^ "Crenarchaeota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crenarchaeo
ta
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,187,000,000 YBN
24 25 		181) The Archaea Phylum: Euryarchaeota
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu14 } evolves (the
ancestor of methanogens and
halobacteria {HaL-O-BaK-TER-E-u15 }).16
17

The earliest cell response to light.18


The Euryarchaeota {YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu19 }
are composed of two classes:
methanogens, which produce methane and
are often found in intestines and
sewage, and the halobacteria, which
survive in high concentrations of
salt.20

Some halobacteria use sensory rhodopsin
{rO-DoP-SiN21 } (a pigment sensitive to
red light22 ) for phototaxis (positive
or negative movement along a light
gradient or vector).23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
5. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
9. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
13. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
15. ^ "halobacteria." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
alobacteria>.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/44
18. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euryar
chaeota&submit=Submit
20. ^ Margulis, L., and M.J. Chapman.
Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated
Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth.
Elsevier Science, 2009,
p60-62. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=9IWaqAOGyt4C&pg=PA60
21. ^ "rhodopsin." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
hodopsin>.
22. ^ "rhodopsin." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhodopsin-1

23. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

24. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The Timetree of Life", 2009,
p102-103. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
25. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44

MORE INFO
[1] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin
and evolution of model organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849
(November 2002),
doi:10.1038/nrg929 http://www.nature.co
m/nrg/journal/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html#to
p
 
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg

[2] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
4,112,000,000 YBN
11 		58) The first autotrophic cells; cells
that can produce some of their own
food.5

Autotrophs produce their own sugars,
lipids, and amino acids.6

There are only two kinds of autotrophs:
chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs.7

Chemoautotrophs use chemical nutrients
to synthesize carbohydrates, while
photoautotrophs use light to synthesize
carbohydrates.8 9

This is a chemoautotrophic cell: genes
and metabolic sequences suggest that
chemoautotrophs evolve before
photoautotrophs.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
"autotroph." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
7. ^ "autotroph."Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
8. ^ "autotroph." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autotroph
9. ^ "chemosynthesis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chemosynthe
sis
10. ^ Levin, S.A. et al. The Princeton
Guide to Ecology. Princeton University
Press, 2009,
p361. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4MS-vfT89QMC&pg=PA361
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/44
 
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
4,100,000,000 YBN
18 		49) Photosynthesis evolves.12

Anaerobic bacteria use light particles
to convert carbon dioxide gas and an
electron donor13 (also called a
reductant) like Hydrogen sulfide into
glucose, water, and sulfur.14 This
process of moving carbon from carbon
dioxide gas to the hydrocarbon molecule
glucose is called carbon fixation.15

This is the ancestor of Photosystem
I.16

This system of photosynthesis does not
liberate oxygen.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
3. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
4. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arbon fixation>.
5. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
8. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
9. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arbon fixation>.
10. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
11. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
13. ^ "reductant."Answers.com
14 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reductant
14. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
15. ^ "carbon fixation>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "carbon
fixation." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 14 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arbon fixation>.
16. ^ Lockau, Wolfgang, Wolfgang
Nitschke (1993). "Photosystem I and its
Bacterial Counterparts". Physiologia
Plantarum 88 (2): 372–381.
DOI:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1993.tb05512.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-3054
.1993.tb05512.x
17. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}
18. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/g6n805154602432w/?MUD=MP {Olson_
2006.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
18 		43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II
evolves. Cells with this system emit
free Oxygen.12

Anaerobic13 14 bacteria use light
particles to convert carbon dioxide gas
and water into glucose, releasing
oxygen gas in the process.15 16

This
is the main system responsible for
producing the Oxygen now in the air of
Earth.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
2. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
3. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
4. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
5. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
6. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
7. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
8. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
9. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
10. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
11. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
12. ^
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/fara
bee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html http://www.ebi
.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_11/Page1.htm3
13. ^ Seckbach, J. Algae and
Cyanobacteria in Extreme Environments.
Springer London, Limited, 2007.
Cellular Origin and Life in Extreme
Habitats,
p5-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pHevPVcOVVYC&pg=PA5
14. ^ Carr, N.G., and B.A. Whitton. The
Biology of Cyanobacteria. University of
California Press, 1982. Botanical
Monographs, V. 19,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zbX39nuSOMUC&pg=PA221
15. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
16. ^ Frank H. Shu, "The Physical
Universe: An Introduction to
Astronomy", 1982,
p537. http://books.google.com/books?id=
v_6PbAfapSAC&pg=PA537
17. ^ "photosynthesis". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/458172/photosynthesis>.
18. ^ Olson JM (May 2006).
"Photosynthesis in the Archean era".
Photosyn. Res. 88 (2): 109–17.
doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID
16453059.

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, Reece, "Biology",
2009, 190-198
 
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif

[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
4,000,000,000 YBN
10 		51) The end of the Hadean {HADEiN7 }
and start of the Archean {oRKEiN8 }
Eon.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

2. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

5. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
6. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
7. ^ "Hadean Time." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hadean-time

8. ^ "Archean." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/archaean
9. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
10. ^ "Divisions of Geologic Time",
2010,
USGS http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/
pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
3,950,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		37) (Filamentous) multicellularity
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments. Cells stay
fastened together after cell division.7


Multicellularity appears to have
evolved independently multiple times in
the history of life on Earth.8 9

With multicellularity comes the
evolution of differentiation, cells
with different functions.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
2. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
3. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
4. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
5. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
6. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
7. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins of
multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
8. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
9. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
10. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Bonner J. T. 1998 The
origins of multicellularity. Integr.
Biol. 1, 27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
13. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] Grosberg R. K., Strathmann R.
R. 2007 The evolution of
multicellularity: a minor major
transition? Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.
38, 621–654.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.1
14735)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/1
0.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735
[2] Rokas A. 2008 The origins of
multicellularity and the early history
of the genetic toolkit for animal
development. Ann. Rev. Genet. 42,
235–251.
(doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091
513) http://apps.webofknowledge.com/Inb
oundService.do?UT=000261767000011&IsProd
uctCode=Yes&mode=FullRecord&product=WOS&
SID=1EHDdbNiNf4NO8nC299&smartRedirect=ye
s&SrcApp=CR&DestFail=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.we
bofknowledge.com%3FDestApp%3DCEL%26DestP
arams%3D%253Faction%253Dretrieve%2526mod
e%253DFullRecord%2526product%253DCEL%252
6UT%253D000261767000011%2526customersID%
253DHighwire%26e%3DQZIAIzGgKoYbxc_i_WNam
laqQ0.s968BNEwQvqhM9p.770dFYju0AbJCFAAcj
orA%26SrcApp%3DHighwire%26SrcAuth%3DHigh
wire&action=retrieve&Init=Yes&SrcAuth=Hi
ghwire&customersID=Highwire&Func=Frame
 
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG

[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
3,950,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		316) Cell differentiation evolves in
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.4

One early cell differentiation is that
only the cell at the tip of the
filament can divide while the older
cells below the tip do not divide.5

Multicellular organisms can die from
aging, a series of cell
differentiations that ultimately result
in the inability for the multicellular
body to continue functioning and to
decay.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ Alexandre Meinesz, "How life
began: evolution's three geneses",
2008,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AL0fo20Tk3sC&pg=PA155
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al.
“The Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
8. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
9. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Bonner J. T. 1998 The origins
of multicellularity. Integr. Biol. 1,
27–36.
(doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0
.CO;2-6)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1%3C27::AID-
INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/abstract;jsessionid=D
EEFA3C8E4647CC2CECE51E3692EAF4B.d01t03
 
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg

[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
3,950,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		322) Nitrogen fixation evolves. Cells
can make nitrogen compounds like
ammonia from Nitrogen gas in the air.7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
2. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
3. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
4. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
5. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
6. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
7. ^ "Nitrogen fixation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fi
xation
8. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
9. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
10. ^ Tomitani, Akiko et al. “The
Evolutionary Diversification of
Cyanobacteria: Molecular–phylogenetic
and Paleontological Perspectives.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.14 (2006): 5442
–5447. http://www.pnas.org/content/10
3/14/5442.full
11. ^ N. G. Carr, B. A. Whitton, "The
biology of blue-green algae", p238.
http://books.google.com/books?id=fSRPg-D
0Jk0C&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238
12. ^ GOLUBIC, STJEPKO, VLADIMIR N.
SERGEEV, and ANDREW H. KNOLL.
“Mesoproterozoic Archaeoellipsoidès:
Akinetes of Heterocystous
Cyanobacteria.” Lethaia 28.4 (1995):
285–298. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1995.tb01817.
x/abstract
West Africa9  
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
3,900,000,000 YBN
57) Aerobic cellular respiration
evolves. The first aerobic (or
"oxygenic") cell. These cells use
oxygen to convert glucose into carbon
dioxide, water, and ATP.5

Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as
an alternative to fermentation by using
oxygen to break down the product of
glycolysis, pyruvate, into carbon
dioxide and water, producing up to 38
ATP molecules in the process.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
2. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
edition, 2008, p162-184.
3. ^ Campbell, Reece, et
al, "Biology", 8th edition, 2008,
p162-184.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
5. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th edition,
2008, p162-184.
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p162-184.
 
[1] purple aerobic bacteria UNKNOWN
source: http://endosymbiotichypothesis.f
iles.wordpress.com/2010/09/rain-bacteria
.jpg

[2] Organisms of Rickettsia conorii
(r), a close relative of R. rickettsii,
in a cultured human endothelial cell
are located free in the cytosol. One
rickettsia is dividing by binary
fission (arrowhead). (B) These
rickettsiae can move inside the
cytoplasm of the host cell because of
the propulsive force created by the
''tail'' of host cell actin filaments
(arrow). Bars = 0.5 µm. Photo and
text courtesy of David H. Walker -
http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch038.htm
UNKNOWN AND Rickettsia prowazekii
(image with Rickettsia outside of
cell) COPYRIGHTED [1] Rickettsia
prowazekii COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.bio.davidson.edu/peop
le/sosarafova/Assets/Bio307/liwoeste/Pic
tures/Walker%203%5B1%5D.jpghttp://web.ms
t.edu/~microbio/bio221_2001/Image9.jpg
3,850,000,000 YBN
24 		36) The oldest physical evidence for
life: the ratio of carbon-13 to
carbon-12 in grains of ancient apetite
{aPeTIT16 } (which are calcium
phosphate minerals).17 18 19

Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving
source (such as calcium carbonate or
limestone).20 21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
2. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

3. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
4. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

5. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
6. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

7. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
8. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
9. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

10. ^ "apatite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
11. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
12. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

13. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
14. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
15. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

16. ^ "apatite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
17. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
18. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

19. ^ "apatite." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatite
20. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
21. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

22. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
23. ^
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

24. ^ Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence
for Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html AND
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Banded iron formation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/banded-iron
-formation
[2] Mojzsis, S. J. et al. "Evidence for
Life on Earth Before 3,800 Million
Years Ago." Nature 384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html
AND http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Akilia Island, Western Greenland22 23
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
3,850,000,000 YBN
23 		45) The oldest sediment, the Banded
Iron Formation begins.17
Banded Iron
Formation is sedimentary rock that
spans from 3.8 to 1.8 billion years
ago, made of iron-rich silicates (like
silicon dioxide SiO2) with alternating
layers of black colored ferrous
(reduced) iron and red colored ferric
(oxidized) iron.18 19 These
alternating layers represent a
seasonal cycle where the quantity of
free oxygen in the ocean rises and
falls, possibly linked to
photosynthetic organisms.20 21

The atmosphere of Earth still has only
small amounts of oxygen at this time.
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
2. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
3. ^ Cesare Emiliani, Plant
Earth 1992:407f, and Tjeerd van Andel,
New Views on an Old Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Konhauser,
Kurt O. et al. “Could Bacteria Have
Formed the Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations?” Geology 30.12 (2002):
1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
6. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
11. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
16. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Cesare
Emiliani, Plant Earth 1992:407f, and
Tjeerd van Andel, New Views on an Old
Planet 2nd ed.
1994:303-05. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=R6b3skeNXrgC
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^
Konhauser, Kurt O. et al. “Could
Bacteria Have Formed the Precambrian
Banded Iron Formations?” Geology
30.12 (2002): 1079 -1082.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/30/12/1079.abstract
21. ^ Kappler, Andreas et al.
“Deposition of Banded Iron Formations
by Anoxygenic Phototrophic
Fe(II)-oxidizing Bacteria.” Geology
33.11 (2005): 865 -868.
Print. http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/33/11/865.abstract
22. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov 7,
1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102,
23. ^ Mojzsis, et al. nature nov
7, 1996
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.t
af?file=/nature/journal/v384/n6604/index
.html, 2:102, {3850 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Roger Lewin, "Thread of
Life", (New York: Smithsonian Books,
1982). p102
[2]
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/Rogue
ComCollege/RCC_Lectures/Banded_Iron.html

[3] "Banded iron formation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_iron
_formation
Akilia Island, Western Greenland22
 
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96

[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
3,500,000,000 YBN
13 14 		39) The oldest fossil evidence of life:
stromatolites. Stromatolites made by
photosynthetic bacteria are found in
both Western Australia, and South
Africa.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
2. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
3. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
4. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
5. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
6. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
7. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
8. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J. S.
R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites 3,400-3,500
Myr Old from the North Pole Area,
Western Australia." Nature 284.5755
(1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
9. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
10. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
11. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
12. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
13. ^ Walter, M. R., R. Buick, and J.
S. R. Dunlop. "Stromatolites
3,400-3,500 Myr Old from the North Pole
Area, Western Australia." Nature
284.5755 (1980):
443–445. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v284/n5755/abs/284441a0.html
14. ^ Byerly, Gary R., Donald R. Lower,
and Maud M. Walsh. "Stromatolites from
the 3,300-3,500-Myr Swaziland
Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land,
South Africa." Nature 319.6053 (1986):
489–491. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v319/n6053/abs/319489a0.html
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and, Fig
Tree Group, South Africa11 12  
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6

[2]
source: 1986
3,500,000,000 YBN
28 29 30 31 		287) The oldest fossils of an organism,
and the oldest prokaryote and bacteria
fossils. The organism is similar to
cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u19 },
and is found in the 3,500 million year
old chert (sedimentary rock made of
silica20 ) in Australia21 22 and South
Africa.23

2.8 billion years will pass before the
first animal evolves.24 25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

2. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
3. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

4. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
5. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

9. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
12. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
13. ^ "chert." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chert
14. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

15. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
16. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
17. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
18. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
19. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
20. ^ "chert." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chert
21. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

22. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
23. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
24. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
25. ^ Record ID81. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
26. ^ Schopf, J.
William et al. "Laser-Raman Imagery of
Earth’s Earliest Fossils." Nature
416.6876 (2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html
27. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
28. ^ Walsh, Maud M., and Donald R.
Lowe. "Filamentous Microfossils from
the 3,500-Myr-old Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa."
Nature 314.6011 (1985):
530–532. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v314/n6011/abs/314530a0.html
29. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

30. ^ Schopf, J. W. Microfossils of the
Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence
of the antiquity of life. Science 260,
640−646
(1993). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/260/5108/640
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2881249

31. ^ Schopf, J. William et al.
"Laser-Raman Imagery of Earth’s
Earliest Fossils." Nature 416.6876
(2002):
73–76. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v416/n6876/abs/416073a.html

MORE INFO
[1] BIO415 (Author? University?)
Multicelluarity.pdf (t3:
multicellularity of cyanobacteria)
[2] t3:
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
"Some cyanobacteria species exist in a
truly, though primitive, multicellular
form in which cellular differentiation
occurs."
Warrawoona, northwestern Western
Australia26 and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa27
 
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416

[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
3,400,000,000 YBN
8 		190) The earliest fossils of coccoid
{KoKOED5 } (spherical) bacteria.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "coccoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ "coccoid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccoid
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
7. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
8. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)

MORE INFO
[1] maybe evidence: Nagy, B. and
Nagy, L.A., 1969. Early Precambrian
microstructures: possibly the oldest
fossils on Earth?. Nature 223, pp.
1226-1229.?
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa7  
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261

[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
3,260,000,000 YBN
7 		71) The earliest fossil evidence of
prokaryote reproduction by budding.4

Like binary division, budding is a form
of asexual reproduction. However, with
budding a new individual develops from
a certain point of the parent organism.
The new individual may separate to
exist independently, or the buds may
remain attached, forming colonies.5
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
2. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
3. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
4. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
5. ^ "budding." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/83411/budding>.
6. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
7. ^ Hans D. Pflug, Earliest organic
evolution. Essay to the memory of
Bartholomew Nagy, Precambrian Research,
Volume 106, Issues 1–2, 1 February
2001, Pages 79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261)
Swartkoppie, South Africa6  
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3

[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
3,235,000,000 YBN
3 		68) The earliest Archaea fossils.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
2. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
3. ^ Rasmussen, Birger. "Filamentous
Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit." Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
(Sulphur Springs Deposit) Pilbara
Craton of Australia2  
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html

[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
3,200,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		66) The earliest acritarch fossils
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity13 14 ). These
acritarchs are also the earliest
possible eukaryote fossils.15 16

Acritarchs appear to be phytoplankton
{FITO-PlaNK-TeN17 } (freely floating
microscopic algae18 19 ) that grow
thick coverings during a resting stage
in their life cycle. Some resemble the
resting stage of modern marine algae
known as dinoflagellates.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
2. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
3. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
4. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
5. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
6. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
7. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
8. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
9. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
10. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
11. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
12. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
13. ^ "Acritarch." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/acritarch
14. ^ Delwiche, Charles F., "The Origin
and Evolution of Dinoflagellates", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p194.
15. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html
16. ^ Knoll AH (1992) The early
evolution of eukaryotes: a
geological perspective. Science 256:
622-627
17. ^ "phytoplankton." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phytoplankt
on
18. ^ "phytoplankton." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 12 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phytoplankt
on
19. ^ "phytoplankton." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phytoplankt
on
20. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th ed., 2006, p257.
21. ^ Javaux,
Emmanuelle J., Craig P. Marshall, and
Andrey Bekker. “Organic-walled
microfossils in 3.2-billion-year-old
shallow-marine siliciclastic
deposits.” Nature 463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
22. ^ Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Craig P.
Marshall, and Andrey Bekker.
“Organic-walled microfossils in
3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
{3.2 bybn}
23. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J. Javaux,
D. Hewitt and P. Cohen, "Eukaryotic
Organisms in Proterozoic Oceans",
Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Sciences , Vol. 361, No. 1470, Major
Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn}
24. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/di
noflagfr.html {1.8 bybn}
25. ^
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ac
ritarch.html {1900-1600 mybn}
26. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", 8th
ed., 2006, p257. {1.6 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Knoll,
Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
2003-02-01, Springer Netherlands,
Vol33, Iss1,
p75-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:102
3992712071
[2] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A Molecular Time-Scale for Eukaryote
Evolution Recalibrated with the
Continuous Microfossil Record",
Proceedings: Biological Sciences , Vol.
273, No. 1596 (Aug. 7, 2006), pp.
1867-1872 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
5223537
[4] Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(Moodies Group) South Africa21  
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html

[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
2,923,000,000 YBN
23 		178) The Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes
(FiRmiKYUTEZ14 ) evolves (Gram positive
bacteria: the cause of botulism,
tetanus, and anthrax).15 16 17

Firmicutes is a phylum of
nonphotosynthetic18 , mainly
gram-positive bacteria. Firmicutes and
Bacteriodetes are the two main groups
of bacteria found in the intestine.19

Firmicutes includes rods and cocci
{KoKSE20 } forms, and some form
endospores.21

An endospore is a tough reduced dry
form of a bacterium, triggered by a
lack of nutrients, that protects the
bacterium, and allows it to be revived
after long periods of time.22
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
Bacteria. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds.
Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland,
National Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington
DC http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacte
ria?topic=49480
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
14. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=fi
rmicutes&submit=Submit
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Nature v417 n6886 (not
TOL)
17. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
18. ^ "bacteria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 08 Sep.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/48203/bacteria/39371/Classificat
ion-by-morphology-biochemistry-and-other
-features>.
19. ^ "Firmicutes" at Dorland's Medical
Dictionary http://web.archive.org/web/2
0090616022448/http://www.mercksource.com
/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=
/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/three
/000040400.htm
20. ^ "coccus." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coccus
21. ^ "bacteria". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Sep.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/48203/bacteria/39371/Classificat
ion-by-morphology-biochemistry-and-other
-features>.
22. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Bacteria.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney
Draggan and C.J. Cleveland, National
Council for Science and the
Environment, Washington DC
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteri
a?topic=49480
23. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglyc
an
[2] firmicutes only bacteria to make
endospores
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmicutes
[4]
http://www.earthlife.net/prokaryotes/fir
micutes.html
 
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg

[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
2,800,000,000 YBN
24 		76) The Eubacteria Phylum
Proteobacteria evolves (includes
Rickettsia {the ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhea, Salmonella,
and Escherichia coli {esRriKEo KOlI16 }
or E coli {E KOlI17 }).18 19 20 21 22

The proteobacteria are the largest
group of bacteria by far in terms of
number of described species.23
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
4. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
8. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
9. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
10. ^ "E. coli." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia
-coli
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
14. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
15. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=71320
16. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
17. ^ "E. coli." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escherichia
-coli
18. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
20. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
21. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
22. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=71320
23. ^ Sadava, D. et al. Life: The
Science of Biology. W. H. Freeman,
2009, p550-551.
24. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004). {2800000000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] multicellularity.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol3018.htm multicellularity.
Multicellularity.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia
_coli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteobacte
ria
[2] JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html
[3] "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>
[4] conjugation in protists, flagella
in eukaryotes: Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989)
[5] prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
[6] Stackebrandt et al. Proteobacteria
classis nov., a name for the
phylogenetic taxon that includes the
"purple bacteria and their relatives".
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 1988, 38,
321–325. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/c
ontent/38/3/321.full.pdf
 
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm

[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
2,800,000,000 YBN
38 		177) Gender and sex (conjugation)
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlI29 } bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium.30 31 32
33 34 35 This may be the process that
evolves into eukaryote sexual
reproduction.36

In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA evolve.37
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
6. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
7. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
8. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
12. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
13. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
14. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
15. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
16. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
18. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
19. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
20. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
21. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
22. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
23. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
24. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
26. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
27. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
28. ^ prokaryote pili and
archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
29. ^ "Escherichia coli."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 30 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
scherichia coli>.
30. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E.
L. TATUM, "Gene Recombination in
Escherichia Coli", Nature 158, 558-558
(19 October 1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0
Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
31. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
32. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
34. ^ Tree of life,
http://tolweb.org/tree/
35. ^ David moreira, Purificacion
Lopez-Garcia, "Symbiosis Between
methanogenic Archaea and
delta-Proteobacteria as the Origin of
Eukaryotes: The Synthreophic
Hypothesis", J Mol Evol (1998)
47:517-530. eukorig6_jmol.pdf
36. ^ Ted Huntington.
37. ^ prokaryote
pili and archaea flagella related:
http://www.queens-pfd.ca/people/index.cf
m?meds=profile&profile=12
38. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). {2800000000 YBN}
 
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif

[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
2,795,000,000 YBN
23) The first virus evolves.7

These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. The first viruses may be
made from bacteria, or may be bacteria
initially.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

2. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

3. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

4. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

5. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

6. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

7. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

8. ^
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer2.htm

 
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
2,784,000,000 YBN
11 		176) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Planctomycetes {PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS7 }
evolves (also known as
Planctobacteria).8

Planctomycetes are a widely distributed
group of eubacteria that reproduce by
budding, have cell walls that do not
contain peptidoglycan like most
bacteria, and some have a
membrane-bound nucleoid, similar to the
eukaryotic nucleus.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=planct
omycetes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ Gerday, C., N.
Glansdorff, and American Society for
Microbiology. Physiology and
Biochemistry of Extremophiles. ASM
Press, 2007. American Society Mic
Series,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T0_9nNv3kZoC&pg=PA410
10. ^ Fuerst, John A. “The
Planctomycetes: Emerging Models for
Microbial Ecology, Evolution and Cell
Biology.” Microbiology 141.7 (1995):
1493 –1506.
Print. http://mic.sgmjournals.org/conte
nt/141/7/1493.long
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] s10
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/5
0/6/1965
[2]
http://genomebiology.com/2002/3/6/resear
ch/0031
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planctomyce
tes
[4] Lee, Kuo-Chang, Rick Webb, and John
Fuerst. “The Cell Cycle of the
Planctomycete Gemmata Obscuriglobus
with Respect to Cell
Compartmentalization.” BMC Cell
Biology 10.1 (2009):
4. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-21
21/10/4/
 
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655

[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
2,784,000,000 YBN
29 		179) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Actinobacteria {aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu20 }
evolves (the source of streptomycin and
the cause of tuberculosis and leprosy21
).22 23 24 25 26

The Actinobacteria are a group of
Gram-positive bacteria, that are
rod-shaped or form branching
filaments,27 and include many soil
bacteria28 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
4. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
5. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
10. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
11. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
14. ^ Schaechter, M. Desk Encyclopedia
of Microbiology. Academic Press, 2009.
Academic Press,
p1-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vO0oU4z36DIC&pg=PA1
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
17. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
18. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
19. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
20. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
tinobacteria&submit=Submit
21. ^ Schaechter, M. Desk Encyclopedia
of Microbiology. Academic Press, 2009.
Academic Press,
p1-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vO0oU4z36DIC&pg=PA1
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Nature v417 n6886, not
TOL
24. ^ "Actinobacteria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacte
ria
25. ^
http://asylumeclectica.com/malady/archiv
es/leprosy.htm
26. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
27. ^ Lim, D.V. Microbiology.
Kendall/Hunt, 2002,
p391. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CKEgLmqfbRQC&pg=PA391
28. ^ Schaechter, M. Desk Encyclopedia
of Microbiology. Academic Press, 2009.
Academic Press,
p1-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vO0oU4z36DIC&pg=PA1
29. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] "streptomyces." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/streptomyce
s
 
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml

[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
11 		174) The Eubacteria Phylum,
Spirochaetes (SPIrOKETEZ7 ) evolves
(the cause of Syphilis, and Lyme
disease).8

Spirochetes {SPIrOKETS9 } are helical
heterotrophs that spiral through their
environment by rotating, internal,
flagellum-like filaments.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks1/diversity/Pronunc
iation%20Guide.pdf
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=spiroc
hete&submit=Submit
10. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p569,571.
11. ^ estimated from Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] "spirochete." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spirochete
 
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm

[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
2,775,000,000 YBN
14 15 		175) The Eubacteria Phylum
Bacteroidetes {BaKTRrOEDiTEZ10 }
evolves.11 12

Bacteroidetes is composed of
Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, mostly
anaerobic, nonsporeforming bacteria
that are widely distributed in the
environment, including in soil, sea
water, and in the guts and on the skin
of animals.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
4. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ba
cteroidetes+&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
13. ^ George M. Garrity, ed.
(November 24, 2010) 1984(Williams &
Wilkins). ^ (in English). The
Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes,
Tenericutes (Mollicutes),
Acidobacteria, Fibrobacteres,
Fusobacteria, Dictyoglomi,
Gemmatimonadetes, Lentisphaerae,
Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae, and
Planctomycetes. Bergey's Manual of
Systematic Bacteriology. 4 (2nd ed.).
New York: Springer. pp. 908. ISBN
978-0-387-95042-6. British Library no.
GBA561951.
14. ^ estimate from Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Description Bacteroides
biacutis—one of many en:commensal
anaerobic en:Bacteroides spp. in the
en:gastrointestinal tract—cultured in
blood agar medium for 48
hours. Obtained from the CDC Public
Health Image Library. Image credit:
CDC/Dr. V.R. Dowell, Jr. (PHIL #3087),
1972. Date 2006-03-11 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV-HHS-CDC. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bacteroides_bia
cutis_01.jpg/1280px-Bacteroides_biacutis
_01.jpg

[2] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
2,775,000,000 YBN
11 		217) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlamydiae
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E7 }
evolves.8

Chlamydiae are parasites that can
survive only within animal cells. One
species Chlamydia trachomatis
(TreKOmuTis9 } is the most common cause
of blindness on Earth, and also causes
a common sexually transmitted
disease.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ch
lamydiae&submit=Submit
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ "Chlamydia trachomatis."
The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chlamydia-t
rachomatis
10. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p569.
11. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] cell infected with Chlamydia The
Bavoil laboratory studies the
pathogenesis of the obligate
intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia, and
its bacteriophages. Specific research
areas include the role of Chlamydia
type III secretion in pathogenesis and
development, the impact of Chlamydia
phage infection on disease, the role of
the polymorphic membrane protein family
of C. trachomatis in infection and
disease and comparative genomics within
the Chlamydiaceae. [1] Chlamydia
trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted
source: http://www.dental.umaryland.edu/
sebin/p/o/chlamydia_infected_cell2.jpg

[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
2,775,000,000 YBN
12 13 		6309) The Eubacteria Phylum Chlorobi
{KlOROBE} evolves (green sulphur
bacteria).7 8

Chlorobi are obligately anoxygenic
(cannot survive in the presence of
oxygen), photosythesizing bacteria,
that fix carbon from carbon dioxide
into carbon compounds for cell growth,
by using sulfur compounds, hydrogen, or
ferrous iron as electron donors
(oxidizing them).9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).. ^
9. ^ Margulis, L., and M.J.
Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An
Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life
on Earth. Elsevier Science,
2009. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9IWaqAOGyt4C&pg=PA88
10. ^ Martin G. Klotz, D.A.B.T.E.H. The
Microbial Sulfur Cycle. Frontiers
E-books. http://books.google.com/books?
id=TINC-SBb3P0C&pg=PA160
11. ^ Bryant, Donald A., and
Niels-Ulrik Frigaard. “Prokaryotic
Photosynthesis and Phototrophy
Illuminated.” Trends in Microbiology
14.11 (2006):
488–496. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0966842X06002265
12. ^ estimate from Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^
estimate from Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroidet
es
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobi
 
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg

[2] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p194.
2,775,000,000 YBN
10 		6310) The Eubacteria Phylum
Verrucomicrobia (VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo7 )
evolves.8

Verrucomicrobia are found in soil,
fresh and marine waters, and hot
springs. Like Planctomycetes, some
members of Verrucomicrobia also have
intracellular membrane enclosed
compartments, including a membrane that
encloses the DNA.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ve
rrucomicrobia&submit=Submit
8. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
9. ^ Kuo-Chang Lee, Richard I
Webb, Peter H Janssen, Parveen Sangwan,
Tony Romeo, James T Staley and John A
Fuerst, "Phylum Verrucomicrobia
representatives share a
compartmentalized cell plan with
members of bacterial phylum
Planctomycetes", BMC Microbiology,
Volume 9, Number 1 (2009), 5, DOI:
10.1186/1471-2180-9-5. http://www.biome
dcentral.com/1471-2180/9/5
10. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydiae
[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrucomicr
obia
 
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg

[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 CC
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
2,730,000,000 YBN
7 8 		80) Endo and exocytosis evolve. Cells
can now eat other cells.

In endocytosis the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.5

In Exocytosis substances contained in
vesicles are released from the cell.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

2. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
3. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

4. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
5. ^ "endocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocytosis

6. ^ "exocytosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 07
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/exocytosis
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn guess
and }
8. ^ guess based on Cavalier-Smith
stating that endocytosis occurs before
a cytoskeleton {Nucleus 2700 +30mybn
guess and}
 
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg

[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris. UNKNOWN
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
2,700,000,000 YBN
30 		60) The eukaryotic cell evolves. The
first cell with a nucleus. The first
protist. The nucleus may develop from
the infolding of plasma membrane.21

There are some differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter.22
Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic
cells have a cytoskeleton. The
cytoskeleton enables eukaryotic cells
to change their shape and to surround
and engulf other cells. Eukaryotic
cells also have internal structures
that prokaryotic cells lack such as
mitochondria and plastids.23 DNA in
prokaryotic cells is usually in the
form of a single circular chromosome,
while DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes
contains linear chromosomes. Some
organelles in eukaryotes also contain
DNA; most mitochondrial and chloroplast
DNA is also circular reflecting their
prokaryote origin.24

Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (has a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).25 26 27 28

All protist, fungi, animal and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.29
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
2. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008,
p516-517.
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p98.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p516-517.
6. ^ Jill Saffrey,
"Biology: uniformity & diversity. Core
of life, Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
7. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
8. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
9. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
10. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
11. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
12. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
13. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
14. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p516-517.
15. ^ Jill Saffrey, "Biology:
uniformity & diversity. Core of life,
Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
16. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
17. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
18. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
19. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
20. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
21. ^ Campbell, Reece,
et al, "Biology", 2008, p516-517.
22. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", 2008, p98.
23. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
2008, p516-517.
24. ^ Jill Saffrey, "Biology:
uniformity & diversity. Core of life,
Book 3, Volume 2", 2001,
p353. http://books.google.com/books?id=
43yiLI1DvwAC&pg=PA353
25. ^ Montgomery Slatkin, "Exploring
evolutionary biology: readings from
American scientist", 1995,
p161. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
AAVdT77TFMiiiQKB8a24Cw
26. ^ Andrew Wallace Hayes, "Principles
and methods of toxicology", 2007,
p1181. http://books.google.com/books?id
=vgHXTId8rnYC&pg=PA1181
27. ^ N. A. Kolchanov, Hwa A. Lim,
"Computer analysis of genetic
macromolecules: structure, function,
and evolution", 1994,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=cr
ip5tRcF0YC&pg=PA2
28. ^ "diploid", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry http://www.answers.com/top
ic/diploid
29. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p98.
30. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {split of archae and
eukaryote at c4.0 bybn, but eukaryote
{with nucleus?} at) 2.7 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", 8th ed., 2006, p256
[2]
Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons, "Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

[3] Alexey S. Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY
GENETICS OF LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review
of Ecology and Systematics Vol. 28:
391-435 (Volume publication date
November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
 
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.

[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
2,700,000,000 YBN
62) The earliest molecular fossil
evidence of eukaryotes (sterane {STiR
AN13 molecules).14 15 Steranes are
formed from sterols {STeRoLZ16 },
molecules made by mitochondria.17 18
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
2. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

4. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

7. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

10. ^ "sterol." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterol
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

13. ^ "sterane." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterane
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

16. ^ "sterol." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sterol
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Jochen J.
Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger Buick,
Roger E. Summons, "Archean Molecular
Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes", Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 13 August 1999, p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 1033-1036 , 13
August 1999 Archean Molecular Fossils
and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes Jochen J. Brocks, 1,2*
Graham A. Logan, 2 Roger Buick, 1 Roger
E. Summons 2
Northwestern Australia19 20  
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534

2,700,000,000 YBN
198) The endoplasmic reticulum evolves
in a eukaryote cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum (or ER) is a membrane system
that extends from the nucleus,
important in the synthesis of proteins
and lipids.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
2. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
3. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
4. ^ "endoplasmic reticulum."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic
-reticulum
 
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg

[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
2,690,000,000 YBN
17 18 		207) The cytoskeleton
{SI-Te-SKeL-i-TN13 } forms in the
eukaryote cytoplasm.14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cytoskeleton." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
2. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
3. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
4. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
5. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
6. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
7. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
8. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
9. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
10. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
11. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
12. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
13. ^ "cytoskeleton." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Feb. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytoskeleto
n
14. ^ Cavalier-Smith, annals of Botony
2005 vol95 issue 1
15. ^ Margulis, L.
1998. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at
Evolution. Science Masters: Brockman
Inc, New York. Margulis, L., Dolan,
M., Guerrero, R. 2000. The Chimaeric
eukaryote: Origin of the nucleus from
the karyomastigont in amitochondriate
protists. Colloquium. 97: 6954-6959.
16. ^
Symbiosis in cell evolution : microbial
communities in the Archean and
Proterozoic eons / Lynn Margulis. 1993
second edition
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong
Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang,
Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A
genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +10mybn guess
and }
18. ^ guess based on ER and golgi
made of same material as cytoskeleton,
and after first eukaryote cell {Nucleus
2700 +10mybn guess and}
 
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg

[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
2,690,000,000 YBN
11 		208) The eukaryote flagellum and cilia
evolve.

The eukaryote flagellum and cilia are
structurally the same5 but are very
different from the prokaryote
flagellum. The eukaryote flagellum is
composed of a characteristic "9+2"
arrangement of microtubules
{mIKrO-TUB-YU-LZ6 } surrounded by a
sheath which is an extension of the
plasma membrane.7 Unlike the
prokaryote flagella that rotate, the
flagella and cilia of eukaryotic cells
undulate in a wave-like motion to
propel the cell.8

Some cilia are nonmotile and serve as
signal-receiving "antennae" for the
cell.9

The sperm cells of algae, animals, and
some plants have flagella.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
2. ^
"microtubule." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
icrotubule>.
3. ^ Dr. P.D. Sharma, "Microbiology &
Plant Pathology", 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=B
yDwOIWXp4MC&pg=PA86
4. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
5. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology",
Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
6. ^
"microtubule." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
icrotubule>.
7. ^ Sharma, P.D. Microbiology. Rastogi
Publications, 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=7
rfpzW7eMW4C&pg=PA86
8. ^ Dr. P.D. Sharma, "Microbiology &
Plant Pathology", 2007,
p86. http://books.google.com/books?id=B
yDwOIWXp4MC&pg=PA86
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
10. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al., "Biology",
Eighth Edition, 2008, p114.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar,
Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S Thompson and
Hidemi Wa, "A genomic timescale for the
origin of eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -10mybn
guess}
 
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD

[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
2,680,000,000 YBN
8 		65) The circular chromosome in the
eukaryote nucleus changes into linear
chromosomes.5

Alternatively, the eukaryotic cell may
descend from a prokaryote that already
has linear DNA.6

Some extant prokaryotes have a linear
chromosome.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Alexey S.
Kondrashov, "EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF
LIFE CYCLES", Annual Review of Ecology
and Systematics Vol. 28: 391-435
(Volume publication date November 1997)
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391;
jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 +20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] not all prokaryotes have
circle of
DNA: http://arjournals.annualreviews.or
g/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.
391;jsessionid=npo4ogeI2anbnHbeKO
[2] Jumas-Bilak E, Maugard C,
Michaux-Charachon S, Allardet-Servent
A, Perrin A, et al. 1995. Study of the
organization of the genomes of
Escherichia coli, Brucella melitensis
and Agrobacterium tumefaciens by
insertion of a unique restriction site.
Microbiology 141:2425-32 (Medline)
[3] Lezhava A,
Kameoka D, Sugino H, Goshi K, Shinkawa
H, et al. 1997. Chromosomal deletions
in Streptomyces griseus that remove the
afsA locus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 253:478-83
[4]
Marconi RT, Casjens S, Munderloh UG,
Samuels DS. 1996. Analysis of linear
plasmid dimers in Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato isolates: implications
concerning the potential mechanisms of
linear plasmid replication. J. Bact.
178:3357-61
 
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg

[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
2,680,000,000 YBN
216) Histones evolve. Histones are
proteins found in all eukaryotic cell
nuclei that package and order a single
continuous DNA molecule into structural
units called nucleosomes {nUKlEuSOMZ3
}.4 The nucleosomes are coiled into a
30 nanometer fiber called a chromatin,
and then looped again around a
chromosome scaffold into a larger 300
nanometer fiber which forms one of the
two chromatids in a chromosome.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "nucleosome." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleosome
 Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2Ga2DeYfP
2. ^ Nelson, D.L., and M.M. Cox.
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.
W. H. Freeman, 2008. Lehninger
Principles of Biochemistry,
p963. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Ek9J4p3NfkC
3. ^ "nucleosome." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nucleosome
 Read more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2Ga2DeYfP
4. ^ Nelson, D.L., and M.M. Cox.
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.
W. H. Freeman, 2008. Lehninger
Principles of Biochemistry,
p963. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5Ek9J4p3NfkC
5. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series.
 
[1] Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats
Series. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series.

[2] Description Schematic
representation of the assembly of the
core histones into the nucleosome Date
15 November 2005 Source English
Wikipedia Author Richard Wheeler
(Zephyris) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Nucleosome_structure.
png
2,680,000,000 YBN
5 		291) The eukaryote cell evolves two
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.3

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell
divisions.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
2. ^ "cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p45
4. ^ "cell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Mar.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/101396/cell>.
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -20mybn
guess}

MORE INFO
[1] Cooper GM (2000). "Chapter
14: The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle". The
cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.).
Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN
0-87893-106-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/books/NBK9876/
[2] Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p228-245
 
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg

[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
2,670,000,000 YBN
199) The Eukaryote Golgi Apparatus
evolves. The Golgi apparatus packages
proteins and lipids into vesicles for
delivery to targeted destinations.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
2. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
3. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.
4. ^ "Golgi apparatus." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 28 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/238044/Golgi-apparatus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Endosome." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endosome
 
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg

[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
2,670,000,000 YBN
5 		290) The nucleolus evolves. The
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomal RNA.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: p48 nucleolus
divides
5. ^ Ted Huntington guess

MORE INFO
[1] Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry Oxford University Press.
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology © 1997, 2000, 2006
All rights
reserved. http://www.answers.com/topic/
nucleolus#ixzz2VAspF99U
 
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg

[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
2,660,000,000 YBN
16 		72) Mitosis evolves in Eukaryote
cells.11 12

Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm.13 14

Mitosis is thought to have evolved from
prokaryote binary fission and possible
intermediate stages can be seen in some
protists.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
2. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
3. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).: types of
mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
4. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
5. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
6. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
7. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).: types
of mitosis, evolution of mitosis.
8. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
9. ^ "mitosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Mar.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
10. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
11. ^
Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989).: types of mitosis,
evolution of mitosis.
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003,
p128-129. {BruscaCh05.pdf}
13. ^ "mitosis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 12
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mitosis
14. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, p230-233.
15. ^
Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology", 8th
Edition, 2008, p237.
16. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -40mybn
guess}
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
2,640,000,000 YBN
48 		73) Eukaryote sex evolves. This is the
first diploid cell and the first
zygote.29 30

Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes.31 32

Eukaryotic sexual reproduction, which
is initially the fusion of two cells
and their nuclei, may first occur in a
single cell protist that usually
reproduces asexually by mitosis.33 Two
haploid eukaryote cells (gametes, cells
with one set of chromosomes each) merge
and then their nuclei merge to form the
first diploid cell, a cell with two
sets of chromosomes, the first
zygote.34 "Syngamy" {SiNG-Gu-mE35 }
refers to gamete fusion and "karyogamy"
{KaR-E-oG-e-mE36 } to nucleus fusion.
In most cases syngamy is immediately
followed by karyogamy.37

This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.

Conjugation, the second major kind of
sexual phenomenon, which occurs in the
ciliates, involves the fusion of
gametic nuclei instead of independent
gamete cells.38

Initially sex may be the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy) with
gender (anisogamy) only evolving
later.39 Although possibly eukaryote
cell fusion and gender is directly
descended from prokaryote
conjugation.40

All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.41 42
This begins the
haplontic life cycle: in the entire
life cycle the only diploid cell is the
zygote and mitosis only occurs in the
haploid phase43 .44 45

Most fungi and some protists including
some algae are "haplontic"; they have a
multicellular haploid stage and no
multicellular diploid stage. Plants and
some algae are "haplodiplontic"; they
make both a multicellular haploid and
multicellular diploid organism. Animals
are "diplontic"; they make a diploid
multicellular organism and no
multicellular haploid organism.46 47
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
2. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
4. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
5. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
7. ^ Karen Arms, Pamela S. Camp,
"Biology", Third Edition, 1987,
p398. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
fjtmT96tDqPQiAKP2qyiDw&id=ga_uAAAAMAAJ
8. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
9. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p258.
11. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan
AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
12. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
13. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
14. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
15. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced
Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson &
Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19
Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
16. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
17. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
18. ^ Sir Gavin De Beer, "Atlas of
Evolution", (London: Nelson, 1964).
19. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Glenn E.
Croston, "Kaplan AP biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
21. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
22. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
23. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
24. ^ Rowoand, M.D. Bath Advanced
Science - Biology. Thomas Nelson &
Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath Science 16-19
Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
25. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
26. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
28. ^ Ted Huntington.
29. ^ Sir Gavin
De Beer, "Atlas of Evolution", (London:
Nelson, 1964).
30. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
31. ^ Glenn E. Croston, "Kaplan AP
biology", 2000,
p98. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
WsKAQAAMAAJ
32. ^ Janette B. Benson, Marshall M.
Haith, "Diseases and Disorders in
Infancy and Early Childhood", 2009,
p203.
33. ^ Charles W. Fox, Daphne J.
Fairbair, "Evolutionary ecology:
concepts and case studies", 2001,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_dCrIwP85vkC&pg=PA155
34. ^ Janet Louise Leonard, Alex
Córdoba-Aguilar, "The evolution of
primary sexual characters in animals",
2010, p15-16.
35. ^ "syngamy." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
yngamy>.
36. ^ "karyogamy." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karyogamy
37. ^ Peter Calow, "The encyclopedia of
ecology & environmental management",
1998,
p680. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LxE9RFpgJcC&pg=PA680
38. ^ "protist." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/480085/protist>.
39. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p626.
40. ^ Ted Huntington.
41. ^ Campbell,
Reece, et al, "Biology", Eigth Edition,
2008, p252.
42. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
43. ^ Rowoand, M.D.
Bath Advanced Science - Biology. Thomas
Nelson & Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath
Science 16-19 Series,
p503. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA503
44. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
45. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
46. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
47. ^
John Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics",
2004, p201.
48. ^ estimate based on
diplomonads having sex repro, and
origin of euk being (is now) {Nucleus
2700 -60mybn guess)(was 2710mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] J. William Schopf, "Major
Events in the History of Life",
(Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, 1992).p57 (was)
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,640,000,000 YBN
17 		206) Meiosis evolves (one-step meiosis:
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).12 13

Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis14 , is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.15

Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
6. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
7. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
8. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
9. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
10. ^ "meiosis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p627.
12. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
13. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989)., no cross over in
one-division
14. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2008, p253.
15. ^
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meiosis
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestors
Tail", 2004, p627.
17. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg

[2] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
2,610,000,000 YBN
22 		296) Gender in eukaryotes evolves.17
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE18 19 }, sex (cell
and nucleus fusion) between two cells
that are different in size or shape.20
21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
2. ^ Michael Sleigh,
"Protozoa and Other Protists", (London;
New York: Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
"anisogamy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 29 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
5. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
6. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
8. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
10. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
11. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
12. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
13. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
15. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
16. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
17. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
18. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anisog
amy&submit=Submit
20. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
21. ^ "anisogamy." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anisogamy
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -90mybn
guess}
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
2,590,000,000 YBN
7 		298) Oogamy {O-oG-omE5 }, a form of
anisogamy, evolves in protists: sex
between a flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
2. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oogamy
&submit=Submit
6. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989).
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Hsiong Chen, Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC
Wang, Amanda S Thompson and Hidemi Wa,
"A genomic timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -110mybn
guess}
 
[1] Combination of images: Description
English: Different types of
isogamy: A) Isogamy of motile
cells B) Isogamy of non-motile
cells C) Conjugation of
gametangia Date 30 July
2008 Source Vectorised SVG version of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isoga
my.png Author Original bitmap version
by Tameeria, SVG version by Qef Other
versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Isogamy.png PD AND Description
Different types of en:anisogamy:
A) Anisogamy of motile gametes B)
Oogamy (non-motile egg cell, motile
sperm cell) C) Anisogamy of
non-motile gametes Date 2008-06-30
02:07 (UTC) Source
Anisogamy.png Author This
SVG version by Qef (talk)
Anisogamy.png: Original uploader was
Tameeria at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Isogamy.svghttp://upl
oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7
/Anisogamy.svg

[2] Description English: A sperm
cell fertilizing an egg cell Date
Source
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm Autho
r Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.pdimages.com/web9.htm P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Sperm-egg.jpg
2,580,000,000 YBN
5 		300) Diploid cell fusion evolves
(Gamontogamy).1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989). p76,p79
2. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/clev
elan.html
3. ^
arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.
1146/annurev.mi.17.100163.002105
diatoms do gamontogamy
gamontogomy_diatoms_annurev.mi.17.100163
.002105.pdf
4. ^
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/
abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.28.1.391
annurev.ecolsys.28.1.391 (saved html
file)
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -120mybn
guess}
 
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF

[2] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
2,570,000,000 YBN
11 		295) Two-step meiosis evolves (diploid
DNA copies and then the cell divides
twice into four haploid cells).6

Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.7
8

Many of the steps of meiosis closely
resemble corresponding steps in
mitosis. Meiosis, like mitosis, is
preceded by the replication of
chromosomes, but this single
replication is followed not by one but
two consecutive cell divisions which
results in four child cells instead of
the two child cells of mitosis.9

Mitosis produces child cells that are
genetically identical to their parent
cells and each other, while meiosis
produces cells that differ genetically
from their parent cell and from each
other.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
2. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
3. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
4. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989) p71.
5. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
6. ^
http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfield/rese
arch/clevelan.html
7. ^ Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and
Other Protists", (London; New York:
Edward Arnold, 1989) p71.
8. ^ Igor B.
Raikov, Meiosis in protists: Recent
advances and persisting problems,
European Journal of Protistology,
Volume 31, Issue 1, 15 March 1995,
Pages 1-7, ISSN 0932-4739,
10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80349-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0932473911803494)
9. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p253-257.
10. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p253-257.
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -130mybn
guess}
 
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg

[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
2,558,000,000 YBN
5 		171) The Eubacteria phylum
"Deinococcus-Thermus" evolves (includes
Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, and
Deinococcus radiodurans {which can
survive long exposure to radiation}).4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
 
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg

[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
17 18 		172) The Eubacteria phylum,
Cyanobacteria {SIe-NO-BaK-TERE-u11 }
evolves.

Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes
with oxygen-producing photosynthesis,12
 and are the ancestor of all eukaryote
plastids (for example chloroplasts).13
14

Fossil evidence suggests that
cyanobacteria existed as early as 3.8
billion years before now, but the
genetic evidence places the origin of
cyanobacteria here at 2.5 billion years
before now.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
4. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
5. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
7. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
8. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p569.
9. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
11. ^
"cyanobacterium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyanobacter
ia
12. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p569.
13. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic clocks and
evolutionary timescales", Trends in
Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 , April
2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
15. ^ Battistuzzi,
Feijao, Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
17. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC533871/ {2558 mybn}
18. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "Genomic
clocks and evolutionary timescales",
Trends in Genetics Volume 19, Issue 4 ,
April 2003, Pages 200-206, (2003).
{2558 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Tree of Life.
http://tolweb.org/tree/
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
[3] Journal of Molecular
Evolution Publisher: Springer-Verlag
New York ISSN: 0022-2844 (Paper)
1432-1432 (Online) Issue: Volume 42,
Number 2 Date: February 1996 Pages:
194 - 200
[4] Phylogenetic Relationships of
Nonaxenic Filamentous Cyanobacterial
Strains Based on 16S rRNA Sequence
Analysis jme_42_2_1996.pdf
[5]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacter
ia
[6] S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen, Sudhir
Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
 
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg

[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
2,558,000,000 YBN
6 		315) The Eubacteria Phylum Chloroflexi
evolves; (Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).4


The Chloroflexi are filamentous
bacteria that perform anoxygenic
photosynthesis.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
2. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
3. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).
4. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao,
Hedges, "A Genomic timescale of
prokaryote evolution: insights into
the origin of methanogenesis,
phototrophy, and the colonization of
land", BMC Evolutionary Biology,
(2004).
5. ^ Bryant, Donald A., and Niels-Ulrik
Frigaard. “Prokaryotic Photosynthesis
and Phototrophy Illuminated.” Trends
in Microbiology 14.11 (2006):
488–496. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0966842X06002265
6. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
[2] Tree of Life
http://tolweb.org/tree/
 
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
2,500,000,000 YBN
52) The end of the Archean and start of
the Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or
ProTReZOiK11 12 } Eon.13

The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Proterozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
6. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
9. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
11. ^
"Proterozoic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proterozoic

12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=proter
ozoic&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
14. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
15. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 8th Edition, 2006, p243.
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
2,500,000,000 YBN
56) Banded Iron Formation starts to
appear in many places.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
greenspirit.uk
 
[1] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg

[2] This rock resulted from
accumulations of ferrous Iron (Fe+2) in
oceans and lakes (which were more green
in color than today; ferrous iron can
produce that color as, for example, in
a Coca-Cola glass bottle). The Iron
readily combined with any available
oxygen, so that the latter was always
destined to be caught up in the iron
precipitates (Fe2O3) and thus didn't
remain in the atmosphere. While BIF is
a hallmark of sedimentary rock
formations during this extended period,
other rocks also formed (shales;
sandstones) but carbonates (limestones)
were much less commmon. Starting about
2.3 billion years ago, oxygen levels
and other factors led to common
production of ferric oxides (Hematite)
that made prominent red beds
periodically to the present. One
variety includes alternating chert
layers, some rich in iron PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
2929573315_7bb69aeebb.jpg
2,480,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 24 		170) Bacteria live on land.13 14 15

Chemoauthotrophs oxidize sulfur or
nitrogen to form sulfate or nitrate,
and therefore sulfuric or nitric acid,
which then dissolves rocks.16 17 18
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
2. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
3. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
4. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
5. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
6. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
7. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
8. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
9. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
10. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
11. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
12. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
13. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
14. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
15. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
16. ^ Konhauser, K.O. Introduction to
Geomicrobiology. Wiley, 2009, p.
231. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
dGmm920Va8C&pg=PA231
17. ^ Lengeler, J., G. Drews, and H.
Schlegel. Biology of the Prokaryotes.
Wiley, 2009, p.
251. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
XbJa4X5oHsC&pg=PA251
18. ^ Schaechter, M. Encyclopedia of
Microbiology. Elsevier Science, 2009,
p265. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rLhdW5YzuO4C&pg=RA2-PA265
19. ^ Kurt O. Konhauser, Stefan V.
Lalonde, Noah J. Planavsky, Ernesto
Pecoits, Timothy W. Lyons, Stephen J.
Mojzsis, Olivier J. Rouxel, Mark E.
Barley, Carlos Rosìere, Phillip W.
Fralick, Lee R. Kump, Andrey Bekker.
Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and
acid rock drainage during the Great
Oxidation Event. Nature, 2011; 478
(7369): 369 DOI:
10.1038/nature10511 http://dx.doi.org/1
0.1038/nature10511
20. ^ University of Alberta. "New
evidence for the oldest
oxygen-breathing life on land."
ScienceDaily, 19 Oct. 2011. Web. 14
Jul. 2012.
21. ^ Brian Murphy, "Let there be
life", October 20,
2011. http://www.news.ualberta.ca/artic
le.aspx?id=3F6A39F722E14A6BA792EBCA6F989
604
22. ^ Battistuzzi, Feijao, Hedges, "A
Genomic timescale of prokaryote
evolution: insights into the origin of
methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the
colonization of land", BMC Evolutionary
Biology, (2004). (2600-2700my)
23. ^ University of
Tennessee at Knoxville. "Bacteria's
move from sea to land may have occurred
much later than thought." ScienceDaily,
22 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Jul.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2011/12/111222195017.htm
24. ^ Florence Wisniewski-Dyé, Kirill
Borziak, Gurusahai Khalsa-Moyers,
Gladys Alexandre, Leonid O.
Sukharnikov, Kristin Wuichet, Gregory
B. Hurst, W. Hayes McDonald, Jon S.
Robertson, Valérie Barbe, Alexandra
Calteau, Zoé Rouy, Sophie Mangenot,
Claire Prigent-Combaret, Philippe
Normand, Mickaël Boyer, Patricia
Siguier, Yves Dessaux, Claudine
Elmerich, Guy Condemine, Ganisan
Krishnen, Ivan Kennedy, Andrew H.
Paterson, Victor González, Patrick
Mavingui, Igor B. Zhulin. Azospirillum
Genomes Reveal Transition of Bacteria
from Aquatic to Terrestrial
Environments. PLoS Genetics, 2011; 7
(12): e1002430 DOI:
10.1371/journal.pgen.1002430

MORE INFO
[1] "pyrite." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyrite
 
[1] Acidic waste water from a modern
mining site supports the same oxygen
using bacterial life that appeared on
Earth 2.48 billion years ago. UNKNOWN

source: http://media.news.ualberta.ca/~/
media/University%20of%20Alberta/Administ
ration/External%20Relations/ExpressNews/
Images/2011/10/111020-RocksBanner-cw.jpg


[2] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
2,400,000,000 YBN
59) Start of a 200 million year ice
age.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
 
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
2,300,000,000 YBN
48) The oldest "Red Beds", iron oxide
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^
http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~pkoch/lectures/l
ecture5.html
 
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html

[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
2,000,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		63) A parasitic bacterium, closely
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves within
the eukaryote cell (an endosymbiosis)
where the Rickettsia becomes the
mitochondria.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells, and are
where cellular respiration occurs
producing most of the ATP in a
eukaryotic cell.7

In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvate from glycolysis into
carbon dioxide and water, and provide
up to 36 ATP molecules.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4
4. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p100.
6. ^
"mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
7. ^ "mitochondrion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 23 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/386130/mitochondrion>.
8. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p162,166,176.
9. ^ B. Franz
Lang, Michael W. Gray, and Gertraud
Burger, "Mitochondrial Genome Evolution
and the Origin of Eukaryotes", Annu.
Rev. Genet., V33, p351-397, p385.
1999. {2 BYBN}
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/full/nrg929.html {average of)
2230-1840 bybn} {earliest of) 2350-1640
bybn} {average of 1995my) 2350-1640
mybn}
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {1.8 bybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael W. Gray, et al,
"Genome structure and gene content in
protist mitochondrial DNAs", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1998) 26(4): 865-878
doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full
 
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif

[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
1,874,000,000 YBN
26 		61) The earliest large filamentous
fossil (Grypania).13 14 Grypania
spiralis is about 10 cm long, and is
thought to be either a green alga or a
large cyanobacterium.15 16 If
eukaryote, Grypania would be the
earliest non-acritarch eukaryote
fossil.17 18 19

Grypania may be like Acetabularia
{aS-i-TaB-YU-lAR-Eu20 }, a large
single-celled green algae.21
The
Grypania fossils have no blade
(analogous to a leaf) or holdfast
structures,22 but stretching implies
that Grypania was a sessile organism
connected to a surface.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
2. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
3. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
4. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
5. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
6. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
7. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
8. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
9. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
10. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
11. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
12. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
13. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
14. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
15. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
16. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
17. ^ Zhu Shixing
and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
18. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
19. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
20. ^
"Acetabular." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
cetabular>.
21. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
22. ^ Zhu Shixing and Chen Huineng,
"Megascopic Multicellular Organisms
from the 1700-Million-Year-Old
Tuanshanzi Formation in the Jixian
Area, North China", Science , New
Series, Vol. 270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27,
1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
23. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
24. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/257/5067/232
AND www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2877
532 {Han_Runnegar_Grypania_19920710.pdf
}
25. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
26. ^ Schneider
et al 2002. D.A. Schneider, M.E.
Bickford, W.F. Cannon, K.J. Schulz and
M.A. Hamilton, Age of volcanic rocks
and syndepositional iron formations,
Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Samuelsson, Joakim, Peter R
Dawes, and Gonzalo Vidal.
“Organic-walled Microfossils from the
Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Northwest
Greenland.” Precambrian Research
96.1–2 (1999):
1–23. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0301926898001235
[2] Jacques Dumais, Kyle Serikawa and
Dina F Mandoli, "Acetabularia: A
Unicellular Model for Understanding
Subcellular Localization and
Morphogenesis during Development",
Journal of Plant Growth
Regulation Volume 19, Number 3 (2000),
253-264, DOI:
10.1007/s003440000035 http://www.oeb.ha
rvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/JP
GR2000.2.pdf
(Banded Iron Formation) Michigan, USA24
25  
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm

[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
1,800,000,000 YBN
46) The end of the Banded Iron
Formation.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
 
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
1,570,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		99) The first homeobox genes evolve.
These genes regulate the building of
major body parts in algae, plants,
fungi and animals.13 14 15 16

For example, when a homeobox gene
responsible for growing a mouse eye is
added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo
that is destined to be a leg, an extra
fruit fly eye is built on the leg.17 18

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p425,434.
2. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
6. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p425,434.
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
9. ^ Thomas R. Bürglin,
"Analysis of TALE superclass homeobox
genes (MEIS, PBC, KNOX, Iroquois, TGIF)
reveals a novel domain conserved
between plants and animals", Nucl.
Acids Res. (1997) 25(21): 4173-4180
doi:10.1093/nar/25.21.4173
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
25/21/4173.abstract
10. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short
11. ^ Halder, G, P Callaerts, and WJ
Gehring. “Induction of ectopic eyes
by targeted expression of the eyeless
gene in Drosophila.” Science 267.5205
(1995) : 1788 -1792.
http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=s
ci;267/5205/1788
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p399.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p425,434.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Thomas R.
Bürglin, "Analysis of TALE superclass
homeobox genes (MEIS, PBC, KNOX,
Iroquois, TGIF) reveals a novel domain
conserved between plants and animals",
Nucl. Acids Res. (1997) 25(21):
4173-4180 doi:10.1093/nar/25.21.4173
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
25/21/4173.abstract
16. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short
17. ^ Halder, G, P Callaerts, and WJ
Gehring. “Induction of ectopic eyes
by targeted expression of the eyeless
gene in Drosophila.” Science 267.5205
(1995) : 1788 -1792.
http://www.sciencemag.org/citmgr?gca=s
ci;267/5205/1788
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p399.
19. ^ Mukherjee K,
Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA, a novel domain
with similarity to PAS domains, is
fused to plant homeodomain-leucine
zipper III proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
20. ^ Mukherjee, Krishanu, Luciano
Brocchieri, and Thomas R. Bürglin.
“A Comprehensive Classification and
Evolutionary Analysis of Plant Homeobox
Genes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 26.12 (2009): 2775
-2794. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/26/12/2775.short {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
21. ^ Jongmin Nam, Claude W.
dePamphilis, Hong Ma, and Masatoshi
Nei, "Antiquity and Evolution of the
MADS-Box Gene Family Controlling Flower
Development in Plants", Mol Biol Evol
(2003) 20(9): 1435-1447 first published
online May 30, 2003
doi:10.1093/molbev/msg152
http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/
20/9/1435.abstract {1982 mybn (at
acrasid slime molds, before brown
algae}
 
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png

[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
1,570,000,000 YBN
13 14 		197) The ancestor of all living
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.10 11
12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stechmann A, Cavalier-Smith T,
"The root of the eukaryote tree
pinpointed.", 2003, Curr. Biol. 13,
R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
2. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
4. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
5. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
7. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
8. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
10. ^ Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, "The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.", 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X
11. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
13. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{problem with 1250 my bangia red algae
fossils)1126 mybn}
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1570 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Ema
E.-Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", J Mol Evol
(2003) 56:540 563
[2] J Mol Evol (2003)
56:540 563 Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution Thomas
Cavalier-Smith, Ema E.-Y. Chao
 
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9

[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED

source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
1,520,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 		202) The Protist Phylum Amoebozoa
evolves (amoebas and slime molds);10 11
 the first feeding using pseudopods (a
temporary projection of the cytoplasm12
).13

The Amoebozoa include amoebas, both
naked and testate (partially enclosed
by a "test" or shell14 ), and slime
molds15 and are characterized by
pseudopods.16 Slime molds will diverge
into two main branches, plasmodial
slime molds and cellular slime molds.17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
4. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
10. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ "pseudopod." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pseudopod
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p515.
14. ^
http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/inde
xmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.u
k/mag/artjun03/gsamoebae.html
15. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p594-596.
16. ^ "protozoan". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Sep.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/480488/protozoan/32619/Annotated
-classification>.
17. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p594-596.
18. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1520
mybn}
19. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1400 my}
20.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria
L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1587mybn)
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400) {c1220}
22. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c1090}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biologie/bi
ani/msg/Amoeboids/Amoebozoa/Conosea.html

 
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg

[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
1,520,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 8 9 10 		203) Colonialism (where cells form a
colony3 ) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.

Many cells that form colonies are
apparently identical but because each
cell is exposed to a different
environment, they transcribe different
genes.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
2. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
3. ^ "colonial." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colonial
4. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
10. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg

[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
1,500,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 		15) The first "plastids" evolve.
Cyanobacteria form plastids through
endosymbiosis within a eukaryotic cell.
Like mitochondria, these organelles
copy themselves and are not made by the
cell DNA.6

Plastids provide the eukaryotic cell
with food from photosynthesis and gain
protection by living within the cell.7


This is a primary plastid endosymbiosis
and so these plastids are surrounded by
a double membrane.8 The inner wall of
the plastid being that of the
bacterium, the outer wall being that of
the eukoaryote.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
8. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p551.
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ Ted Huntington.
12. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {c1600 my}
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).,
see comments {1576 MYBN}
15. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p152. {no later than)
1200 my}
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin
and Evolution of Model Organisms",
Nature Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002)., see
comments {1576 MYBN} {needs to be at
least as old as Euglenozoa since many
have plastids)1956} {Euglenozoa)1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Plastid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
[2] Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
 
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
1,500,000,000 YBN
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 		86) The first plant (ancestor of all
green and red algae and land plants).32
33 34 35 36

This begins the plant kingdom. The
first plant is probably unicellular,
similar to the glaucophytes
{GlxKoFITS37 }.38 39 40 41 42
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
4. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
9. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
14. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
19. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
23. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
24. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
27. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
29. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
30. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
31. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
32. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
34. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
35. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
36. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
37. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
38. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
39. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
40. ^ Seung Yeo Moon-van der
Staay, Rupert De Wachter, Daniel
Vaulot, "Oceanic 18S rDNA sequences
from picoplankton reveal unsuspected
eukaryotic diversity", Nature, (2001).
41. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003).
42. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n
11/abs/nrg929.html
43. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1500)
44. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {first plastid) 1300mybn}
45. ^ Hackett JD,
Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{first plastid) c1600}
46. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1550 mybn}
47. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1609 mybn)
48. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{1580} http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/abs/nrg929.html
49. ^ Han and Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han
and B. Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic
algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old
Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan.
Science 257 (1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {fossil Grypania) 1874my}

MORE INFO
[1] Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema
E. -Y. Chao, "Phylogeny of Choanozoa,
Apusozoa, and Other Protozoa and Early
Eukaryote Megaevolution", Springer New
York,
(2003). file:///home/ted/ulsf/docs/cav-
smith_apusozoa_fulltext.html
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
1,500,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 		220) The Protists Opisthokonts evolve
(the ancestor of all Fungi,
Choanoflagellates and Animals).7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
3. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
7. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1380 mybn}
11. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1400mybn}
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600 mybn}
13. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {960 mybn}
 
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg

[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
1,400,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 		209) The earliest extant plant:
Glaucophyta {GlxKoFITu14 }.15 16 17

Glaucophytes are unicellular algae
found in freshwater.18

Glaucophyta probably branched off the
evolutionary tree before the divergence
of red and green algae from one
another.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
2. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
6. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
13. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glauco
phytes&submit=Submit
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
18. ^ Lee, R.E.
Phycology. Cambridge University Press,
2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
19. ^ Lee, R.E. Phycology. Cambridge
University Press, 2008,
p85. http://books.google.com/books?id=g
foIAFHgusgC&pg=PA85
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c1400)
21. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119.
22. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
23. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1290 mybn}
24. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1225 mybn}
25. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1500my)
26. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (1558my)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P6064
 
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html

[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
1,300,000,000 YBN
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 		188) The Plant Phylum Chlorophyta
{KlORoFiTu20 } evolves, Green Algae:
(ancestor of Volvox, Sea lettuce,
Spirogyra, and Stoneworts).21 22 23 24
25

The green algae are the most diverse
group of algae on Earth today in terms
of number of species (having at least
7000 species).26

The first land plants
most likely evolve from green algae.27
28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
4. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
5. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
10. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
11. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
16. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
17. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
19. ^ Taylor, Taylor, Krings,
"Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants", 2009, p133-134.
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chloro
phyta&submit=Submit
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
24. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b
25. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html
26. ^ Taylor, Taylor, Krings,
"Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants", 2009, p123.
27. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
28. ^ Taylor, Taylor, Krings,
"Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants", 2009, p133-134.
29. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1300mybn)
30. ^ "algae." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/14828/algae>.
31. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1150
mybn}
32. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1450mybn}
33. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (968mybn)
34. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1
David M. Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1
Rebecca L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L.
Kardos, "Molecular Evidence for the
Early Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1061?)
35. ^ M. J. Benton, "The Fossil Record
2", (London; New York: Chapman & Hall,
1993). fr2b (1650-800mybn)
36. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/
greenalgae.html (1000my)
37. ^ Herman N,
"Organic World One Billion Years Ago",
Nauka, Leningrad, 1990.
38. ^ Knoll A,
Summons R, Waldbauer J, Zumberge J,
"The Geological Succession of Primary
Producers in the Oceans", in: Falkowski
P, Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of
primary producers in the sea.",
Elsevier; 2007, p150.
 
[1] Description Flagellar pit of
Pyramimonas sp. / from Nigaku-Ike of
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / SEM:JEOL JSM-6330F /
scale bar = 1.0μm Date 2009-05-04
18:30 (UTC) Source
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg Author
Pyramimonas_sp.jpg: ja:User:NEON /
User:NEON_ja derivative work:
Addicted04 (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Pyramimonas_sp_color.
jpg

[2] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
1,300,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 		219) The plant Phylum Rhodophyta
{rODOFITu10 } evolves (Red Algae).11 12


Rhodophyta are common and widespread,
unicellular and multicellular algae
(reaching up to 1 m {or 3 feet} in
length), and are mostly free-living but
some are parasitic or symbiotic.13
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=rhodop
hyta&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
13. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P9565
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1300mybn)
15. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1450 mybn}
16. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1428mybn)
17. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg

[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
1,300,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		323) The Protists Excavates evolve: the
ancestor of the Parabasalids
{PaRu-BAS-a-liDS17 }, and the
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ18 } {which
includes Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u19 }).20 21
22

Most of these species have an excavated
ventral feeding groove, and all lack
mitochondria which are thought to be
lost secondarily.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=paraba
salid&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplom
onads&submit=Submit
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=giardi
a&submit=Submit
20. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
23. ^ Jan
Tachezy, "Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes:
mitochondria of anaerobic eukaryotes",
2008 http://books.google.com/books?id=L
sPkO1fMPvQC&pg=PA273
24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1300
mybn}
25. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {2000 my}
26.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria
L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{2291} {2291 my}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {1600}
{1600 my}
28. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
{2230} {2230 my}
29. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1594 my}
30. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {1030 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heterokonts". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokonts

[2] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg

[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		38) (Filamentous) multicellularity in
Eukaryotes evolves.10 11

In this organism, unlike single cell
eukaryotes, cells stay fastened
together after cell division.

Multicellularity seems to have arisen
multiple times independently in
eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime
molds, and algae.12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
2. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
3. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
4. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
5. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
6. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
7. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
8. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
9. ^ Nicholas H. Barton, "Evolution",
2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
10. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012.
11. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf
12. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. “The Multiple
Origins of Complex Multicellularity.”
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39.1
(2011):
217-239. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.1002
09
13. ^ Inaki Ruiz-Trillo, Gertraud
Burger, Peter W.H. Holland, Nicole
King, B. Franz Lang, Andrew J. Roger,
Michael W. Gray, The origins of
multicellularity: a multi-taxon genome
initiative, Trends in Genetics, Volume
23, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 113-118,
ISSN 0168-9525, DOI:
10.1016/j.tig.2007.01.005. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952507000236)
14. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
15. ^ Ted Huntington.
16. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
18. ^ Schneider et al 2002. D.A.
Schneider, M.E. Bickford, W.F. Cannon,
K.J. Schulz and M.A. Hamilton, Age of
volcanic rocks and syndepositional iron
formations, Marquette Range Supergroup;
implications for the tectonic setting
of Paleoproterozoic iron formations of
the Lake Superior region. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 39 6 (2002), pp. 999-1012. {1874
mybn} {Grypania)1874 mybn}
19. ^ Han and
Runnegar 1992. T.-M. Han and B.
Runnegar, Megascopic eukaryotic algae
from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee
Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257
(1992), pp.
232-235 science_2100_han_runnegar_algal
_cysts.pdf {1874 mybn} {Grypania)1874
mybn}
20. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", Eigth Edition, 2009, p517.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
(c850my)
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[3] Ted huntington, Estimate based on
origin of brown algae around
1,973,000,000
(earlest red alga fossils:) (Hunting
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada14  
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip

[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
1,280,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		85) Differentiation in a multicellular
eukaryote evolves. In addition to
gamete (or spore) cells, there are
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual
(non-fusing).2

All cells of an organism are somatic
cells, except the sperm and egg cells,
the cells from which they arise
(gametocytes), and undifferentiated
stem cells.3

Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary
/Somatic_cells
4. ^ "cell differentiation."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-differ
entiation
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
7. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905 {Bangia) 1250 mybn}
 
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg

[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
1,280,000,000 YBN
1 2 3 		210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H.
Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga
from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Hsiong Chen,
Sudhir Kumar, Daniel YC Wang, Amanda S
Thompson and Hidemi Wa, "A genomic
timescale for the origin of
eukaryotes", BMC Evolutionary Biology
2001, 1:4
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-1-4,
(2001). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/1/4 {Nucleus 2700 -80mybn
guess}
 
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis

[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
1,280,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 		301) The haplodiplontic life cycle
evolves in algae (mitosis occurs in
both haploid and diploid life stages).4

This is also known as the "alternation
of generations".5

Some algae and
plants have a haplodiplontic life
cycle; a life cycle where both diploid
and haploid stages are multicellular.
The multicellular haploid stage is
called the gametophyte and the
multicellular diploid stage is called
the sporophyte.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
3. ^ John
Ringo, "Fundamental Genetics", 2004,
p201.
4. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
5. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
6. ^
Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p252.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Butterfield N. J.
A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A bangiophyte
red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic
Canada.", Science 1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Kirkpatrick, "The
evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
 
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png

[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
1,274,000,000 YBN
15 16 		187) A captured red alga, through
endosymbiosis, becomes a plastid in the
ancestor of all chromalveolates.11 12
13

This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium
which results in a plastid with more
than two membranes.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
5. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
6. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
7. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
9. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
10. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ CAVALIER-SMITH, THOMAS.
“Economy, Speed and Size Matter:
Evolutionary Forces Driving Nuclear
Genome Miniaturization and
Expansion.” Annals of Botany 95.1
(2005) : 147 -175.
Print. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147.short
13. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
14. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
15. ^
Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1274 mybn}
16. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1280mybn}
 
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg

[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
1,250,000,000 YBN
29 30 31 32 33 34 		88) The Protists "Chromalveolates"
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS22 } evolve (the
ancestor of the Chromista
{Cryptophytes, Haptophytes, and
Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ23 }}
and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS24 }).25 26
27 28
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
7. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
14. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
17. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
20. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
21. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chroma
lveolates&submit=Submit
23. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
24. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p540.
27. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
28. ^ Baldauf, S. L. “The Deep Roots
of Eukaryotes.” Science 300.5626
(2003) : 1703
-1706. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1703.short
29. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1250 mybn}
30. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1300 mybn}
31. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1665 mybn}
32. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime
E Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1973mybn)
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
34. ^ S. Blair Hedges
and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of
Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1600mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "Brown alga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_alga
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
 
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php


[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
1,250,000,000 YBN
18 		201) The earliest certain eukaryote
fossils and earliest certain fossils of
eukaryote filamentous multicellularity:
a bangiophyte {BoNJEuFIT10 } red alga
fossil.11 12 13

These are also the earliest fossils of
a eukaryote that can reproduce sexually
and that have differentiated cells (a
basal holdfast).14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
2. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
3. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
4. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
5. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
6. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
7. ^ Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett, "A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
8. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
9. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bangio
phyte&submit=Submit
11. ^ Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett, "A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.", Science
1990 vol 250 1990,
p104-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
877905
12. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
13. ^ Knoll, Summons, Waldbauer,
Zumberge, "The Geological Succession of
Primary Producers in the Oceans", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p149-150.
14. ^ Nicholas
J. Butterfield, "Bangiomorpha pubescens
n. gen., n. sp.: implications for
the evolution of sex,
multicellularity, and the
Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic
radiation of eukaryotes", Paleobiology,
26(3), 2000, pp.
386–404. http://www.algaebase.org/pdf
/AC100CF316a8734043nPXq2B4E75/386.pdf
15. ^
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet
.aspx?SpeciesID=1700
16. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
17. ^ Paleobiology Volume 26, Issue 3
(September
2000) http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?r
equest=get-document&doi=10.1666%2F0094-8
373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.C
O%3B2
18. ^ Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield
N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A
bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
{1250 mybn}
(Hunting Formation) Somerset Island,
arctic Canada16 17  
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905

[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
1,200,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 		221) The first fungi. This begins the
Fungi Kingdom.14 15

Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic
(unable to build structural materials
by photosynthesis) and so must feed on
other living things.16

Fungi live on organic material and are
therefore generally parasitic (live or
feed on another organism to the
detriment of the host organism17 ) or
are saprophytic (live on dead or
decaying organic matter18 ). Some types
of fungi, however, form symbioses with
plants.19

Fungi may reproduce sexually or
asexually and like plants show
alternations in their life cycle.20
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
11. ^ "parasitic." Encyclopedia of Food
and Culture. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parasitic
12. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic
-zoology
13. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
17. ^ "parasitic." Encyclopedia of Food
and Culture. The Gale Group, Inc, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parasitic
18. ^ "saprophytic." Grzimek's Animal
Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc,
2005. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saprophytic
-zoology
19. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
20. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
21. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007. {c1200 mybn}
22. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1368 mybn}
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148
/4/2 (1513mybn) {1513 mybn}
24. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1200) {c1100} {c1100 mybn}
 
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg

[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
1,180,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 		6280) The Protists Alveolates
{aL-VEO-leTS16 } (the ancestor of all
Ciliates, Apicomplexans, and
Dinoflagellates {DInOFlaJeleTS17 }).18
19 20

These three protist phyla all have an
alveolar {aL-VE-e-lR21 } membrane
system, made of flattened
membrane-bound sacs called "alveoli"
{aL-VE-e-lI22 }.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
2. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471
-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
5. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
7. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
11. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
12. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
15. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
16. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=al
veolates&submit=Submit
17. ^ "dinoflagellate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p538.
20. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135.
21. ^ "alveolar." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alveolar
22. ^ "alveolus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alveolus
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135.
24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1180
mybn}
25. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120. {1480 my}
26.
^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria
L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956 my}
27. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
28. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {1000 my}
29. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {c820 my}
30. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1628}
 
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg

[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
1,100,000,000 YBN
14 15 		75) The oldest extant fungi phylum
"Microsporidia" evolves.9 10

Microsporidia are obligate (survive
only as11 ) intracellular parasites of
eukaryotes;12 commonly infecting
insects, crustaceans, and fishes.13
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ "obligate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/obligate
8. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Sq
NvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^ "obligate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/obligate
12. ^ Murray Wittner, Louis M. Weiss,
"The microsporidia and
microsporidiosis", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?ei=Sq
NvT_O5JKbTiAKf8PDuAg
13. ^ Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008,
p427. {Fungi_Dictionary_Of_2008.pdf}
14. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (>1460mybn)
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c1100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=93911
[2] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full
 
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg

[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
1,100,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 		313) The Protist Phylum
"Dinoflagellata" evolves.13 14 15

Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS16 }
are single-celled, aquatic organisms
that have two dissimilar flagella. Most
are microscopic and marine. An
important link in the food chain,
Dinoflagellates also "bloom" which can
produce luminescence seen in the sea.17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
8. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
12. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
15. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dinofl
agellates&submit=Submit
17. ^ "dinoflagellate." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 26 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinoflagell
ate
18. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {Dinosterane molecular
fossils)1100 my}
19. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{DNA)1040 mybn}
20. ^ A. H. Knoll, E. J.
Javaux, D. Hewitt and P. Cohen,
"Eukaryotic Organisms in Proterozoic
Oceans", Philosophical Transactions:
Biological Sciences , Vol. 361, No.
1470, Major Steps in Cell Evolution:
Palaeontological, Molecular and
Cellular Evidence of Their Timing and
Global Effects (Jun. 29, 2006), pp.
1023-1038 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2
0209698 {1.8 bybn} {Dinosterane
molecular fossils)1100 my}
21. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {940 mybn}
22. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {430 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1973mybn)
[2] Sandra L.
Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert,
W. F. Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level
Phylogeny of Eukaryotes Based on
Combined Protein Data", Science, Vol
290, num 5493, p 972, (2000). has
heterkonts before ciliophora and
apicomplexa branch (1600mybn)
[3] Pratt, L. M.,
Summons, R. E. and Hieshima, G. B.:
1991, Sterane and Triterpane Biomarkers
in the Precambrian Nonesuch Formation,
North American Midcontinent Rift,
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 911–916
[4] J.J.
Brocks, R.E. Summons, 8.03 -
Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers
for Early Life, In: Editors-in-Chief:
Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K.
Turekian, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Treatise
on Geochemistry, Pergamon, Oxford,
2003, Pages 63-115, ISBN 9780080437514,
10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08127-5. (http:/
/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
ii/B0080437516081275)
[5] Moldowan, J. Michael et al.
“Chemostratigraphic reconstruction of
biofacies: Molecular evidence linking
cyst-forming dinoflagellates with
pre-Triassic ancestors.” Geology 24.2
(1996): 159 -162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf
[6] Raven, Evert, Eichhorn, "Biology of
Plants", (New York: Worth Publishers,
1992). p98-99
[7] "coenocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coenocyte
 
[1] Dinoflagellate Ceratium
sp. Phylum Dinoflagellata Upper
Newport Bay, Orange County, CA.
9/22/12. © Peter J.
Bryant COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Din
oflagellates/DSC_6886b.jpg

[2] Model of Pyrodinium bahamense, a
dinoflagellate species, in the American
Museum of Natural History Credit:
Life’s Little Mysteries Fire
water Have you ever seen glowing ocean
water, like the bright blue surf
pictured in the intro slide? The neon
water is brimming with dinoflagellates,
single-celled plankton with tails that
slosh around together in vast numbers.
These creatures have been highlighting
Earth’s coastlines for 1.2 billion
years, and for the past few millennia,
they’ve puzzled humans, who used to
attribute the glow of some ocean water
to magic or the gods.Dinoflagellates
still puzzle us; we know how they glow,
but not why. They might have evolved
bioluminescence as a way of frightening
predators, or to reveal those
predators’ locations by flashing when
touched. Alternatively, their
bioluminescence may just be a fancy way
of ridding themselves of oxygen
radicals (because the chemical reaction
requires oxygen). Whatever the answer,
they certainly make for a nice holiday
in the Bahamas. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.
com/images/i/1651/original/dinoflagellat
e.jpg
1,080,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 31 		87) The Excavates Discicristates
{DiSKIKriSTATS}; the ancestor of
protists which have mitochondria with
discoidal (shaped like a disk18 )
cristae (the folded inner membrane of a
mitochondrion19 ) (the ancestor of
euglenids, leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ20 },
trypanosomes {TriPaNiSOMZ21 }, and
acrasid {oKrASiD22 } slime molds).23 24
25 26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
4. ^ "leishmanias."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 08 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
5. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
10. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
11. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
12. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
17. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
18. ^ "discoidal." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
iscoidal>.
19. ^ "cristae." Collins English
Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th
Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. 24
May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ristae>.
20. ^ "leishmanias." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
eishmanias>.
21. ^ "trypanosome." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
rypanosome>.
22. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ac
rasiomycetes&submit=Submit
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
24. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
25. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
26. ^ Baldauf, "An overview of
the phylogeny and diversity of
eukaryotes", Journal of Systematics and
Evolution 46 (3): 263–273
(2008). http://www.plantsystematics.com
/qikan/manage/wenzhang/jse08060.pdf
27. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119. {1080
mybn}
28. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{1956 mybn}
29. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1999 mybn}
30. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
31. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
(1800-1900 for eukaryote/prokaryote
separation)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/euglenozoa/euglenozoa.ht
m
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm

[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg

1,080,000,000 YBN
24 25 26 27 		97) A eukaryote eye evolves; the first
three-dimensional response to light.18
19 20

The earliest eye is a light sensitive
area in a unicellular eukaryote that
probably evolved from a plastid.21 22

Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

2. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
3. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
4. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

5. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
6. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
7. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

8. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
9. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
10. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
11. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
12. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

13. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
14. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
15. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
16. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
17. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

18. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

19. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
20. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
21. ^
http://www.sidwell.edu/us/science/vlb5/L
abs/Classification_Lab/Eukarya/Protista/
Euglenozoa/
22. ^ THOMAS CAVALIER-SMITH, "Economy,
Speed and Size Matter: Evolutionary
Forces Driving Nuclear Genome
Miniaturization and Expansion", *
Oxford Journals * Life Sciences
* Annals of Botany * Volume 95,
Number 1 *, (2005).
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/
95/1/147.abstract
23. ^ Jékely, Gáspár. "Evolution of
phototaxis." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short

24. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p119.
25. ^ Yoon, Hwan
Su et al. “A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {guess based on
earliest secondary plastid 1274 my and
euglena at 1410 mybn}
26. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}
27. ^ my own estimate based on where
euglenozoa genetically appear to evolve
{guess based on earliest secondary
plastid 1274 my and euglena at 1410
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter Hegemann, "Algal
Sensory Photoreceptors", Annual Review
of Plant Biology, Vol. 59: 167 -189
(Volume publication date June 2008)
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/
10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092847
%40recept.2009.1.issue-1
[2] Trevor D. Lamb, Detlev Arendt, and
Shaun P. Collin, "The evolution of
phototransduction and eyes", Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. B October 12, 2009
364:2791-2793;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0106 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1
531/2791.full
[3] Kreimer, G. (2009) The green algal
eyespot apparatus: a primordial visual
system and more? Current Genetics
55:19-43 doi:10.007/s00294-008-0224-8
PMID
19107486 http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/v54v124mxg52r091/
 
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg

[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
1,050,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 		169) The Protists Stramenopiles
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ13 } (also called
Heterokonts) evolve (ancestor of all
brown algae, golden algae, diatoms, and
oomycota {Ou-mI-KO-Tu14 )).15 16

Almost all Stramenopiles have unique
three-part hairs on the flagella at
some stage in the life cycle.17
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
3. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
11. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
13. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=st
ramenopiles
14. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=oo
mycota&submit=Submit
15. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
17. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
18. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {1050 mybn}
19. ^
Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield NJ,
Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D, "Plastid
endosymbiosis: Sources and timing of
the major events.", in: Falkowski P,
Knoll A, editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p119. {1180 mybn}
20. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120. {1480my}
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1345 my}
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf} {1956my} {Alveolates and Plant
split)1956my}
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1600 my}
{Chromalveolates)1600 my}
24. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short
{Berney_Eukaryote_phylogeny_2006.pdf}
{c775my} {c754my}
25. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux,
Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm Walter,
"Recognizing and Interpreting the
Fossils of Early Eukaryotes", Origins
of Life and Evolution of Biospheres,
Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {c1000my}
26. ^ Emmanuel J. P.
Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {872 my}
 
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.

[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php

1,000,000,000 YBN
11 		324) The Protists Mesomycetozoea
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u7 } evolve (also
called DRIPS).8

Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes the
Choanoflagellates {KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS9
}, thought to be the ancestor of
sponges).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=mesomy
cetozoea&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {1000 MYBN (end
of Mesoproterozoic}

MORE INFO
[1] Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge
MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, et al.
2008 Multigene Phylogeny of Choanozoa
and the Origin of Animals. PLoS ONE
3(5): e2098.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002098
[2] Leonel Mendoza, John W. Taylor, and
Libero Ajello, "THE CLASS
MESOMYCETOZOEA: A Heterogeneous Group
of Microorganisms at the Animal-Fungal
Boundary", Annual Review of
Microbiology October 2002, Vol. 56:
315-344. http://www.annualreviews.org/d
oi/full/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.
160950
 
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg

[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
985,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		309) The Protist Phylum Oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu17 } evolves (ancestor of
the Oomycetes18 ; water molds).19 20 21
22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full
5. ^ http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
7. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
9. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
12. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=oomyco
ta&submit=Submit
18. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life",
2009. http://www.timetree.org/book.php
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
21. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
23. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {985}
24. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Term
s/coeno128.html#coeno128
[2] "Coenocyte". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocyte
[3]
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultrane
t/BiologyPages/P/Protists.html#Water_Mol
ds
[4]
http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1
116/16protists.htm
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
900,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		6281) The protists Rhizaria
{rI-ZaR-E-u7 } evolve (ancestor of all
Radiolaria, Foraminifera and
Cercozoa).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=rh
izaria&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Medlin, L. , Kooistra, W.
, Potter, D. , Saanders, G. and
Wandersen, R. (1997): Phylogenetic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids , The origin of the
algae and their plastids (D
Bhattacharya, ed ) Plant systematics
and evolution (Suppl
) http://epic.awi.de/2100/
AND http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.
pdf {900 my}
10. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=haptophyta&submit=Sea
rch {900 my}
11. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my} {754 my}
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {1600 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Moreira D, von der Heyden S,
Bass D, López-García P, Chao E,
Cavalier-Smith T (July 2007). "Global
eukaryote phylogeny: Combined small-
and large-subunit ribosomal DNA trees
support monophyly of Rhizaria, Retaria
and Excavata". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
44 (1): 255–66.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retriev
e/pii/S1055-7903(06)00433-7
[2]
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?taxon_
a=rhizaria&taxon_b=alveolates&submit=Sea
rch
[3] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
"Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.", in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
"Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.", Elsevier; 2007, p120
 
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
850,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 		224) The Fungi "Zygomycota" evolves
(ancestor of bread molds, and pin
molds).13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
6. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
7. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
13. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ Daniel
S. Heckman,1 David M. Geiser,2 Brooke
R. Eidell,1 Rebecca L. Stauffer,1
Natalie L. Kardos, "Molecular Evidence
for the Early Colonization of Land by
Fungi and Plants", Science 10 August
2001: Vol. 293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 -
1133 DOI: 10.1126/science.1061457,
(2001).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
17. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1250mybn)
18. ^ Daniel S. Heckman,1 David M.
Geiser,2 Brooke R. Eidell,1 Rebecca
L. Stauffer,1 Natalie L. Kardos,
"Molecular Evidence for the Early
Colonization of Land by Fungi and
Plants", Science 10 August 2001: Vol.
293. no. 5532, pp. 1129 - 1133 DOI:
10.1126/science.1061457, (2001).
(1107mybn)
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"Genomic clocks and evolutionary
timescales", Trends in Genetics
Volume 19, Issue 4 , April 2003, Pages
200-206, (2003). (1107mybn)
20. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850m)
 
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html

[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
767,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		312) The Protist Phylum "Ciliophora"
{SiL-E-oF-R-u11 } evolves (the
"Ciliates") (ancestor of the
paramecium).12 13 14

The Ciliophora are characterized by
having numerous cilia which they use to
move themselves15 .16 Most ciliates
are unicellular.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
7. ^
"ciliophora." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
iliophora>.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
11. ^
"ciliophora." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
iliophora>.
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
14. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
15. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", Second
Edition, 2003, p135-145.
16. ^ "ciliate." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ciliate
17. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135-145.
18. ^ Emmanuelle J. Javaux, Andrew H.
Knoll and Malcolm Walter, "Recognizing
and Interpreting the Fossils of Early
Eukaryotes", Origins of Life and
Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 33,
Number 1, 75-94, DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {750 my}
19. ^ Emmanuel J.
P. Douzery, Elizabeth A. Snell, Eric
Bapteste, Frédéric Delsuc, and Hervé
Philippe, "The timing of eukaryotic
evolution: Does a relaxed molecular
clock reconcile proteins and fossils?",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 October
26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
20. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
 
[1] Paramecium protozoan,
SEM C001/0068 Rights Managed Credit:
STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Paramecium protozoan,
coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM). Paramecia are a group of
unicellular ciliate protozoa. They
inhabit fresh water, and feed mainly on
bacteria and smaller protozoa.
Paramecia range from about 50 to 350
micrometres in length, depending on
species. Simple cilia, which cover the
body, are moved in a synchronous motion
to allow the cell to move.
Magnification: x825 when printed at 10
centimetres wide. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/par
amecium.gif

[2] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
767,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		314) The Protist Phylum "Apicomplexa"
{a-PE-KoM-PleK-Su13 } evolves (includes
Malaria and Toxoplasmosis).14 15 16

Apicomplexans have a special cell
organelle called the apical complex
which helps to invade the host cell.17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apicom
plexa&submit=Submit
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000). has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
17. ^ Woo,
P.T.K. Fish Diseases and Disorders:
Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan
Infections. CABI, 2006. CABI Publishing
Series.,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bm7HSCLcCbUC&pg=PA183
18. ^ Emmanuel J. P. Douzery, Elizabeth
A. Snell, Eric Bapteste, Frédéric
Delsuc, and Hervé Philippe, "The
timing of eukaryotic evolution: Does a
relaxed molecular clock reconcile
proteins and fossils?", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 2004 October 26; 101(43):
15386–15391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC524432/?report=abstr
act {767 my}
19. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan
Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale for
eukaryote evolution recalibrated with
the continuous microfossil record",
Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {620 my}
20. ^ Emmanuelle J.
Javaux, Andrew H. Knoll and Malcolm
Walter, "Recognizing and Interpreting
the Fossils of Early Eukaryotes",
Origins of Life and Evolution of
Biospheres, Volume 33, Number 1, 75-94,
DOI:
10.1023/A:1023992712071 http://www.spri
ngerlink.com/content/j1nn04342607n57m/ex
port-citation/ {api+dino and ciliate
split)1100 my}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[2] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p135
 
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
680,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 37 38 		326) The Protists "Choanoflagellates"
{KO-e-nO-FlaJ-e-lATS25 } evolve.26 27
28 29 30 31
Choanoflagellates are the
closest relatives to the animals and
may be direct ancestors of sponges.32

There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimming, propelling themselves
with a flagellum. Others are attached
by a stalk, sometimes with several
together in a colony. Choanoflagellates
use their flagellum to drive water into
the funnel where food particles like
bacteria are trapped and engulfed.33
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
4. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
5. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
19. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
20. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
23. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
25. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
flagellate&submit=Submit
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
27. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=114293
28. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
29. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2691&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
30. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano)
31. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000 drips and 900 choano)
32. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p502.
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p502.
34. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1000 drips and 900
choano) {900 MYBN}
36. ^ Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007.
{900 MYBN}
37. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir
Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {1020 mybn}
38. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1513 (drips?) and 1450 choano) {1450
mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting
a Tree", Science, (2003)
[2] "Ichthyosporea".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthy
osporea
 
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg

[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
670,000,000 YBN
20 21 22 		286) Multicellularity evolves in a free
moving Protist.15 16 This allows
larger free moving organisms to
evolve.17

This multicellularity is thought to be
independently evolved, and not related
to the earlier filamentous
multicellularity of prokaryotes like
cyanobacteria, and eukaryotes like
algae.18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506.
2. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
5. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-506.
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
11. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
14. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-506.
16. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Shuhai
Xiao, Yun Zhang, Andrew H. Knoll,
"Three-dimensional preservation of
algae and animal embryos in a
Neoproterozoic phosphorite", Nature
391, 553-558 (5 February
1998) http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/Dyn
aPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n666
7/full/391553a0_fs.html
19. ^ Buss, L. W. The Evolution of
Individuality (Princeton Univ. Press,
NJ, 1987).
20. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p497-506. (c850my)
22. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)

MORE INFO
[1] Nicholas H. Barton,
"Evolution", 2007,
p225-226. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mMDFQ32oMI8C&pg=PA225
[2] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, 188-191
 
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg

[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
670,000,000 YBN
297) The diplontic life cycle evolves;
this organism is predominantly diploid,
mitosis in the haploid phase does not
occur.6 7

All animals are diplontic, and descend
from this multicellular organism.8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
2. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
3. ^ John Ringo, "Fundamental
Genetics", 2004, p201.
4. ^ Mark Kirkpatrick,
"The evolution of haploid-diploid life
cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
5. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
6. ^ John Ringo,
"Fundamental Genetics", 2004, p201.
7. ^ Mark
Kirkpatrick, "The evolution of
haploid-diploid life cycles", 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
8. ^ Campbell, Reece, et al, "Biology",
Eigth Edition, 2008, p252.
 
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png

[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
660,000,000 YBN
56 57 58 59 60 		81) The first animal and first
metazoan, the sponge evolves. This
begins the Animal Kingdom, and the
Phylum Porifera; the sponges. There are
only three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians.35
36 37

The word "porifera" means "pore
bearing" in Latin38 , and water
continuously flows through the pores in
sponges39 .

Metazoans are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). Sponges have
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
{KunTraKTL40 } cells, cells that digest
food, and other kinds of cell types.41
42 43 44

All sponge cells are totipotent and so
are capable of regrowing a new
sponge.45 In sponges there is no
distinction between germ line and
soma.46 Some sponges can live for over
1000 years.47

Sponges have two layers, each a single
cell thick. The outer surface is called
the pinacoderm {PiN-o-KO-DRM48 } and
is made of cells called pinacocytes
{PiN-o-KO-SITS49 }. On the inner
surface is the choanoderm {KOenO-DRM or
KO-aNo-DRM50 } which is made of
flagellated cells called choanocytes
{KOenO-SITS51 or KO-aNo-SITS52 }.
Between these two thin cellular sheets
is the jellylike53 mesohyl {mASuHIL54
}, which may vary in thickness and
plays vital roles in digestion, gamete
production, secretion of skeleton, and
transport of nutrients and waste
products by special amoeboid cells.55
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
6. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p497-501.
17. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
18. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition
/english/Porifera
19. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p335.
20. ^ "contractile."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 31 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ontractile>.
21. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
23. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
24. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinaco
derm&submit=Submit
27. ^ "pinacocyte." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinacocyte
28. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
derm&submit=Submit
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
cyte&submit=Submit
30. ^ "choanocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/choanocyte
31. ^ Meglitsch, P.A., and F.R. Schram.
Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford University
Press, USA, 1991, p56.
32. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
33. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p183.
34. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
35. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
36. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-501.
37. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
38. ^
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition
/english/Porifera
39. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p335.
40. ^ "contractile."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 31 Dec. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ontractile>.
41. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
42. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
43. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
44. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
188-191.
45. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
46. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p497-499.
47. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p101.
48. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinaco
derm&submit=Submit
49. ^ "pinacocyte." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinacocyte
50. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
derm&submit=Submit
51. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=choano
cyte&submit=Submit
52. ^ "choanocyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/choanocyte
53. ^ Meglitsch, P.A., and F.R. Schram.
Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford University
Press, USA, 1991, p56.
54. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
55. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p183.
56. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
57. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"The TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
58. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {c800my}
59. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
60. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] Müller, Werner E. G. “The
Origin of Metazoan Complexity: Porifera
as Integrated Animals.” Integrative
and Comparative Biology 43.1 (2003):
3–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/388
4834
 
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g

[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
660,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 		517) The male gonad (testis {TeSTiS10 }
or testicle) evolves in a sponge.11 In
sponges sperm are contained in
spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte
chambers transformed by the formation
of sperm12 (spermatogenesis), but ova
are distributed throughout the mesohyl
{mASuHIL13 } (or middle layer).14
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p20.
3. ^ "testis." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
5. ^ "testis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
7. ^
"spermatogenesis." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
permatogenesis>.
8. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
10. ^ "testis."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 21 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/testis
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
12. ^
"spermatogenesis." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
permatogenesis>.
13. ^
http://visual.merriam-webster.com/pronun
ciation.php?id=animal-kingdom/simple-org
anisms-echinoderms/29852&title=mesohyl
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p20.
15. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c850my) {based on
evolution of sponge) c850my}
17. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). (1351my)
18. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (600?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
 
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
650,000,000 YBN
41) The start of the 60 million year
(Varanger) Ice Age (650-590 mybn).3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
3. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad.
Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
 
[1] Snowball Earth 600 to 750 million
years ago Earth was incased in ice for
prolong periods of time and each global
glacial event ended under severe
greenhouse conditions. This late
Precambrian planet-wide glaciation is
known as “Snowball Earth” and is an
extension on Sturtian- Varangian
glaciation. UNKNOWN
source: http://geology.fullerton.edu/whe
nderson/Fal201L2005/snowballearth/images
/snoballearth.jpg

[2] Snowball Earth Begins UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gambassa.com/gambassa
files/images/images/1310/20090528_snowba
ll_earth_v1.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 		69) Cells that group as tissues that
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.7

Unlike the Porifera, in the Placozoa
and all later metazoans, cells group as
tissues.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p494.
7. ^
D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p494.
10. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
11. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
{c750MYBN (Ctenophores are first
metazoans with tissues}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
650,000,000 YBN
20 21 		79) The Metazoan Phylum "Placozoa"
evolves.12 13

Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular.14 The only known
species is Trichoplax adhaerens
{TriKOPlaKS15 aDHEReNZ}. Trichoplax
lives in the sea and feeds on single
celled organisms, mostly algae. There
are only 4 cell types in Trichoplax
compared to the more than 200 cell
types in humans. Trichoplax has two
main cell layers, like a cnidarian or
ctenophore. Between these two layers
are a few contractile cells that are
similar to muscle cells16 , however
placozoans have no muscle or nerve
cells17 18 .

Trichoplax has the lowest content of
DNA of any metazoan, about two-thirds
that in sponges, and only 10 times that
of bacteria.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ based on "Trichomonas."
The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trichomonas

9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p494.
10. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
11. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=11212&tree=0.1
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ based on "Trichomonas."
The American Heritage Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trichomonas

16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p494.
17. ^ Grell, K.G.,
Gruner, H.E., Kilian, E.F., 1980.
Einfu¨hrung. In: Graner, H.E. (Ed.),
Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie, Vol.
1: Wirbellose Tiere: I. Einfu¨hrung
Protozoa, Placozoa, Porifera. Fischer,
Stuttgart.
18. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
19. ^ Meglitsch, P.A., and F.R. Schram.
Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford University
Press, USA, 1991, p53.
20. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {780 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Srivastava, Mansi et al.
“The Trichoplax genome and the nature
of placozoans.” Nature 454.7207
(2008) :
955-960. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v454/n7207/abs/nature07191.html
[2] Dellaporta, Stephen L. et al.
“Mitochondrial genome of Trichoplax
adhaerens supports Placozoa as the
basal lower metazoan phylum.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.23 (2006) : 8751 -8756.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
23/8751.full
 
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg

[2] from ediacara of australia
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/dickinsonia.html
650,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		223) The Fungi "Chytridiomycota"
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) evolves (includes
all Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ}12 )).13 14 15

The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, decomposing chitin and
keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic
(mostly found in freshwater)16 and
some species are unicellular.17
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
3. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
4. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
7. ^ "Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
8. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
11. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
12. ^
"Chytridiomycetes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 24 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chytridiomy
cetes-1
13. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^
http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-ch
ecklist/2008/browse_taxa.php?path=0,5597
&selected_taxon=5597
16. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
17. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution of
Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
18. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
19. ^
http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/fungi.htm
20. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1460mybn)
21. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1000mybn)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=71577&tree=0.1
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomy
cota
[3]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chytri
diomycetes&submit=Submit
[4] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
Northern Russia18  
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm

[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
640,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 		83) The first nerve cell (neuron), and
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.14 15
 This leads to the first ganglion and
brain.16 This is the earliest touch
and sound detection, and memory.17

As time continues in the evolution of
the metazoans, the number of neurons
increases while the size of neurons
decreases, showing that more neurons
and smaller neurons, similar to
transistors in a computer, give an
organism more memory and as a result a
selective advantage in survival.18
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
6. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005). (presumably)
10. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably)
15. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2,30.
16. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably)
17. ^ Ted Huntington.
18. ^ Ted Huntington.
19. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
20. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {775 MYBN (estimate based
on Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
21. ^ S OOta and N Saitou,
"Phylogenetic relationship of muscle
tissues deduced from superimposition of
gene trees.", Mol Biol Evol (1999)
16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
22. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (presumably) {775
MYBN (estimate based on Ctenophora as
first with nerve and muscle and
Ctenophora evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN}
23. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(presumably) {574mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Ghysen, A. (2003). The origin
and evolution of the nervous system.
The International journal of
developmental biology , 47 (7-8),
555-562. http://view.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/14756331
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750mybn)
 
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg

[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
640,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		96) Muscle cells evolve in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians.7
Both the earliest known muscle and
nerve cells are found in Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
2. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
3. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
4. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
5. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
6. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
7. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
8. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
}
9. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
10. ^ Katja Seipel, Volker Schmid,
Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish
and the origin of triploblasty,
Developmental Biology, Volume 282,
Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 14-26, ISSN
0012-1606, DOI:
10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0012160605002095) {Schmid_20050309.pdf
} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {750 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn}
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750mybn) {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN} {775 MYBN
(estimate based on Ctenophora as first
with nerve and muscle and Ctenophora
evolving c750mybn)(before
c700MYBN)(before c700MYBN}
12. ^ S OOta and N
Saitou, "Phylogenetic relationship of
muscle tissues deduced from
superimposition of gene trees.", Mol
Biol Evol (1999) 16(6):
856-867. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/
content/16/6/856.abstract {Saitou_1999.
pdf} {775 MYBN (estimate based on
Ctenophora as first with nerve and
muscle and Ctenophora evolving
c750mybn)(before c700MYBN}
 
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.

[2] Derek E. G. Briggs and Richard A.
Fortey, ''Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation'', Paleobiology , Vol. 31,
No. 2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
640,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		225) A closeable mouth evolves for the
first time, in the ancestor of all
ctenophores and cnidarians.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p2-3.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p2-3.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3.
5. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p2-3. {c750MYBN
(all metazoans but sponges have a
closable mouth}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p491-493.
(c750) {c750MYBN (all metazoans but
sponges have a closable mouth}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=12289&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
640,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 14 15 		414) The female gonad (the first ovary)
evolves in the ancestor of Ctenophores
and Cnidarians.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
2. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
3. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
4. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
6. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
8. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p48.
10. ^
http://species-identification.org/specie
s.php?species_group=zsao&id=589&menuentr
y=groepen
11. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
{based on evolution of cnidaria) 580my}
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490. (c700my)
15. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Proteoglycan." The Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science . Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proteoglyca
n
[2] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p18-19
[3] D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p17
[4] Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
(c850my)
[5] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1351my)
[6] Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (600?)
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
640,000,000 YBN
26 27 		523) The animal Phylum Ctenophora
{Ti-noF-R-u12 } evolves (comb
jellies).13

Like the Cnidarians, the Ctenophores
are diploblastic; they have two
embryonic germ layers- the ectoderm
{EKTeDRM14 } and the endoderm
{eNDeDRM15 } which become the adult
epidermis and gastrodermis,
respectively. The middle mesenchyme
{meSeNKIM16 }, a watery gelatinous
fluid, never produces the complex
organs seen in triploblastic Metazoa.17


The main body cavity of the ctenophores
is also the digestive chamber, and they
have a simple nerve net.18

Unlike cnidarians, ctenophores lack
stinging cells, there is no alternation
of generations in the life cycle, and
ctenophores are never colonial.19 20 21


On the surface of the body are eight
equally spaced comb plates, called
ctenes {TENZ22 }. Each ctene is
composed of a band of cilia. The ctenes
provide most of the movement for the
ctenophores.23

Ctenophores are hermaphroditic. Ovaries
and testies differentiate from the
endoderm. The gametes are released
through temporary gonopores
{GoN-o-PORZ24 }, and fertilization is
external.25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ctenophore." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophore>.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
3. ^ "ctenophore."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophore>.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
5. ^ "ctenophora."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophora>.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
7. ^ "ectoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ectoderm
8. ^ "endoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoderm
9. ^ "mesenchyme." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 31 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
esenchyme>.
10. ^ {ULSF: Note that this info is
taken from cnidaria, but is the same
for ctenophora} Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p225,274.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493.
12. ^ "ctenophora."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 02 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
tenophora>.
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493.
14. ^ "ectoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ectoderm
15. ^ "endoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endoderm
16. ^ "mesenchyme." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 31 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
esenchyme>.
17. ^ {ULSF: Note that this info is
taken from cnidaria, but is the same
for ctenophora} Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p225,274.
18. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493.
19. ^
http://www.imas.utas.edu.au/zooplankton/
image-key/ctenophora
20. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p269-270.
21. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p491-493.
22. ^ Henderson, I.F., and W.D.
Henderson 1920A Dictionary of
Scientific Terms, Pronunciation,
Derivation, and Definition of Terms in
Biology, Botony, Zoology, Anatomy,
Cyctology, Embroyology, Physiology. Van
Nostrand.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ky0wAAA
AYAAJ. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ky0wAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=ctene+pronounce
d
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p274-275.
24. ^
"gonopore." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 03 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
onopore>.
25. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p47.
26. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p491-493. (c750)
 
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g

[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
635,000,000 YBN
4 		6413) The start of the Ediacaran
Period.2

A large increase in the evolutionary
turnover rate of acritarchs is thought
to be the result of the evolution of
the nervous system and gut in the
eumetazoa (all ctenophora, cnidaria,
and bilateria).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
2. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
3. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
4. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
 
[1] Description English: The 'golden
spike' marking the Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at
the base of the Ediacaran Period Date
16 August 2008 Source Own work
Original filename =
DSC07914.JPG Author Bahudhara CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ediacaran_GSSP_
-_closeup.JPG/1280px-Ediacaran_GSSP_-_cl
oseup.JPG

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
630,000,000 YBN
56 57 58 59 		82) The Animal Phylum Cnidaria
{NIDAREeo} evolves (the ancestor of sea
anemones, sea pens, corals, and
jellyfish).33 34 35 36 Cnidaria also
evolve the earliest animal eye.37 38

Cnidaria are primarily radially
symmetrical animals with tentacles,
have a single body cavity with only one
opening to take in food and to release
wastes, and have specialized stinging
cells.39

Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa
{miDUSe40 }. A sea anemone or Hydra is
a typical polyp: fixed to the ground
with mouth on top.41 Corals are
colonial marine polyps that secrete
calcareous {KaL-KAR-E-uS42 } (calcium
carbonate43 ) skeletons44 which they
live inside of45 . The medusa form is
upside down compared to the polyp
form46 , and is free swimming. A
jellyfish has a typical medusa form,
swimming through the open sea. Many
cnidarians have both polyp and medusa
forms in a single life cycle.47

Polyps often reproduce by budding; a
new baby polyp clone grows on the side
of the parent.48 When cnidaria
reproduce sexually, sperm are released
into the water and fertilization is
usually external.49

Digestion in Cnidarians starts in the
gastrovascular cavity, but once the
food is reduced to particles small
enough to enter the digestive cells of
the gastrodermis, digestion is
completed inside the cell
(intracellularly).50

Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network without a centralized
structure51 52 . They also have muscles
which are contracted to propel them.53


Cnidarians see in black or white,
because their eyes have only one
pigment; for color vision the eye must
have more than one pigment.54 55
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
5. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
6. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
9. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
10. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
11. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
12. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
13. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
15. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
16. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
17. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
18. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
19. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
21. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
22. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
23. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
24. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
25. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p31.
26. ^ "medusa."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/medusa
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
29. ^ "coral." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coral
30. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through Time",
2006, p338.
31. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p338.
32. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
33. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
34. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p477-490.
35. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
36. ^
"Cnidaria." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 22
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cnidaria
37. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p41.
38. ^ Megan
O'Connor, Anders Garm, Dan-E Nilsson,
"Structure and optics of the eyes of
the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie.", Journal Of Comparative
Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory
Neural And Behavioral Physiology
(2009), Volume: 195, Issue: 6, Pages:
557-569. http://www.mendeley.com/resear
ch/structure-and-optics-of-the-eyes-of-t
he-box-jellyfish-chiropsella-bronzie/
39. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p31.
40. ^ "medusa."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/medusa
41. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
42. ^ "calcareous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 24 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alcareous>.
43. ^ "calcareous." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/calcareous
44. ^ "coral." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coral
45. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through Time",
2006, p338.
46. ^ Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p338.
47. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
48. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
49. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p48.
50. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p42.
51. ^ Bullock,
T.H., O. Breidbach, and W. Kutsch. The
Nervous Systems of Invertebrates: An
Evolutionary and Comparative Approach.
Birkhäuser Basel, 1994. Experientia:
Supplementum. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=dW5e6FHOH-4C&pg=PA9
52. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490.
53. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p477-490.
54. ^ "Biology: Colour-blind", Nature
463, 1003 (25 February 2010)
55. ^ Megan
O'Connor,Anders Garm,Justin N.
Marshall,Nathan S. Hart,Peter
Ekström,Charlotta Skogh, and Dan-Eric
Nilsson, "Visual pigment in the lens
eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella
bronzie", Proc. R. Soc. B June 22, 2010
277 (1689) 1843-1848; published ahead
of print February 10, 2010,
doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.2248
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/277/1689/1843
56. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
57. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p477-490. (c700my)
58. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (580my)
59. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1298my)

MORE INFO
[1] Collins, A.G. (2002).
"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the
Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"
(PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology
15 (3): 418–432.
doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x. h
ttp://cima.uprm.edu/~n_schizas/CMOB_8676
/Collins2002.pdf
[2] Philippe, H. (April 2009).
"Phylogenomics Revives Traditional
Views on Deep Animal Relationships".
Current Biology 19: 706–712.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.052. PMID
19345102. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0960982209008057
[3] doi:10.1038/4631003b; Published
online 24 February
2010 http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v463/n7284/full/4631003b.html
 
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg

[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 		91) The start of the Ediacaran
{EDEoKRiN10 } soft-bodied invertebrate
fossils.11

The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit an oxidative
metabolism.12


Because the Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied, they are infrequently
preserved.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
3. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
6. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
7. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
9. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
10. ^ "Ediacaran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ediacaran
11. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
12. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
13. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329.
14. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
15. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
16. ^ Meert, J.
G.; Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005
17. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. (1996).
"Ediacaran biota from Sonora, Mexico".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 93:
4990–4993. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/93/10/4990.full.pdf
18. ^ Ben Waggoner, "The Ediacaran
Biotas in Space and Time", Integrative
and Comparative Biology , Vol. 43, No.
1 (Feb., 2003), pp.
104-113. http://www.jstor.org/stable/38
84845 {Waggoner_200302xx.pdf}
19. ^ H. J. Hofmann, G. M. Narbonne and
J. D. Aitken, "Ediacaran remains from
intertillite beds in northwestern
Canada", Geology, December, 1990, v.
18, p.
1199-1202. http://geology.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/18/12/1199.abstract {Hofmann_Edi
acaran_Fossils_1990.pdf}
20. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
21. ^ Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale.”
Science 305.5684 (2004): 621 –622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
22. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p258-264,329. {630 mybn}
23. ^ Richard Cowen,
"History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). {575 mybn}
24. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {670 mybn}
25. ^ Meert, J. G.;
Gibsher, A. S.; Levashova, N. M.;
Grice, W. C.; Kamenov, G. D.; Rybanin,
A. (2010). "Glaciation and ~770 Ma
Ediacara (?) Fossils from the Lesser
Karatau Microcontinent, Kazakhstan".
Gondwana Research 19 (4): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.11.008. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1342937X10002005

MORE INFO
[1] Ivantsov, A. Yu (2004). "New
Proarticulata from the Vendian of the
Arkhangel'sk Region" (PDF).
Paleontological Journal 38 (3):
247–253
[2] Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.short
Sonora, Mexico14 |Adelaide, Australia15
| Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta16  
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg

[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
600,000,000 YBN
44 45 46 		107) The Animals Bilaterians evolve
(metazoans with two sided symmetry).33
34 35
This is the first triploblastic
animal; an animal with a third
embryonic layer, the mesoderm
{meZuDRM36 }.37 This is also the
earliest animal brain.38

In most bilaterians food enters in one
end (the mouth) and waste exits at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs like light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with getting
food.39

Unlike the diploblastic Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, bilaterians are
triploblastic.40 41 A third embryonic
layer, the mesoderm, lies between the
ectoderm and endoderm. This layer
increases the options for the
development of organs with specific
functions.42

This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".43
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
6. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
7. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
11. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
13. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
14. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
20. ^ "mesoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
21. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
22. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p472-476.
24. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
25. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
26. ^
"mesoderm." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
27. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
28. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396.
30. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p69.
31. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p396-400.
32. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
33. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
34. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
35. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
36. ^
"mesoderm." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoderm
37. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
38. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p396-400.
39. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396.
40. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p59.
41. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476.
42. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p59.
43. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
44. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
45. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
46. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 		403) The earliest extant bilaterian:
Acoelomorpha (the ancestor of acoela
flat worms and nemertodermatida).15 16
17

The Acoelomorpha lack a digestive
track, anus and coelom.18 19

Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin. Flatworms
also have no circulating blood and so
their branched gut presumably
transports nutrients to all parts of
the body.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
12. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
13. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p472-476.
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201049&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
18. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
19. ^ "Acoelomorpha". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoelomorph
a
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
21. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
23. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p396
 
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
600,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		459) An intestine evolves in a
bilaterian. Since the gut of this
organism has no anus, undigested food
must be regurgitated through the mouth.
The intestine is lined with a single
layer of endodermal cells that perform
some or all of the processes of
digestion and absorption.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p61,66-67.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p61,66-67.
6. ^ Peterson, Kevin J.,
and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 		532) A cylindrical gut, anus, and
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian.9

All bilaterally symmetrical metazoans
except the Phyla Acoelomorpha10 and
Platyhelminthes, have a tubular gut
with an anus, mouth, and through-put of
food. The Phyla Nemertea and Entoprocta
are the earliest bilaterians with an
anus.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476.
5. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
8. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p472-476.
11. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p4.
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{630my (first bilateral
species-acoelomates}
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005). (575
(fossil is older) {575 (first bilateral
species-acoelomates)(fossil record is
older}
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		593) The genital pore, vagina, and
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p58-79.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p58-79.
5. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p58-79.
6. ^ Peterson, Kevin J.,
and Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin
of the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
8. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005). (575 (fossil is
older)
 
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.

[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
600,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		660) The penis evolves in a
bilaterian.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
2. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
3. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
4. ^ Ruppert,
Fox, Barnes, "Invertebrate Zoology",
2004.
5. ^ Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
6. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p472-476. (630my)
{based on some Platyhelminthes have a
penis) 630my}
8. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of
Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
(575 (fossil is older)

MORE INFO
[1] D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
 
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
590,000,000 YBN
70) The end of the Varanger Ice Age
(650-590 mybn).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol
91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
2. ^
Proc. Ntl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol 91, pp
6743-6750, July 1994 "Proterozoic and
Early Cambrian protists: Evidence for
accelerating evolutionary
tempo" Andrew H Knoll
3. ^ Proc. Ntl. Acad.
Sci. USA Vol 91, pp 6743-6750, July
1994 "Proterozoic and Early Cambrian
protists: Evidence for accelerating
evolutionary tempo" Andrew H Knoll
 
[1] Precambrian Earth from the South
Pole 600MYBN UNKNOWN
source: http://cpgeosystems.com/gallery.
html
590,000,000 YBN
11 12 		95) The coelom (SEleM) evolves in a
bilaterian.7

The coelem is a fluid filled cavity
that forms within the mesoderm and
exists between the gut and body wall8
in most triploblastic animals9 .

The advantage of a coelem is that it
allows the body wall and gut wall to
act independently, and also that other
organ systems can be developed in the
fluid-filled space. In addition, the
fluid in the cavity can act as a
deformable skeleton.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
4. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p48.
5. ^ Valentine,
J.W. On the Origin of Phyla. University
of Chicago Press, 2004. American
Politics and Political Economy Series,
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
MBkmHm5fe4C&pg=PA60
6. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4-5.
7. ^ Richard
Cowen, "History of Life", (Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p48.
9. ^ Valentine,
J.W. On the Origin of Phyla. University
of Chicago Press, 2004. American
Politics and Political Economy Series,
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
MBkmHm5fe4C&pg=PA60
10. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p4-5.
11. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {estimate based on
coelom being before
protostome-deutostome division, after
acoelomorph) 630-590 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] "coelom." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/body-cavity

 
[1] Example of the coleom's from 3
organisms UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_5DLPaU
qdg2g/TBBz3rcLDOI/AAAAAAAAAGA/Z34_-_usSc
w/s1600/3927715.jpg

[2] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
590,000,000 YBN
24 25 		98) The first circulatory system
evolves; blood vessels, and blood
evolve in a bilaterian.16 The first
blood cells.17 Cnidarians and
flatworms are at most two sheets of
tissue thick and so allow gas exchange
and nutrient distribution by diffusion,
but larger animals with thicker tissues
require a circulatory system to
distribute materials.18 19 20

The circulatory system transports
molecules like gases, food, and waste
to and from individual cells.21 22

In bilaterians with circulatory systems
blood may be distributed by contractile
vessels in the blood vessel walls,
and/or by hearts.23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
5. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
6. ^
Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin.
Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010.
Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
7. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
8. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
9. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p81.
10. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
11. ^
Solomon, E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin.
Biology. Cengage Learning, 2010.
Available Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
13. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
15. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
16. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p81.
17. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p327.
18. ^ Solomon,
E., L. Berg, and D.W. Martin. Biology.
Cengage Learning, 2010. Available
Titles CourseMate Series,
p938-939. http://books.google.com/books
?id=itHVNZicPgwC
19. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p299.
20. ^ Cowen, R.
History of Life. John Wiley & Sons,
2009,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
-Tam4XuXLkC&pg=PA46
21. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
22. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p4.
23. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p72-73.
24. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on}
 
[1] D. T. Anderson, ''Invertebrate
Zoology'', Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001 AND Fig 11.1G
from: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', 2003,
p320. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p320.

[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
580,000,000 YBN
41 42 43 44 		93) The Bilaterians Protostomes
evolve.31 32 Protostomes are divided
into two major groups: the Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu33 } and the
Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu34 }.35 36
37 38

The difference between protostomes and
deutrostomes arises during embryonic
development. In protostomes, the first
indentation of the gastrula (an early
stage of the embryo39 ) develops into
the mouth and the second indentation
develops into the anus. The reverse is
true for the deuterostomes.40
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
3. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
4. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
11. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
12. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
19. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
20. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
22. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
23. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
26. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
27. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
28. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
29. ^ "gastrula." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
astrula>.
30. ^ Alters, S. Biology: Understanding
Life. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2000.
Human and Introductory Biology Series,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GRDUIbQwGc8C&pg=PA511
31. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
32. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
33. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
34. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
36. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198701
37. ^ Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
38. ^ Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling
the lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree
of life. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences , 363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
39. ^ "gastrula." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
astrula>.
40. ^ Alters, S. Biology: Understanding
Life. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2000.
Human and Introductory Biology Series,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GRDUIbQwGc8C&pg=PA511
41. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
42. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (590my) {590 mybn}
43. ^
Cartwright, Paulyn, and Allen Collins.
“Fossils and phylogenies: integrating
multiple lines of evidence to
investigate the origin of early major
metazoan lineages.” Integrative and
Comparative Biology 47.5 (2007): 744
-751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {543 mybn}
44. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=priapu
lids
[2] Kevin J Peterson, James A Cotton,
James G Gehling, and Davide Pisani,
"The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 		105) The Bilaterians Deuterostomes
evolve; the ancestor of all Echinoderms
(iKIniDRMS 12 }, Hemichordates, and
Chordates.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
6. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
15. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {570 mybn}
17. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {910 mybn}
18. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {367 mybn}
19. ^ Jun-Yuan
Chen, David J. Bottjer, Paola
Oliveri,Stephen Q. Dornbos, Feng Gao,
Seth Ruffins, Huimei Chi, Chia-Wei Li,
Eric H. Davidson, "Small Bilaterian
Fossils from 40 to 55 Million Years
Before the Cambrian", Science, Vol 305,
Issue 5681, 218-222, 9 July
2004 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/cont
ent/full/sci;305/5681/218

MORE INFO
[1] Kevin J Peterson, James A
Cotton, James G Gehling, and Davide
Pisani, "The Ediacaran emergence of
bilaterians: congruence between the
genetic and the geological fossil
records", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B April
27, 2008 363 (1496) 1435-1443;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2233 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1
496/1435.short
 
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png

[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
580,000,000 YBN
10 11 		131) The first shell (or skeleton)
evolves. The first known shell belongs
to a group of ciliates called
tintinnids.7 Skeletons evolve
independently in different groups of
organisms.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
2. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
3. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
4. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
5. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
6. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
7. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
8. ^ "skeleton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/547371/skeleton>.
9. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf}
10. ^ Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007).
"Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China". Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} {earliest hard shell fossil -
ciliate) 580 mybn}
11. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Euglenozoa -pellicle) 1956 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Hamm, Smetacek, "Armor: Why,
When, and How", in Falkowski, Knoll,
"Evolution of Primary Producers in the
Sea", 2007, p311-332, p323
[2] Bengtson, S.
(2004), Early skeletal fossils, in
Lipps, J.H., and Waggoner, B.M.,
"Neoproterozoic- Cambrian Biological
Revolutions" (PDF), Paleontological
Society Papers 10: 67–78, retrieved
2008-07-18 http://www.nrm.se/download/1
8.4e32c81078a8d9249800021554/Bengtson200
4ESF.pdf
(Doushantuo Formation) Beidoushan,
Guizhou Province, South China9  
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11

[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144/SP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP286.
11
570,000,000 YBN
28 29 30 31 		311) The Bilaterians Chaetognatha
{KE-ToG-nutu21 22 } evolve (Arrow
Worms).23

The earliest teeth evolve. Animals
start to eat other animals.24 25

The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth.26 Teeth and shells evolve
as advantages to survival.27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
2. ^ Vannier, J.; Steiner,
M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu, S.-X.; Casanova,
J.-P. (2007). "Early Cambrian origin of
modern food webs: evidence from
predator arrow worms". Proceedings of
the Royal Society B 274 (1610):
627–633. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761.
PMC 2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
3. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
7. ^ Vannier,
J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.; Hu,
S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007). "Early
Cambrian origin of modern food webs:
evidence from predator arrow worms".
Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274
(1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
8. ^ "arrow worm." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
12. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
13. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
14. ^ "arrow worm." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 21 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
17. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
18. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
19. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
20. ^ Ted Huntington.
21. ^ "arrow
worm." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 21
Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaetognath
a
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chaeto
gnatha&submit=Submit
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
24. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p68.
25. ^
Vannier, J.; Steiner, M.; Renvoise, E.;
Hu, S.-X.; Casanova, J.-P. (2007).
"Early Cambrian origin of modern food
webs: evidence from predator arrow
worms". Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 274 (1610): 627–633.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3761. PMC
2197202. PMID 17254986.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/article
render.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2197202
.
26. ^ Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p68.
27. ^ Ted Huntington.
28. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (570)
29. ^ Chen, J.-Y.; Huang, D.-Y.
(2002). "A possible Lower Cambrian
chaetognath (arrow worm)". Science 298
(5591): 187.
doi:10.1126/science.1075059. PMID
12364798.
30. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
31. ^ S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", Oxford University
Press, New York., 2009, Chap 24,
p224-225. http://timetree.org/book.php

MORE INFO
[1] Gonzalo Giribet, Daniel L.
Distel, Martin Polz, Wolfgang Sterrer,
and Ward C. Wheeler Triploblastic
Relationships with Emphasis on the
Acoelomates and the Position of
Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora,
Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: A
Combined Approach of 18S rDNA Sequences
and Morphology Syst Biol (2000) 49(3):
539-562 doi:10.1080/10635159950127385
[2] Martin Helmkampf, Iris
Bruchhaus, Bernhard Hausdorf, Multigene
analysis of lophophorate and
chaetognath phylogenetic relationships,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 46, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages
206-214, ISSN 1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S105579030700317X)
[3] S. Blair Hedges, "The origin and
evolution of model organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html
[4] Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2002, p844
 
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg

[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
565,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		345) The Deuterostome Phylum
Hemichordata evolves; The
"Hemichordates", the ancestor of
pterobranchs {TARuBrANKS13 }14 and
acorn worms).15

Adult Pterobrachs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.16
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
2. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p203.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
10. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterob
ranchs&submit=Submit
14. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p201.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
16. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p203.
17. ^ Peterson, Kevin
J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
18. ^ Xian-guang Hou, Richard J.
Aldridge, David J. Siveter, Derek J.
Siveter, Mark Williams, Jan
Zalasiewicz, Xiao-ya Ma. A pterobranch
hemichordate zooid from the lower
Cambrian. Current Biology, 24 March
2011 DOI:
10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005 http://www.sc
iencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096
0982211002776
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p383.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg

[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
35 36 		347) The Deuterostome Phylum Chordata
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.22 23
Chordates get their name from the
notochord {nOTe-KORD24 }, the cartilage
rod that runs along the back of the
animal, in the embryo if not in the
adult.25

The ancestor of all chordates evolves
"upside-down": unlike earlier
invertebrates who have a ventral nerve
cord (near the belly26 ) and a dorsal
heart (near the back27 ), this ancestor
and all later vertebrates have a dorsal
nerve cord and a ventral heart.28

Chordates have four key characters: a
notochord; a dorsal, hollow nerve
chord; gill slits (also called
pharyngeal {Fu-riN-JE-uL29 } slits30 );
and a muscular, post-anal tail.31 The
notochord provides skeletal support
throughout most of the length of the
chordate and provides a firm but
flexible structure from which attached
muscles can contract.32 33

In the higher fishes the notochord is
surrounded and gradually replaced by
segmental vertebrae.34
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
6. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
7. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
10. ^ "notochord." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p399-400.
13. ^ "ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
14. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
17. ^ "notochord." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
19. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
20. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
21. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p368-p381.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
24. ^ "notochord." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/notochord
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381.
26. ^
"ventral."Answers.com 01 Apr. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ventral
27. ^ "dorsal." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Apr.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dorsal
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p399-400.
29. ^ "pharyngeal."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 06 Mar. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
haryngeal>.
30. ^ Hyman, L.H., and M.H. Wake.
Hyman’s Comparative Vertebrate
Anatomy. University of Chicago Press,
1992,
p393. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VKlWjdOkiMwC&pg=PA393
31. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p699.
32. ^ Campbell, N.A., and J.B. Reece.
Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings,
2008. Alternative eText Formats Series,
p699.
33. ^ Rowland, M. Biology. Thomas
Nelson & Sons, Limited, 1992. Bath
Science 16-19 Series,
p650. http://books.google.com/books?id=
j9cEEouPBogC&pg=PA650
34. ^ "Chordata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 24 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chordata
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p368-p381. {565 MYBN}
36. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3208
583.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Douzery, E. J. P., Snell, E.
A., Bapteste, E., Delsuc, F., &
Philippe, H. (2004). The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: Does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils? Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America , 101 (43),
15386-15391. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.040398410
1
[2] Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho and Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science New Series, Vol. 271, No. 5248
(Jan. 26, 1996), pp.
470-477. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
90144
[3] Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Drafting a
Tree.” Science 300.5626 (2003) :
1694.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/300/5626/1694.summary
[4] Philip C. J. Donoghue and Mark A.
Purnell, "The Evolutionary Emergence of
Vertebrates From Among Their Spineless
Relatives", EVOLUTION: EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH, Volume 2, Number 2, 204-212,
DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[5]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] from adelaide, australia UNKNOWN
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm

[2] [t Note that this is a vertebrate
- not a pre-vertebrate
chordate] Portion of figure
from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway Morris, J.
Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui, P. Janvier,
L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N. Liu, Y. Li
and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and backbone of
the Early Cambrian vertebrate
Haikouichthys'', Nature 421,
526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
565,000,000 YBN
6 7 		348) The earliest extant chordate:
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (also
called sea squirts).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p377-381.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p377-381.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p377-381. {565 mybn}
7. ^ Chen,
Jun-Yuan et al. “The First Tunicate
from the Early Cambrian of South
China.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.14 (2003): 8314
–8318.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
14/8314.full
 
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
31 32 33 34 35 36 		117) The earliest animal shell (or
skeleton) evolves.17
This is the
earliest evidence of animals eating
other animals (predation).18 19
This
begins the appearance of small shelly
fossils and deep burrows correlated
with a decline in stromatolites,
possibly from feeding.20

The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites21 22 in addition to
sponge skeleton fossils.23

The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)24 , and is
possibly made by some kind of worm.25

Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.26 27

When animals begin to develop hard
parts, their probability of
preservation greatly improves.28
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
2. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
3. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

4. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

5. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
6. ^
Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
7. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17 July
1992). "Predatorial Borings in Late
Precambrian Mineralized Exoskeletons"
(abstract). Science 257 (5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

8. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

9. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
10. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
11. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
12. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
13. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

14. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
15. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

16. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

17. ^ Dzik, J (2007), "The Verdun
Syndrome: simultaneous origin of
protective armour and infaunal shelters
at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia;
Komarower, Patricia, The Rise and Fall
of the Ediacaran Biota, Special
publications, 286, London: Geological
Society, pp. 405–414,
doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597
http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Pu
blications/Verdun.pdf
18. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

19. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

20. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002, p210.
21. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
22. ^ Donald
Prothero, "Evolution What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p168.
23. ^
Clites, Erica C., Mary L. Droser, and
James G. Gehling. “The Advent of
Hard-part Structural Support Among the
Ediacara Biota: Ediacaran Harbinger of
a Cambrian Mode of Body
Construction.” Geology (2012): n.
pag. http://geology.gsapubs.org/content
/early/2012/02/13/G32828.1
24. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y. (17
July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

25. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p166.
26. ^ Bengtson, S. and Zhao, Y.
(17 July 1992). "Predatorial Borings in
Late Precambrian Mineralized
Exoskeletons" (abstract). Science 257
(5068): 367.
doi:10.1126/science.257.5068.367. PMID
17832833.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/257/5068/367
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877345

27. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

28. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
29. ^ SW
Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
30. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782

31. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p163-170.
32. ^ Dott, Prothero, "Evolution
of the Earth", 6th edition 2002, p212.
33. ^
Adam C. Maloof, Susannah M. Porter,
John L. Moore, Frank Ö. Dudás, Samuel
A. Bowring, John A. Higgins, David A.
Fike, and Michael P. Eddy, "The
earliest Cambrian record of animals and
ocean geochemical change", Geological
Society of America Bulletin, November
2010, v. 122, p. 1731-1774,
doi:10.1130/B30346.1 http://gsabulletin
.gsapubs.org/content/122/11-12/1731.full

34. ^ SW Grant, "Shell structure and
distribution of Cloudina, a potential
index fossil for the terminal
Proterozoic.", Source: American journal
of science (1990) volume: 290-A
(Special volume) page: 261
-94 http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/
1990/11.1990.10SpecialConway.pdf
35. ^
http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/neoproter
ozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran2.htm
36. ^ HONG HUA, BRIAN R. PRATT, and
LU-YI ZHANG, "Borings in Cloudina
Shells: Complex Predator-Prey Dynamics
in the Terminal Neoproterozoic",
PALAIOS, October 2003, v. 18, p.
454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515782


MORE INFO
[1] Philip W. Signor and Mark A.
S. McMenamin "The Early Cambrian Worm
Tube Onuphionella from California and
Nevada", Journal of Paleontology , Vol.
62, No. 2 (Mar., 1988), pp.
233-240 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1305228
[2] MATTHEWS, S. C., AND V. V.
MISSARZHEVSKY. 1975. "Small shelly
fossils of late Precambrian and early
Cambrian age: a review of recent work."
Journal of the Geological Society,
131:289-304 http://jgs.geoscienceworld.
org/content/131/3/289.abstract
[3] GRANT, S. W. F. 1990. "Shell
structure and distribution of Cloudina,
a potential index fossil for the
terminal Proterozoic." American Journal
of Science, 290(A):261-294
(Ara Formation) Oman29 |Lijiagou,
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province30
 
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg

[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
560,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		318) The Protostomes Ecdysozoa
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu12 } evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow.13 14 This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ecdyso
zoa&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005),p390-394.
15. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=198710
16. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas
J. Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c580) {c580 mybn}
18. ^
Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005),p388-394.
(560) {560 mybn}
19. ^ S. Blair Hedges and
Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree of Life",
2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
20. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {530 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A;
Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith,
SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of life".
Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
 http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p390-394
[4] Telford, Maximilian J et
al. “The Evolution of the
Ecdysozoa.” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 363.1496 (2008):
1529 –1537.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1529.long
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Ottoia in natural
environment with nearby
Haplophrentis. Date 11-29-08 Source
Own work Author Smokeybjb GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ottoia_burrowing.jpg

[2] Description
en:category:Caenorhabditis
elegans Date 2006-09-06 (original
upload date) (Original text :
09/05/2006) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : Donated by
Zeynep F. Altun) Author Original
uploader was Kbradnam at
en.wikipedia (Original text : Zeynep
F. Altun, Editor of
www.wormatlas.org) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg/1280px-Adult_Caenorhab
ditis_elegans.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 26 		331) The Protostomes Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u16 } evolve, the
ancestor of all rotifers, phoronids,
brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ17 },
entoprocts {eNTuProKS18 }, bryozoans
{BrI-u-ZO-iNZ19 }, platyhelminthes,
gastrotrichs, nemertea, molluscs and
annelids.20 21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
6. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
12. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brachi
opods&submit=Submit
18. ^ "entoproct?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
ntoproct?s=t
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=bryozo
ans&submit=Submit
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
21. ^ Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).
22. ^
Peterson, Kevin J., and Nicholas J.
Butterfield. “Origin of the
Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547) {c580 mybn}
24. ^
Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a Tree",
Science, (2003). (550) {550 mybn}
25. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-225. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {790 mybn}
26. ^ Cartwright, Paulyn, and
Allen Collins. “Fossils and
phylogenies: integrating multiple lines
of evidence to investigate the origin
of early major metazoan lineages.”
Integrative and Comparative Biology
47.5 (2007): 744 -751.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/47/5/744.full {538 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
560,000,000 YBN
349) The first fish evolves.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
560,000,000 YBN
6290) The earliest extant fish, the
Chordates Lancelets {laNSleTS12 } (also
called amphioxus {aMFEoKSiS13 }14 ).15
This is also the first liver and
kidney.16

The Lancelet is different from a worm
in not being cylindrical, and swims
like a fish using its muscles with
side-to-side undulations.17

Lancelets are not vertebrates. They
have only a nerve tube on the notochord
and no brain other than a small
swelling at the front end of the nerve
tube. They also have an eye-spot.18

The gill slits of Lancelets are
primarily for filter feeding.19 Gas
exchange (the absorption of oxygen and
emission of carbon dioxide20 ), mostly
occurs across the external body
surface.21

Lancelets have no heart and blood is
pumped around the body by contractions
of the blood vessels.22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
3. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
4. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p205.
7. ^ "lancelet." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
8. ^ "amphioxus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
mphioxus>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
11. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
12. ^ "lancelet." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lancelet
13. ^ "amphioxus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
mphioxus>.
14. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p202.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
16. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p205.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p372-376.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p372-376.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004),p372-376.
20. ^ Campbell, N.A.,
and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Alternative
eText Formats Series, p915.
21. ^ Campbell,
N.A., and J.B. Reece. Biology. Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2008. Alternative
eText Formats Series, p700.
22. ^ Marshall
Cavendish Corporation. Aquatic Life of
the World. Marshall Cavendish
Corporation/Ccb, 2000. Aquatic Life of
the World,
p295. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xnzR54G3BfgC&pg=PA295

MORE INFO
[1] Philip C. J. Donoghue and
Mark A. Purnell, "The Evolutionary
Emergence of Vertebrates From Among
Their Spineless Relatives", EVOLUTION:
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH, Volume 2,
Number 2, 204-212, DOI:
10.1007/s12052-009-0134-3 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l48138g81qv4m18k/
export-citation/
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41451
 
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg

[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
550,000,000 YBN
15 		328) The Ecdysozoa Aschelminthes
{aSKHeLmiNtEZ11 12 } evolves; the
ancestor of the worms nematodes and
priapulids.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
3. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
7. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
11. ^ "Aschelminthes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aschelminth
es
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=aschel
minthes
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126691
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c550)
 
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g

[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
547,000,000 YBN
8 		334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Brachiopoda {BrAKEoPiDu5 } evolves (the
brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).6

The Brachiopods are marine
invertebrates that have bivalve dorsal
and ventral shells enclosing a pair of
tentacled, armlike structures that are
used to sweep minute food particles
into their mouth.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "Brachiopoda." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2013. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopoda

3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
5. ^ "Brachiopoda." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2013.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopoda

6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "brachiopod." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiopod
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c547)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=202032
 
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF

[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
543,000,000 YBN
15 		101) Segmentation evolves (body parts
are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).11 12

Some think that segmentation evolved
independently in annelid worms,
arthropods, and vertebrates. But the
universality of Homeobox genes, evolved
over a billion years earlier13 ,
implies that all segmented species may
share a common segmented ancestor.14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
5. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
7. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),p622-624.
9. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin TR, "MEKHLA,
a novel domain with similarity to PAS
domains, is fused to plant
homeodomain-leucine zipper III
proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
11. ^ Richard Cowen, "History
of Life", (Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2005).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
13. ^ Mukherjee K, Bürglin
TR, "MEKHLA, a novel domain with
similarity to PAS domains, is fused to
plant homeodomain-leucine zipper III
proteins.", Plant Physiol
2006;140:1142-1150. http://www.plantphy
siol.org/content/140/4/1142.full
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004),p622-624.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {537 MYBN
(based on Annaleda - segmented worns}
{543 MYBN (based on arthropods,
annelids - segmented worns=537}
 
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg

[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
542,000,000 YBN
13 		53) The end of the "Precambrian". The
end of the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK9 } Eon. The end
of the Neoproterozoic and start of the
Paleozoic {PAlEuZOiK10 } Era, and the
end of the Ediacaran and start of the
Cambrian Period.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

2. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
aleozoic>.
3. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

6. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
aleozoic>.
7. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
8. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
9. ^ "Phanerozoic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phanerozoic

10. ^ "Paleozoic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 09 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
aleozoic>.
11. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
12. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
13. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Knoll, Andrew H. et al. “A
New Period for the Geologic Time
Scale.” Science 305.5684 (2004): 621
–622.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/305/5684/621.short
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] Description English: Global
pareconstruction of the Earth in the
early Cambrian period 540 million years
ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des frühen Kambriums vor
540 Millionen Jahren. русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в начале
Кембрийского периода
540 миллионов лет тому
назад. українська:
Глобальная
палеогеографічна
реконструкція Землі
на початку
Кембрійського
періоду 540 мільйонів
років тому назад. Date
23 April 2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollglobe.
html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/EarlyCambrianGlobal.j
pg
542,000,000 YBN
21 22 		6297) The Cambrian radiation, (or
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals.15 16 17
An increase of animals with shells.18

The Cambrian metazoan radiation may be
the result of a major increase in
atmospheric oxygen19 , and animal
predation20 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
2. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
3. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
5. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
7. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
8. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
9. ^
"Cambrian Explosion." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
10. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
11. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
12. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
13. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p209.
14. ^ Dzik, J
(2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
15. ^ "Cambrian Explosion." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cambrian-ex
plosion
16. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
17. ^
"Cambrian explosion." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>.
18. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
19. ^
Dott, Prothero, "Evolution of the
Earth", 6th edition 2002, p209.
20. ^ Dzik, J
(2007), "The Verdun Syndrome:
simultaneous origin of protective
armour and infaunal shelters at the
Precambrian–Cambrian transition", in
Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower,
Patricia, The Rise and Fall of the
Ediacaran Biota, Special publications,
286, London: Geological Society, pp.
405–414, doi:10.1144/SP286.30, ISBN
9781862392335, OCLC 191881597 156823511
191881597 http://www.paleo.pan.pl/peopl
e/Dzik/Publications/Verdun.pdf
21. ^ "Cambrian explosion."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/90620/Cambrian-explosion>. {542-530
mybn}
22. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth edition, 2006, p329-333.
{535 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Derek E. G. Briggs and
Richard A. Fortey, "Wonderful Strife:
Systematics, Stem Groups, and the
Phylogenetic Signal of the Cambrian
Radiation", Paleobiology , Vol. 31, No.
2, Supplement. Macroevolution:
Diversity, Disparity, Contingency:
Essays in Honor of Stephen Jay Gould
(Spring, 2005), pp.
94-112 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548
2671
 
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg

[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
540,000,000 YBN
12 13 14 		104) The Lophotrochozoa
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u7 } Phylum
Platyhelminthes {PlaTEheLmiNtEZ}
evolves (flatworms).8

Platyhelminthes, which is Greek for
flat worms, include free-living and
parasitic acoelomate worms (worms with
no coelum9 ).10 They can reproduce
sexually, and also asexually by
transverse fission (splitting in
half).11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lophot
rochozoa&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "Acoelomate."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 04 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
coelomate>.
10. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p285.
11. ^ Brusca and
Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p303-304.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)
13. ^ Douzery, Emmanuel
J. P. et al. “The Timing of
Eukaryotic Evolution: Does a Relaxed
Molecular Clock Reconcile Proteins and
Fossils?” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/
43/15386
14. ^ Peterson, Kevin J et al. “The
Ediacaran Emergence of Bilaterians:
Congruence Between the Genetic and the
Geological Fossil Records.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 363.1496
(2008): 1435 -1443.
Print. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1435.full
 
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg

[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
540,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		319) The Protist Phylum "Radiolaria"
{rADEOlaREo11 } evolves.12 13

Radiolarians are protists found in the
upper layers of all oceans, are mostly
spherically symmetrical, and known for
their complex and beautiful tiny
skeletons, called "tests" which are
usually made of silica (SiO214 ).15

Radiolarian skeletons are used to
analyze the layers of the sedimentary
record.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
8. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
10. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
11. ^
"Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Mar. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 1600mybn for excavates,
discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
"silica." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 11 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/silica
15. ^ "radiolarian." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/489175/radiolarian>.
16. ^ "Radiolaria." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiolaria-
2
17. ^ A. Braun, J. Chen, D. Waloszek
and A. Maas, "First Early Cambrian
Radiolaria", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2007, v.
286, p.
143-149. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/
content/286/1/143.short
and http://www.core-orsten-research.de/
Publications/PDF_Paper/ulm_team/2007b_Br
aun_etal.pdf {Earliest radiolaria
fossils) 540 mybn}
18. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
19. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates (1600my)
[2] Keeling, Patrick J.
et al. "The tree of eukaryotes." Trends
in Ecology & Evolution 20.12 (2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
[3] Delsuc, Frederic, Henner Brinkmann,
and Herve Philippe. "Phylogenomics and
the reconstruction of the tree of
life." Nat Rev Genet 6.5 (2005):
361-375. http://www.nature.com/nrg/jour
nal/v6/n5/abs/nrg1603.html
[4]
http://www.bio.georgiasouthern.edu/Bio-h
ome/Pratt/boo305.htm
[5]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[6]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/ra
diolaria.html
[7] "Polycystine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystine

 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		321) The Protist Phylum "Foraminifera"
{FOraMiniFRu12 } evolves.13 14

Foraminifera are unicellular protists
characterized by long, fine pseudopods
that extend from a cytoplasmic body
encased within a test, or shell.15
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
8. ^ "foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
9. ^ Prothero, "Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p175.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=forami
nifera&submit=Submit
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). has 1600mybn for
excavates, discricristales, rhizaria,
chromalveolates
14. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
15. ^
"foraminiferan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/212983/foraminiferan>.
16. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p165-167. {earliest fossils, lower
Cambrian) c540 my}
17. ^ Culver, S. J.
(1991) Science 254, 689–691.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijlink?linkTyp
e=ABST&journalCode=sci&resid=254/5032/68
9
and http://www.sciencemag.org/content/2
54/5032/689.full.pdf {earliest fossils,
lower Cambrian) c540 my}
18. ^ Culver, S.
J. (1994) J. Foraminiferal Res. 24,
191–202. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/ijli
nk?linkType=ABST&journalCode=gsjfr&resid
=24/3/191 {earliest fossils, lower
Cambrian) c540 my}
19. ^ Cédric Berney and
Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular time-scale
for eukaryote evolution recalibrated
with the continuous microfossil
record", Proc. R. Soc. B August 7, 2006
273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {804 my}
20. ^
http://www.timetree.org/index.php?found_
taxon_a=65574 {804 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). has 1600mybn
for excavates, discricristales,
rhizaria, chromalveolates (1600mybn)
[2]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
[3]
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/fo
ram.html
[4] "Allogromiida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allogromiid
a
[5] "Fusulinid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusulinid
[6] "Globigerinida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globigerini
da
[7] "Miliolid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliolid
[8] "Rotaliida". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaliida
[9] "Textulariida". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textulariid
a
[10]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P4356&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
[11]
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P2007&chinese_
flag=&system=&version=&documentID=&exclu
deNonLinkedIn=&imagesOnly=
 
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2

[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
540,000,000 YBN
10 		340) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea
{ne-mR-TEu7 } evolves (ribbon worms).8


Nemertea are unsegmented worms with a
coelem that live in marine, freshwater
and terrestrial environments.9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nemert
ea&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p321.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c541)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
540,000,000 YBN
10 		341) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada
{ToRDiGRiDe7 } evolves (tardigrades).8


Tardigrades are slow-moving,
microscopic invertebrates that live in
water or damp moss, with four body
segments and eight legs.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tardigrade." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Tardigrada." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrada-
2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "Tardigrada." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 01 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrada-
2
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "tardigrade." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tardigrade
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg

[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
540,000,000 YBN
10 		342) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora
evolves.8 Onychophorans are a
transition between worms and
arthropods: they have segmented
worm-like bodies but they also have
jointed appendages, antennae, and shed
their cuticle like arthropods do.9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "onychophoran." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "onychophoran." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/velvet-worm

4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
6. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
7. ^ Donald Prothero, "Evolution: What
the Fossils Say and Why It Matters",
2007, p193.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
9. ^ Donald Prothero,
"Evolution: What the Fossils Say and
Why It Matters", 2007, p193.
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (c543)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
535,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		114) The first heart evolves in
bilaterians.7

Muscles for pumping blood and for
maintaining adequate blood pressure can
be divided into three groups:
contractile blood vessels (found in
nemerteans and annelids), ostiate
{oSTEAT8 } hearts (found in
arthropods), and chambered hearts
(found in molluscs and vertebrates).9
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
2. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
3. ^ D. T. Anderson,
"Invertebrate Zoology", Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p124-125.
4. ^ D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p124-125.
5. ^ "ostium."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
stium>.
6. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p73, 327.
7. ^ D. T.
Anderson, "Invertebrate Zoology",
Oxford University Press, Second
Edition, 2001, p124-125.
8. ^ "ostium."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
stium>.
9. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p73, 327.
10. ^
Brusca and Brusca, "Invertebrates",
2003, p 73.
11. ^ Palmer, et. al.,
"Prehistoric Life", p66.
12. ^ Peterson,
Kevin J., and Nicholas J. Butterfield.
“Origin of the Eumetazoa: Testing
Ecological Predictions of Molecular
Clocks Against the Proterozoic Fossil
Record.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {based on} {539 MYBN
(based on mollusca}
 
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.

[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
533,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca
evolves; Mollusks.11

The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu12 } (snails), Bivalvia
(clams and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu13 } (squids and octupuses)
are of major importance.14

Early Cambrian mollusk fossils show the
segmentation of the mollusk worm-like
ancestor,15 and have individual plates
which imply that the mollusk shell
fused together over the course of
millions of years.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
6. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gastro
poda&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cephal
opoda&submit=Submit
14. ^ "Mollusca." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mollusca
15. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell.
Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters. Columbia University Press,
2007, p192.
16. ^ Douglas Palmer,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p69.
17. ^ S.
Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The
TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p224-229. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c539)
19. ^ Caron,
Jean-Bernard et al. "A soft-bodied
mollusc with radula from the Middle
Cambrian Burgess Shale." Nature
442.7099 (2006):
159-163. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v442/n7099/full/nature04894.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca

[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
530,000,000 YBN
7 		338) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida
(segmented worms) evolves.5

Annelids are various worms or wormlike
animals, characterized by an elongated,
cylindrical, segmented body and
includes the earthworm and leech.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"annelid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ "annelid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/annelid
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c537)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201563
 
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
15 16 		339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda
evolves; the "Arthropods".11

Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.12

The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the trilobites, the
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and
lobsters), the Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes), the Chelicerata
(arachnids and horseshoe crabs) and the
insects.13 All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Brusca
and Brusca, "Invertebrates", 2003,
p476.
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
6. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
9. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
10. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", 2003, p476.
13. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, Time Tree, 2009,
p251. http://timetree.org/pdf/Pisani200
9Chap29.pdf
14. ^ "arthropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 22 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthropod
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c543)
16. ^ Palmer, et. al.,
"Prehistoric Life", p66.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?pos=0
 
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg

[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsociorg/content
/363/1496/1513
530,000,000 YBN
350) The Chordata Vertebrates evolve.7
This Subphylum, Vertebrata, contains
most fishes, and all amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.8
This earliest vertebrate skeleton is
made completely of cartilage.9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p22.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^
"Vertebrata." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 18 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vertebrata
9. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p22.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
530,000,000 YBN
5 		351) The extinct Vertebrates the
Conodonts {KO-nu-DoNTS1 } evolve.2

Conodonts have no lower jaw, but have
calcified teeth3 positioned under
well-developed eyes4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conodont." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
onodont>.
2. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p90.
3. ^
Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p90-91.
4. ^
Palmer, D. The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric
Animals: A Comprehensive Color Guide to
Over 500 Species. New Line Books, 2002,
p22.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p90-91.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p85
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.

[2] From the Englich
Wikipedia Mateus Zica draw it with
macromedia flash 28 oct
2005 mateus zica 18:25, 28
October 2005
(UTC) PD AND Description English:
The inclusion of euconodonts in the
vertebrates, or even craniates, is
still controversial. Admittedly, the
tissue structure of the ''conodonts''
(i.e; the denticles situated in their
mouth; left) is at odds with
conventional vertebrate hard tissues.
Nevertheless, the eyes, body shape, and
tail stucture of the euconodonta are
strikingly vertebrate-like. After
Purnell et al. 1995 Date 30 November
2012, 03:32:10 Source Tree of Life
Web Project Author Philippe Janvier,
1997 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/ConodontZICA.pnghttp:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/3/33/Euconodonta.gif
530,000,000 YBN
7 		6637) The Vertebrates Jawless fishes
evolve (agnatha).5

The earliest extant jawless fishes, the
hagfishes evolve now. Hagfishes are
eel-like scavengers.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p85.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p364-371.
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p85.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p364-371.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
 
[1] Description English: Pacific
hagfish (Eptatretus stoutii) in a hole
at 150 meters depth. Latitude 37 58 N.,
Longitude 123 27 W. Location:
California, Cordell Bank National
Marine Sanctuary. Date Last Updated:
September 30, 2009. Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/sanc
1692.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/sanc16
92.jpg Author Linda Snook, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) / Cordell Bank National Marine
Sanctuary (CBNMS) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Eptatretus_stou
tii.jpg/1280px-Eptatretus_stoutii.jpg

[2] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
520,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		133) The Arthropod subphylum
Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo9 ) evolves
(eight legs, ancestor of the horseshoe
crabs, sea spiders, and the Arachnids:
mites, spiders, and scorpions).10 11
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ J. W. Shultz (2007).
"A phylogenetic analysis of the
arachnid orders based on morphological
characters". Zoological Journal of the
Linnean Society 150: 221–265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-364
2.2007.00284.x
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
5. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
8. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chelic
erata&submit=Submit
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
11. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
12. ^ D. Waloszek, J.A. Dunlop, "A
larval sea spider (Arthropoda:
Pycnogonida) from the Upper Cambrian
‘Orsten’ of Sweden and the
phylogenetic position of pycnogonids",
Palaeontology, 45 (2002), pp.
421–446 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.co
m/doi/10.1111/1475-4983.00244/abstract
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
14. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
15. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p66-67.
16. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.

MORE INFO
[1] Charbonnier, S, J Vannier,
and B Riou. “New Sea Spiders from the
Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône
Lagerstätte.” Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
274, no. 1625 (October 22, 2007): 2555
–2561. http://rspb.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/274/1625/2555.full
[2] Dunlop and Seldon, "The Early
History and Phylogeny of the
Chelicerates", in Fortey and Thomas,
"Arthropod Relatioinships", 1997, p231
earliest (sea spider) fossils: Orsten,
Sweden12  
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg

[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
5 6 		148) The earliest color vision evolves
in arthropods.3

Vertebrates with color vision include:
some fishes and amphibians, many
reptiles and all birds, but only a few
mammals, humans and some other higher
primates, can see in color.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
2. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
3. ^ Koyanagi, M.; Nagata, T.; Katoh,
K.; Yamashita, S.; Tokunaga, F. (2008).
"Molecular Evolution of Arthropod Color
Vision Deduced from Multiple Opsin
Genes of Jumping Spiders". Journal of
Molecular Evolution 66 (2): 130–137.
DOI:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9. PMID
18217181. http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/e67h525378645572/?MUD=MP
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p665.
5. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
6. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.

MORE INFO
[1] Yokoyama, S., and B. F.
Radlwimmer. 2001. The molecular
genetics and evolution of red and green
color vision in vertebrates. Genetics
Society of America. 158: 1697-1710
[2] Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004)
 
[1] Microphotograph of the multiple eye
of the trilobite Phacops, showing the
calcite lenses in the eye. PD
source: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/ed
ucation-and-outreach/additional/science-
focus/images/phacops_eye.jpg

[2] Description English: A
schizochroal [eye] of the trilobite
Phacops rana, eye dimensions 8mm across
by 5.5mm high, found near Sylvania,
Ohio, USA, from the Devonian Date 15
October 2011 Source Own work Author
Dwergenpaartje CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Phacops_rana_crassitu
berculata_eye_3.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 13 		346) The Deuterostome Phylum
Echinodermata evolves; the
"Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS 7 }, the
ancestor of the sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, and star
fishes.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "echinoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "echinoderm." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/echinoderm
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Adam M. English, Loren E.
Babcock, Census of the Indian Springs
Lagerstätte, Poleta Formation
(Cambrian), western Nevada, USA,
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, Volume 295, Issues
1–2, 1 September 2010, Pages 236-244,
ISSN 0031-0182,
10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.041. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S0031018210003287)
10. ^ J. Wyatt Durham, "Notes on the
Helicoplacoidea and Early Echinoderms",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 41, No.
1 (Jan., 1967), pp.
97-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1301
905
11. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p66.
12. ^ Peterson, Kevin J., and
Nicholas J. Butterfield. “Origin of
the Eumetazoa: Testing Ecological
Predictions of Molecular Clocks Against
the Proterozoic Fossil Record.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 102.27 (2005):
9547–9552. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/102/27/9547.full.pdf+html
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p384.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=126698
 
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg

[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
520,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 25 		6349) The arthropods trilobites
evolve.15 16 17 18

Trilobites have a segmented body that
is divided by into three vertical
lobes.19

There is a transition from soft-bodied
organisms, to the clam-like shell
organisms, to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites.20

Horseshoe crabs may be descended from
trilobites.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
2. ^
http://www.nature.com0/nature/journal/v4
27/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
3. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
5. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
6. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
7. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
9. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
10. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
11. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
13. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
14. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
15. ^ Xiao, S., Yang, Z. & Knoll, A. H.
Nature 391, 553-558 (1998). Article
ISI ChemPort
http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage
.taf?file=/nature/journal/v391/n6667/ful
l/391553a0_fs.html (not clear that
these are trilobite...this needs to be
checked)
16. ^
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v42
7/n6971/full/427205a.html (here it is
claimed they are trilobite embryos)
17. ^ Patel,
N.H. (1994). Developmental evolution:
insights from studies of insect
segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html
19. ^ "trilobite." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/trilobite
20. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p209-213.
21. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p189-191.
22. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p168.
23. ^ Dott and Prothero, "Evolution of
the Earth", sixth edition, 2002,
p210-211.
24. ^ Patel, N.H. (1994). Developmental
evolution: insights from studies of
insect segmentation. Science 266(5185):
581--590. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/266/5185/581.abstract {science_266
_5185_oldest_trilo.pdf}
AND http://patelweb.berkeley.edu/Nipam%
27s%20Own%20Articles.PDFs/Patel1994A.pdf
has 510my {510 mybn}
25. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/
trilobita/trilobitafr.html {540 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.trilobites.info/biostratigrap
hy.htm
[2]
http://www.trilobites.info/origins.htm
[3] Babcock, L.E., S Peng, G. Geyer, &
J.H. Shergold. 2005. Changing
perspectives on Cambrian
chronostratigraphy and progress toward
subdivision of the Cambrian System.
Geosci. Journal
9(2):101-6. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/t7062n5744462260/
[4] Niles Eldredge, "Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns", p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, "Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5", 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC
[5] Hughes, N. 2007. The evolution of
trilobite body patterning. Annu. Rev.
Earth Planet. Sci. 2007.
35:401–34. http://www.annualreviews.o
rg/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.earth.35.0313
06.140258
[6] Richard A. Fortey "Trilobite
Systematics: The Last 75 Years",
Journal of Paleontology , Vol. 75, No.
6, 75th Anniversary Issue (Nov., 2001),
pp.
1141-1151 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
307082
[7]
http://www.palaeos.org/Cambrian_Stage_3
 
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg

[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
513,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 11 		6351) The Arthropods Crustaceans evolve
(the ancestor of all shrimps, crabs,
lobsters, and barnicles).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ David J. Siveter,
Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek, "An
early Cambrian phosphatocopid
crustacean with three-dimensionally
preserved soft parts from Shropshire,
England", Special Papers in
Paleontology, 70, 2003
6. ^ Siveter, David
J., Mark Williams, and Dieter Waloszek.
“A Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
7. ^ David J. Siveter, Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek, "An early Cambrian
phosphatocopid crustacean with
three-dimensionally preserved soft
parts from Shropshire, England",
Special Papers in Paleontology, 70,
2003
8. ^ Siveter, David J., Mark Williams,
and Dieter Waloszek. “A
Phosphatocopid Crustacean with
Appendages from the Lower Cambrian.”
Science 293, no. 5529 (July 20, 2001):
479
–481. http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/293/5529/479.abstract
9. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p66-67.
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
11. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1]
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Crustacea/fossils.html
[2]
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2001/07/0719_crustacean.html
earliest fossils: Shropshire, England5
6  
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg

[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
501,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 		6348) The Arthropods Myriapoda
{mEREaPeDu7 } evolve; the ancestor of
all centipedes and millipedes.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Myriapoda." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^ "Myriapoda."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 05
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myriapoda-1

8. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
9. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
10. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
11. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
12. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A.
Selden, and Dianne Edwards. “Land
Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and
Myriapods from Shropshire, England.”
Science 250, no. 4981 (November 2,
1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
13. ^ Robison, Richard A.
“Earliest-known Uniramous
Arthropod.” Nature 343.6254 (1990):
163–164.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
343/n6254/abs/343163a0.html
{Robison_19900111.pdf}
14. ^ Fortey and Thomas, "Arthropod
Relationships", 1998, p212-213.
15. ^ Budd, G.E.,
Högström, A.E.S., and Gogin, I.,
2001, A myriapod-like arthropod from
the Upper Cambrian of East Siberia:
Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596 {Budd_2001.pdf}
16. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B.,
Jennifer M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple,
Simon J. Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and
Terrence D. Lukie. “First Steps on
Land: Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
17. ^ Budd, G.E., Högström, A.E.S.,
and Gogin, I., 2001, A myriapod-like
arthropod from the Upper Cambrian of
East Siberia: Paläontologische
Zeitschrift, v. 75p.
37-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0302
2596
18. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
19. ^ Jeram, Andrew J., Paul A. Selden,
and Dianne Edwards. “Land Animals in
the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods
from Shropshire, England.” Science
250, no. 4981 (November 2, 1990): 658
–661. http://www.sciencemag.org/citmg
r?gca=sci;250/4981/658
20. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/
21. ^ William A Shear, Andrew J Jeram
and Paul Selden, "Centiped legs
(Arthropoda,
Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the
Silurian and Devonian of Britain and
the Devonian of North America.",
American Museum novitates 3231:1-16
(1998)
http://biostor.org/reference/30111
22. ^ Grimaldi, Engels, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p107-108.
23. ^ Hedges and
Kumar, "TimeTree of Life", 2009,
p251-253.
24. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
earliest possible fossils: (Marine
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA9
10 and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia11 |(earliest fossils)
Shropshire, England12  
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg

[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
488,300,000 YBN
7 		121) The end of the Cambrian (542-488.3
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN5 } (488.3-443.7 mybn)
Period.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
6. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
7. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 500 Ma - Late Cambrian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/500
_Camb_2globes.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
13 		6314) The Ordovician (ORDeVisiN10 }
radiation. During the Ordovician the
number of genera {JeN-R-u11 } will
quadruple.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
2. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
3. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
4. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
5. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
6. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
7. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
8. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
9. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
10. ^ "Ordovician." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ordovician
11. ^ "genera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Aug.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
enera>.
12. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.
13. ^ "Ordovician radiation."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 30 Dec.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1312376/Ordovician-radiation>.

MORE INFO
[1] Harold Levine, "The Eath
Through Time", 2006, p333
 
[1] Recreation of life during the
Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://ferrebeekeeper.files.word
press.com/2010/11/ordovician.jpg

[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
488,000,000 YBN
4 		6635) The extinct Jawless fishes
Ostracoderms {oS-Tru-KO-DRM1 } evolve.2

The Ostracoderms are the first
vertebrates to have paired appendages,
an inner ear with two semicircular
canals, and bone, although almost
exclusively in the outer exoskeleton.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "OSTRACODERM." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 03 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/O
STRACODERM>.
2. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p90.
3. ^
Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p90.
4. ^
Prothero, "Evolution. What the Fossils
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p85
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p86. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p86.

[2] Description English:
Arandaspis Date 10 October
2010 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Arandaspis_NT.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 		244) The non-vascular plants evolve,
Bryophyta {BrIoFiTo16 }, (the ancestor
of the Liverworts, Hornworts, and
Mosses).17 18

The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.19 20


Most are 2-5 cm (or 1-2 in.) tall and
extremely tolerant of dry and freezing
conditions.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
"Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
10. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
11. ^ "Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
14. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
15. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
16. ^ "Bryophyta." Webster's Revised
Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 01
Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
ryophyta>.
17. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
19. ^ Peter
Robert Bell, Alan R. Hemsley, "Green
Plants: Their Origin and Diversity",
2000,
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HYkTvGq_RccC&pg=PA102
20. ^ Diego Fontaneto, "Biogeography of
Microscopic Organisms: Is Everything
Small Everywhere?", 2011,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QdcLHCPgG-wC&pg=PA211
21. ^ "bryophyte." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyte
22. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p82.
23. ^ S26 (c475)
24. ^ S15 (c475)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bryophyte". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte
[2] "Bryophyta." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bryophyta-1

 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
475,000,000 YBN
19 20 		398) Plants live on land. The earliest
fossil spores belonging to land
plants.14 15 16

Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
2. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
3. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
4. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
5. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
6. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
7. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
8. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
9. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
10. ^ Gray, J.,
Massa, D., & Boucot, A. J. Caradocian
land plant microfossils from libya.
Geology , April 1982, 10 (4),
197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
11. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
12. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
13. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p520-521.
14. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
15. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
16. ^ Richard Cowen, "History of Life",
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p520-521.
18. ^ Gray, J., Massa, D., &
Boucot, A. J. Caradocian land plant
microfossils from libya. Geology ,
April 1982, 10 (4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org
/content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-
cfd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_
198204xx.pdf}
19. ^ Wellman, Charles H., Peter L.
Osterloff, and Uzma Mohiuddin.
“Fragments of the earliest land
plants.” Nature 425.6955 (2003) :
282-285. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v425/n6955/full/nature01884.html
{475 MYBN}
20. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p82.
earliest fossils: Caradoc, Libya18
 
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4

[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
472,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		402) The first animals live on land,
the arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes
and millipedes).13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
2. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
3. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
4. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
5. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
6. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
7. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p109-110.
9. ^ Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, "Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
10. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
11. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
12. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
13. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p109-110.
15. ^ Heather M.
Wilson and Lyall I. Anderson,
"Morphology and Taxonomy of Paleozoic
Millipedes (Diplopoda: Chilognatha:
Archipolypoda) from Scotland", Journal
of Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
16. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
17. ^ MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
18. ^ Heather M. Wilson and Lyall I.
Anderson, "Morphology and Taxonomy of
Paleozoic Millipedes (Diplopoda:
Chilognatha: Archipolypoda) from
Scotland", Journal of Paleontology,
Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf}
19. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p67.
earliest arthropod tracks: Kingston,
Ontario, Canada16  
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391

[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
470,000,000 YBN
3 4 		234) The non-vascular plants Hornworts
evolve.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c475)
4. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c475)
 
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg

[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
465,000,000 YBN
7 		6636) The Jawless fishes lamprays
evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p364-371.
2. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution. What the Fossils Have to
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.
3. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p364-371.
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What
the Fossils Have to Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p198.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p364-371.
6. ^ Prothero, "Evolution. What the
Fossils Have to Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p198.
7. ^ Prothero,
"Evolution. What the Fossils Have to
Say and Why It Matters", 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] William Patten, "New
Ostracoderms from Oesel", Science, New
Series, Vol. 73, No. 1903 (Jun. 19,
1931), pp.
671-673 http://www.jstor.org/stable/165
5241
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=41579
[3] "ostracoderm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 01
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ostracoderm

 
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg

[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
460,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		235) The non-vasular plants Mosses
evolve.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ estimated
from tree on
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Embryophyte
s&contgroup=Green_
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c475)
5. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004). (c475)
6. ^ estimated from
tree on
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Embryophyte
s&contgroup=Green_ (c460)
 
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s

[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
460,000,000 YBN
18 		353) Jawed vertebrates evolve,
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo12 }.13
This large group includes all jawed
fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals,
and birds.14

Jawed fishes have a skeleton made
completely of cartilage. Only the teeth
become ossified when mineral crystals,
mostly calcium phosphate, become
integrated into them.15

The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
12. ^ "Gnathostomata."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 29
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnathostoma
ta-1
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363.
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
18. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p360-363. {460 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Palmer, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p106,110
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
Oceans17  
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
460,000,000 YBN
9 10 		404) The Jawed fishes Class
Chondrichthyes {KoN-DriK-tE-EZ6 }
evolves (Cartilaginous fishes: ancestor
of all sharks, rays, skates, and
sawfishes).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chondr
ichthyes&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
8. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=41695&tree=0.1
9. ^ Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.

[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html
460,000,000 YBN
5 6 		458) The earliest fungi on land. The
ancestor of all terrestrial fungi (the
Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
2. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
3. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
4. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
5. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
6. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
 
[1] Earliest Glomerales fossil fig 1
from: Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). ''Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician''. Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3077
684

[2] Phylogenetic tree from: Richard
Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's Tale'',
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p511. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p511.
460,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 		6414) The Fungi Phylum "Glomeromycota"
{GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu17 } evolves
(arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR18 } mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL19 } fungi).20 21 22

The Glomeromycota are mutualistic
symbionts that form a close association
intracellularly between the fungus and
the roots of plants.23 24 25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
7. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
13. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
16. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycota&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=arbusc
ular&submit=Submit
19. ^ "mycorrhiza." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
21. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The
Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849; doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
22. ^ S
Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L
Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004).
23. ^ "mycelium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycelium
24. ^ "mycorrhiza." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Aug.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mycorrhiza
25. ^ http://tolweb.org/Glomeromycota
26. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R,
Graham LE. (2000). "Glomalean fungi
from the Ordovician". Science 289
(5486): 1920–21. Bibcode
2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
27. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
28. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (c750mybn)
29. ^ S. Blair Hedges,
"The Origin and Evolution of Model
Organisms", Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (2002); doi:10.1038/nrg929,
(2002). (c1460 to 1210mybn)
30. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(estimate that between 947 and 968)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=glomer
omycetes&submit=Submit
[2] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
[3] Redecker, Dirk, and
Philipp Raab. "Phylogeny of the
Glomeromycota (arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi): Recent Developments and New
Gene Markers." Mycologia 98.6
(November): 2006, p885
–895. http://www.mycologia.org/conten
t/98/6/885.abstract
earliest fossils: Wisconsin, USA26
 
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
445,000,000 YBN
9 10 		90) The end-Ordovician mass extinction.
This is caused by an ice age. 60% of
all genera are observed extinct.6 7

This is the first of five mass
extinctions in the Phanerozoic.8
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
5. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
6. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
7. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
8. ^ THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS
EXTINCTION - Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, 29(1):331 -
Abstract".
Arjournals.annualreviews.org.
2003-11-28.
http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/do
i/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331?jou
rnalCode=earth
9. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p83.
10. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {439 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2] David Jablonski, "Lessons from the
Past: Evolutionary Impacts of Mass
Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] NOAA Photo Library Image -
corp1440 Flying over a huge glacier
on the way to McMurdo Station
Image ID: corp1440, NOAA At The Ends of
the Earth Collection Location:
Antarctica Photographer: Mr. Fred
Walton, NOAA Category:
Antarctica/McMurdo/Glacier/ PD
source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/big
s/corp1440.jpg

[2] Image of object impact with
Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-u1aaDd
JP2M0/Tj0QtfwPQQI/AAAAAAAAAbk/3SpkL8NCec
w/s1600/asteroid-impact.jpg
443,700,000 YBN
4 		122) The end of the Ordovician
(488.3-443.7 mybn), and the start of
the Silurian (443.7-416) Period.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 450 Ma - Late Ordovician UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/450
_Ord_3globes.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
25 26 27 		236) The Vascular plants evolve, the
Phylum Tracheophyta {TrAKEoFiTu15 }.16
17 18 19

Vascular plants have a specialized
conducting system consisting mostly of
phloem (food-conducting tissue) and
xylem (water-conducting tissue),
collectively called vascular tissue.20
The phloem transports sugar and the
xylem transports water and salts.21
Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering
plants are all vascular plants.22 In
contrast to the nonvascular bryophytes,
where the gametophyte is the dominant
phase, the dominant phase among
vascular plants is the sporophyte.23
Because they have vascular tissues,
these plants have true stems, leaves,
and roots.24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
8. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K. G.;
Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C. (2002).
The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
9. ^ "Tracheophyta."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tracheophyt
a-botany
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
11. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
12. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
13. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K.
G.; Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C.
(2002). The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
14. ^ "vascular plant."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
15. ^ "Tracheophyta." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tracheophyt
a-botany
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
17. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
18. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
19. ^ McElwain, Jenny C.; Willis, K.
G.; Willis, Kathy; McElwain, J. C.
(2002). The evolution of plants. Oxford
Oxfordshire. ^: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3.
20. ^ "vascular plant."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
21. ^ "vascular plant." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
22. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
23. ^ "alternation of generations."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alternation
-of-generations
24. ^ "vascular plant." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vascular-pl
ant
25. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p96.
26. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c400)
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
27. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c390)
 
[1] Description Equisetum telmateia
(Equisetopsida) at Cambridge Botanic
Garden Date 18 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Rror Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
species on earth.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Equisetopsida.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
22 23 		360) The Jawed fishes Class
Osteichthyes {oS TE iK tE EZ10 })
evolves; Bony fishes, the ancestor of
the ray-finned, lobe-fin, and lung
fishes.11 12

Bony-fishes have a skeleton that is at
least partly ossified or made of
bone.13 14

The bony fishes are the ancestors of
the tetrapods who will ultimately move
onto land.15

The earliest bony fishes are the
ray-finned fishes.16 17 The name ray
is because their fins have a skeleton
similar to a handheld fan.18

Most of the ray-finned fishes are known
as teleosts, a very successful
evolutionary line that exist in both
salt and freshwater.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ "Osteichthyes." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/O
steichthyes>.
4. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
5. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p34.
7. ^ Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books, 2002, p34.
8. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p338-363.
9. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
10. ^ "Osteichthyes." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/O
steichthyes>.
11. ^"bony fish." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
12. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=198858
13. ^ "bony fish." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
14. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p34.
15. ^ Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books, 2002, p34.
16. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p338-363.
17. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42391
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
19. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
21. ^ "bony fish."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osteichthye
s
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363. {440 MYBN}
23. ^
Palmet et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p97.

MORE INFO
[1] "teleost." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
Ocean and fresh water20 21  
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
440,000,000 YBN
8 		6172) The first lung evolves from the
swim bladder in ray-finned fishes. Some
teleosts still use their swim bladder
for breathing out of water.5 Fishes
that breathe with a lung evolve
breathing through a completely
different route than fishes that
breathe air through their gill
chamber.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p338-363.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p338-363. {440 MYBN (guess based on
ray-finned fish evolving}

MORE INFO
[1] Farmer, C.G. 1999. The
evolution of the vertebrate
cardio-pulmonary system. Annual Review
of Physiology
61:573-592 http://biologylabs.utah.edu/
farmer/publications%20pdf/1999%20AnnuRev
Physiol61.pdf
Ocean (presumably)7  
[1] Image from: Palmer, D. The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals: A
Comprehensive Color Guide to Over 500
Species. New Line Books,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002.

[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
425,000,000 YBN
7 		377) The Jawed fishes, Lobe-fin fishes
evolve. Lobe-fin fishes have a fleshy
lobe at the base of each fin.5 The
earliest extant Lobe-fin fishes, the
coelacanths evolve now.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p335-338.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p335-338.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=89942
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42376
 
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
420,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 17 		6350) The Arthropod superclass7
Hexapoda {HeKSu-PODu8 or HeKSoPuDu9 }
evolves (arthropods with six legs {3
pairs}, the ancestor of all insects).10
11

The closest relative of the Hexapods is
most likely the Branchiopoda; the brine
shrimps.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect
Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
3. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
5. ^ Timothy Duane
Schowalter, "Insect Ecology: An
Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=50557&lvl=3
&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=g
enome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlo
ck
8. ^ "Hexapoda." eSpindle Learning.
eSpindle, 2006. Answers.com 25 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexapoda-1
9. ^ "Hexapoda." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexapoda-1
10. ^ Timothy Duane Schowalter, "Insect
Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach", 2006,
p781. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LQqHWCtj0F0C&pg=PA781
11. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of
Life", 2009, p251-253.
12. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
13. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p66,116.
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
15. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p66,116.
16. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"TimeTree of Life", 2009, p251-253.
17. ^ Regier,
et al, "Pancrustacean phylogeny:
hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans
and maxillopods are not monophyletic",
Proc Biol Sci. 2005 February 22;
272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395

MORE INFO
[1] Blaxter, Mark.
“Evolutionary Biology: Sum of the
Arthropod Parts.” Nature 413.6852
(2001):
121–122. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v413/n6852/full/413121a0.html
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert)
Scotland13  
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg

[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
418,000,000 YBN
8 		6431) The Chelicerata Class Arachnida3
{araK-niDe4 } evolves (the Arachnids:
the ancestor of all scorpions, spiders,
mites and ticks5 ).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
2. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
3. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=6854&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
4. ^ "Arachnida." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 04 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arachnida
5. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=6843&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
6. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
7. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full
8. ^ DUNLOP, JASON A., O. ERIK TETLIE,
and LORENZO PRENDINI. 2008.
�REINTERPRETATION OF THE SILURIAN
SCORPION PROSCORPIUS OSBORNI
(WHITFIELD): INTEGRATING DATA FROM
PALAEOZOIC AND RECENT SCORPIONS.�
Palaeontology 51 (2): 303�320.
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x. h
ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111
1/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x/full

MORE INFO
[1] Shear, W. A. 2000.
Gigantocharinus szatmaryi, a new
trigonotarbid arachnid from the Late
Devonian of North America (Chelicerata,
Arachinida, Trigonotarbida). J.
Paleont. 74(1): 25-31
[2] Parry, S.F.; Noble
S.R., Crowley Q.G. & Wellman C.H.
(2011). "A high-precision U–Pb age
constraint on the Rhynie Chert
Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and
other implications". Journal of the
Geological Society (London: Geological
Society) 168 (4): 863–872.
doi:10.1144/​0016-76492010-043. http:
//jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/168/4/
863.abstract
[3] Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p96-97
earliest fossils: ("Bertie Waterlime"
of) NY, USA7  
[1] Description Proscorpius osborni
fossil. The Eurypterida of New York.
Volume 2. New York State Museum Memoir
14, plate 88 Date 1912 Source
California/Google Books Author John
Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and Rudolf
Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_plate_88.jpg

[2] Description The Eurypterida of
New York. Volume 1. New York State
Museum Memoir 14, figure 81-83 Date
1912 Source Google Books Author
John Mason Clarke (1857-1925) and
Rudolf Ruedemann (1864-1956) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/The_Eurypterida_of_Ne
w_York_figure_81-83.jpg
417,000,000 YBN
4 5 		378) The Lobefin fishes, Lungfishes
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=42316&tree=0.1
 
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg

[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
416,000,000 YBN
7 		123) The end of the Silurian (443.7-416
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN5 } (416-359.2 mybn) Period.6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
5. ^ "Devonian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/devonian
6. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
7. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 430 Ma - Early Silurian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/430
_Silurian_2globes.jpg
416,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 		6352) The Hexapod Class Insecta10 11
evolves: the insects.12 13

The insects are the most diverse
organisms known, having nearly one
million named species, which is over
half of all named species on Earth.14

The most primitive living insect Order
Archaeognatha, the Bristletails evolves
now.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
2. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
5. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
6. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
7. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
Evolution of the Insects, 2005, p146.
8. ^
Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
10. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=50557&lvl=3
&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=g
enome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlo
ck
11. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=17192&tree=0.1
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
13. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p1-3.
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA148
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, Evolution of the
Insects, 2005, p146.
17. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
18. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p250-254.
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ql
6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA1
 
[1] Description Français : Groupe
de Petrobius maritimus sur falaise
supralittorale, Toull ar C'Hrabanoù,
Goulien, Finistère, Bretagne,
France Date 2 June 2010 Source Own
work Author Jymm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/Petrobius_maritimus_2
010-06-02.jpg

[2] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
410,000,000 YBN
3 		6363) The Insect Order Zygentoma
{ZIGeNTOmu} evolves: Silverfish.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146,150-151,154
2. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,150-151,154
3. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p146,150-151,154
 
[1] Thysanura is an order of insects,
encompassing silverfish and
firebrats, Description
Silberfischchen, Lepisma
saccharina Date Source from the
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Silber
fischchen.jpg German wiki; taken with
Canon EOS 300D Author Sebastian
Stabinger GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Silberfischchen.jpg

[2] Image from: David A. Grimaldi,
Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the
Insects'', 2005, p144. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
400,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 26 27 		227) The largest Fungi phylum
"Ascomycota" {aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu16 }
evolves (the ancestor of yeasts,
truffles, Penicillium, and morels
{mu-reLZ17 }).18 19 20

The Ascomycota account for
approximately 75% of all described
fungi.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
2. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
7. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
12. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ascomy
cota&submit=Submit
17. ^ "morel." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 01 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/morel
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
19. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
21. ^
http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521
22. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
23. ^ T. N. Taylor, H. Hass & H. Kerp,
"The oldest fossil ascomycetes", Nature
399, 648 (17 June 1999),
doi:10.1038/21349 http://www.nature.com
/nature/journal/v399/n6737/full/399648a0
.html
24. ^ Redecker D, Kodner R, Graham LE.
(2000). "Glomalean fungi from the
Ordovician". Science 289 (5486):
1920–21. Bibcode 2000Sci...289.1920R.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1920. PMID
10988069. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
077684
25. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1009my)
26. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1140my)
27. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] Kirk, et al., "Dictionary of
Fungi", 2008, p142
earliest fossils: (Rhynie chert)
Aberdeenshire, Scotland22  
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg

[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		237) The Vascular plants ferns evolve
(the ancestor of club mosses, ferns and
horsetails).6

Ferns are flowerless, seedless vascular
plants that have roots, stems, and
fronds (the leaf-like part of a fern7
), and reproduce by spores.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
5. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
6. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
7. ^ "frond." Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond
8. ^ "fern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 Jul.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/fern
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (c390 (360 for living species)
11. ^
Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004). (c390)
12. ^ Taylor, Thomas
N.; Edith L. Taylor. (1993). The
Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
pp. 332–334. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full (318mybn)
[2] Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(350mybn)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
400,000,000 YBN
7 		436) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass:
"Elasmobranchii" {elaZmOBrANKEE or I4 5
} evolve, (the ancestor of sharks,
dogfishes, skates and rays).6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Elasmobranchii." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elasmobranc
hii-1
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=elasmo
branchii&submit=Submit
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^
"Elasmobranchii." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elasmobranc
hii-1
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=elasmo
branchii&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Prothero, D.R., and C.D. Buell.
Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why
It Matters. Columbia University Press,
2007
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
3 		6429) The Green Algae Charophytes
evolve (Stoneworts).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p110.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p110.
 
[1] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis). Bild mit
Flachbettscanner angefertigt. Date
October 2005 Source Own work.
Location: North-eastern Lower Saxony,
Germany. Author Christian Fischer CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/CharaFragilis.jpg

[2] Description English: The
stoneworts alga Chara globularis (Syn.:
Chara fragilis; Characeae). Deutsch:
Habitus der Zerbrechlichen
Armleuchteralge (Chara globularis;
Syn.: Chara fragilis); drapiert in
einem mit Wasser gefüllten Teller und
senkrecht von oben fotografiert. Diese
Art ist die wohl häufigste
Armleuchteralge in Deutschland (bei
regionalen Unterschieden) – die
meisten anderen Arten stehen auf der
Roten Liste, einige sind extrem
selten. Date 2 July 2011 Source Own
work. Location: North-eastern Lower
Saxony, Germany. Author Christian
Fischer CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/CharaGlobularis
.jpg/833px-CharaGlobularis.jpg
395,000,000 YBN
12 13 		6430) The earliest fungi lichen {lIKiN6
}.7

A lichen is a fungus, usually of the
class Ascomycetes {aSKOmISETS8 }, that
grows symbiotically with algae and
cyanobacteria9 , resulting in a
composite organism that
characteristically forms a crustlike or
branching growth on rocks or tree
trunks.10

Lichens have a planet-wide distribution
and thrive in some of the Earth's
harshest environments, such as polar
regions, deserts, and high mountains.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "lichen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 08
Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
3. ^ "Ascomycetes."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
scomycetes>.
4. ^ Willis and McElwain, "The
Evolution of Plants", 2002, p45.
5. ^
"lichen." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
6. ^ "lichen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 08
Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
8. ^ "Ascomycetes."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 01 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
scomycetes>.
9. ^ Willis and McElwain, "The
Evolution of Plants", 2002, p45.
10. ^
"lichen." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Oct.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
11. ^ "lichen." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lichen
12. ^ Palmer et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p110.
13. ^ Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html

MORE INFO
[1] "lichen." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Dec.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ichen>
 
[1] Xanthoparmelia cf. lavicola, a
foliose lichen, on basalt.
Photograph of lichen on basalt taken at
Ulupo, Kailua, O'ahu, Hawai'i by Eric
Guinther (Marshman at en.wikipedia) and
released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. first
upload en.wikipedia 23:52, 23 September
2003 . . Marshman (185124 bytes)
(Lichen photograph) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Lichen_squamulose.jpg


[2] Fig 1 from: Taylor, T. N. et al.
“The Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Taylor, T. N. et al. “The
Oldest Fossil Lichen.” Nature
378.6554 (1995):
244–244. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378244a0.html
392,000,000 YBN
11 12 		359) The Cartilaginous fishes
Infraclass7 : "Selachii" {SelAKEE8 or
I9 } evolves, (the ancestor of all
sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=119203&lvl=
3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
ii&submit=Submit
9. ^ "Selachii." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/selachii-2
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Prothero, D.R., and C.D.
Buell. Evolution: What the Fossils Say
and Why It Matters. Columbia University
Press, 2007, p198.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {190
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=selach
imorpha&submit=Submit
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
392,000,000 YBN
7 		437) The Cartilaginous fishes Subclass:
"Holocephali" {HoloSeFolE or I4 }
evolves, (the ancestor of the chimaeras
{KiMERoZ5 } also called rabbit-fishes
or ratfishes).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holoce
phali&submit=Submit
2. ^ "chimaera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
himaera>.
3. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holoce
phali&submit=Submit
5. ^ "chimaera." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
himaera>.
6. ^ Palmer, D. The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals: A Comprehensive
Color Guide to Over 500 Species. New
Line Books, 2002, p26-29.
7. ^ Prothero, D.R.,
and C.D. Buell. Evolution: What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters.
Columbia University Press, 2007, p198.

MORE INFO
[1] "Sharks". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361
[3] "Holocephali."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocephali
-2
 
[1] Description Spotted ratfish
(Hydrolagus colliei) observed off Pt
Pinos during a sanctuary seafloor
monitoring survey using the Delta
submersible. Date 13 August
2004 Source
http://www.mbnms-simon.org/other/photos
/photo_info.php?photoID=1307 Author
Linda Snook /
MBNMS Permission (Reusing this file)
All SIMoN photos and video are in
the public domain and CANNOT be
copyrighted. Although at present, no
fee is charged for using the media.
Credit MUST be given to the
photographer or other source as stated
with the photo metadata. [1] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Hydrolagus_colliei.jp
g

[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
386,000,000 YBN
4 5 6 		406) The Arachnids Spiders evolve.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Paul A. Selden, William A. Shear
& Patricia M. Bonamo (1991). "A spider
and other arachnids from the Devonian
of New York, and reinterpretations of
Devonian Araneae" . Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
3. ^ Paul A. Selden,
William A. Shear & Patricia M. Bonamo
(1991). "A spider and other arachnids
from the Devonian of New York, and
reinterpretations of Devonian Araneae"
. Palaeontology 34:
241–281. http://homepage.mac.com/paul
selden/Sites/Website/Attercopus.pdf
4. ^ Selden, Paul A., William A. Shear,
and Mark D. Sutton. “Fossil Evidence
for the Origin of Spider Spinnerets,
and a Proposed Arachnid Order.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 105.52 (2008): 20781
–20785. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
05/52/20781.full
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p111.
earliest fossils: (Givetian of) Gilboa,
New York, USA3  
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg

[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
385,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		405) The first forests. The earliest
large tree fossils.9 10

The first progymnosperms (treelike
plants), like Archaeopteris.11
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
12. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
13. ^ William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
"Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa", Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html
{385 mybn}
14. ^ Palmet et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p111.
15. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {380mybn}
earliest fossils: Gilboa, New York,
USA12  
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg

[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
385,000,000 YBN
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 		411) The first flying animal, an
arthropod insect, the ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu22
}). The earliest extant winged insects
are the Orders23 24 Ephemeroptera
{eFeMeroPTRo25 }: Mayflies, and the
Odonata {ODenoDo26 }: Dragonflies and
Damselflies.27 28 29

Insect wings evolve only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.30 31

The development of wings may have
helped early insects to escape
predators32 and to move over larger
distances to find new habitats33 .
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
10. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
11. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
13. ^ "Ephemeroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeropte
ra-1
14. ^ "Odonata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/odonata-1
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148-148. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
16. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
17. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
18. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
20. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects"
2002, p81.
21. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA155
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pteryg
ota&submit=Submit
23. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=30073&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
24. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=6961&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
25. ^ "Ephemeroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ephemeropte
ra-1
26. ^ "Odonata." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/odonata-1
27. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148-148. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
28. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
29. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
30. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
31. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p148. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA157
32. ^ Belayeva, "History of Insects"
2002, p81.
33. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p155. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA155
34. ^ Knecht, R. J., Engel, M. S., &
Benner, J. S. (2011). Late
carboniferous paleoichnology reveals
the oldest full-body impression of a
flying insect. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences , 108
(16),
6515-6519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pn
as.1015948108
35. ^ Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I (2005)
Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota
in the Lower Carboniferous of the
Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech
Republic (Insecta:
Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
36. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146
37. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA163
38. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.
39. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
40. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {315 MYBN}
41. ^ Regier, et al,
"Pancrustacean phylogeny: hexapods are
terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods
are not monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci.
2005 February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
42. ^ Palmer, et al., "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p142.

MORE INFO
[1] Engel MS, Grimaldi DA (2004)
New light shed on the oldest insect.
Nature 427: 627–630
[2] Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005)
Evolution of the Insects (Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge)
[3] Prokop J, Nel A, Hoch I
(2005) Discovery of the oldest known
Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous
of the Upper Silesian Basin in the
Czech Republic (Insecta:
Archoaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8
[4] "Orthoptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/orthoptera-
1
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA159
earliest fossils: (Wamsutta Formation)
southeastern Massachusetts34 and Upper
Silesian Basin, Czech Republic35  
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg

[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
375,000,000 YBN
16 17 18 19 20 		380) The Jawed fishes superclass
Tetrapoda {TeTC-ru-PoDu11 } evolves.
The first tetrapods (vertebrates with
four feet) evolve in fresh water.12
These are the first vertebrate limbs
(arms and legs) and fingers.13 This is
also the first amphibian, the ancestor
of caecillians, frogs, toads, and
salamanders.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tetrap
oda&submit=Submit
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p302-329.
16. ^ S. Blair
Hedges, "The origin and evolution of
model organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} {375(360+-15) mybn}
17. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p302-329. {340 mybn}
18. ^ P. E.
Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or near-tetrapod
fossils from the Upper Devonian of
Scotland", Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28
November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html {368
mybn (fossil}
19. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html {368 mybn
(fossil}
20. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {368 mybn (fossil}
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)15  
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg

[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
367,000,000 YBN
5 6 		408) The late Devonian mass extinction
caused by an ice age.3

70% of all species go extinct. This
includes 3 of 5 trilobite orders, 90%
of brachiopod genera, and major loss of
reefs.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p111.
5. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {367 mybn}
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {360 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] Description English: Antarctica:
The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in
the Transantarctic Mountains, comes
from glacial meltwater from the Canada
Glacier and other smaller glaciers. The
freshwater stays on top of the lake and
freezes, sealing in briny water
below. http://photolibrary.usap.gov/Por
tscripts/PortWeb.dll?query&field1=Filena
me&op1=matches&value=LakeFryxell.jpg&cat
alog=Antarctica&template=ShowMidThumbs
Français : Antarctique: La glace bleue
couvrant le Lac Fryxell, dans la
Chaîne Transantarctique, vient des
eaux de fonte du Glacier Canada et
d'autres glaciers plus petits. L'eau
fraîche se trouve au sommet du lac et
gèle, scellant une eau saumâtre
située en-dessous. Date 10 December
2002 Source From Antarctic Photo
Library: LAKEFRYXELL.JPG Author Joe
Mastroianni, National Science
Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fryxellsee_Opt.
jpg/1280px-Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Der Vulkan
Mount Erebus, Antarktika. English:
Mount Erebus, Ross Island,
Antarctica. Español: Monte Erebus,
Isla Ross,Antártida Français : Le
mont Erebus, île de Ross,
Antarctique. Türkçe: Erebus Dağı,
Antarktika Русский:
Вулкан Эребус,
Антарктида Date
1972 Source U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) Author Richard Waitt, U.S.
Geological Survey Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-US Other versions
Image:Mt Erebus (original).jpg PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Mt_erebus.jpg
363,000,000 YBN
7 8 		379) The first vertebrates live on land
(an amphibian).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
7. ^
http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles
/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/fossilrecord.html
 {363mybn}
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/tetrafr.html {360mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] P. E. Ahlberg, "Tetrapod or
near-tetrapod fossils from the Upper
Devonian of Scotland", Nature 354, 298
- 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates
/tetrapods/amphibfr.html
Fresh water, Greenland (on the
equator)6  
[1] Yes, it's time for the Palaeozoic
scenes of Life before Man. Or some of
them, anyway - if you really want to
see a load of trilobites, you're
probably Richard Fortey, and I will
ignore any comments that claim
otherwise. (Also, I can't include
everything - otherwise we'd have to
rename this blog Love in the Time of
Burian, which sounds a bit rubbish.) My
bias is most definitely towards
vertebrates and, in particular,
tetrapods, and the below scene -
featuring Ichthyostega - marks their
first appearance in the book. This
painting is perhaps unique in this book
as it combines the elements of the
animal-free landscapes with, well, some
animals. Burian's skill is in making
this scene, filled as it is with flora
so utterly different to what we are
accustomed to seeing today, look as if
he just took a casual stroll out into
the country to paint it. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Zdvegv
1Fny4/UCk-Z929irI/AAAAAAAABM8/_7c21BO7T1
s/s1600/Ichthyostega.jpg

[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
360,000,000 YBN
38 39 40 41 42 		226) The second largest Fungi phylum,
"Basidiomycota" {Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu25 }
evolves (the ancestor of many
mushrooms: button, chanterelle
{saNTRreL26 }, cremini {KremENE27 },
enoki {inoKE28 }, fly agaric {uGaRiK29
}, oyster, porcino {PORCEnO 30 },
portabella, psilocybe, puffball,
shiitake {sEToKE31 }, woodear, rusts,
and club fungi).32 33 34

The Basidiomycota phylum contains 37%
of the described species of Fungi35
and all produce basidia, which are the
cells on which sexual spores are
produced.36
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
2. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
3. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
7. ^ "cremini." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
8. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
10. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
11. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
12. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
13. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
17. ^ "cremini." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
18. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
20. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
21. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
22. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
23. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
24. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
25. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=basidi
omycota&submit=Submit
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chante
relle&submit=Submit
27. ^ "cremini." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cremini
28. ^ "enoki?s=t". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
noki?s=t
29. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=agaric
&submit=Submit
30. ^ "porcino." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/porcino
31. ^ "shiitake." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/shiitake
32. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
33. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
34. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
35. ^
http://tolweb.org/Basidiomycota/20520
36. ^
http://tolweb.org/Basidiomycota/20520
37. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734

38. ^ Stubblefield SP, Taylor TN, Beck
CB (1985) Studies of Paleozoic fungi.
V. Wood-decaying fungi in Callixylon
newberryi from the Upper Devonian. Am
J Bot
72:1765–1774 http://paleobotany.bio.k
u.edu/taylorPDFs%5C%5B1985%5D%20Stubblef
ield%20et%20al.-Wood%20decaying%20fungi%
20in%20Callixylon%20newberryi%20from%20t
he%20Upper%20Devonian.pdf
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443734

39. ^ Michael Krings, Nora Dotzler,
Jean Galtier and Thomas N. Taylor,
"Oldest fossil basidiomycete clamp
connections", Mycoscience, Volume 52,
Number 1 (2011), 18-23, DOI:
10.1007/s10267-010-0065-4 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/725614321xj0604w/

40. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(968my)
41. ^ S. Blair Hedges, "The Origin and
Evolution of Model Organisms", Nature
Reviews Genetics 3, 838-849 (2002);
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002). (1210my)
42. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (700my)

MORE INFO
[1] "Basidiomycota". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomyco
ta
[2] McLAUGHLIN, DAVID J., ALAN BECKETT,
and KWON S. YOON. “Ultrastructure and
Evolution of Ballistosporic
Basidiospores.” Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society 91.1-2 (1985):
253–271. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1985.tb01149.
x/abstract
earliest fossils: Indiana37  
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg

[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
360,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 		6353) The Neoptera, folding wing
insects evolve.6

A mechanism to fold the wings against
the body after landing has a selective
advantage by making the wings less
conspicuous, awkward, and susceptible
to breakage.7

The Neoptera are a very successful
lineage and are the ancestors of all
"higher" orders of insects.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
2. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
5. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
8. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/pterygota.html
9. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark Sutton.
“X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146.
11. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
12. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
13. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
14. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
15. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
16. ^ Regier, et al, "Pancrustacean
phylogeny: hexapods are terrestrial
crustaceans and maxillopods are not
monophyletic", Proc Biol Sci. 2005
February 22; 272(1561): 395–401.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/272/1561/395
17. ^ Garwood, Russell, and Mark
Sutton. “X-ray Micro-tomography of
Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New
Insights into Early Insects.” Biology
Letters 6.5 (2010): 699 –702.
Print. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/6/5/699.full

MORE INFO
[1] Video: Virtual fossil of
Archimylacris eggintoni,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yR-_nq2
UsOc
earliest fossils: (Archimylacris
eggintoni, Coseley Lagerstätte)
Staffordshire, UK9  
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg

[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
359,200,000 YBN
4 		124) The end of the Devonian (416-359.2
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
2. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
3. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 370 Ma Middle Devonian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/370
_Devonian_2globes.jpg
359,000,000 YBN
42 43 		243) The first plant seed evolves; the
ancestor of all seed plants.28 29 30 31


The earliest fossil seed is from a seed
fern (Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM32 }).33
34 35 36 Pteridosperms are a group of
extinct seed plants with fernlike
leaves and naked seeds.37

Fossils indicate that the first seed
evolves from an enclosing ring of
vegetative lobes that fuse together.38


A seed can be described as an
"integumented megasporangium". In the
most primitive vascular plants, the
spores are all the same size, but
eventually gender evolves, producing
small male "microspores" and larger
female "megaspores". Then individual
female megaspores are enclosed by a
ring of vegetative lobes which form an
integument or cover.39
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
2. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
3. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
4. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
5. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
6. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
7. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
8. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
9. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
10. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
11. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
12. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
14. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
15. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
16. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
17. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
18. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
19. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
20. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
21. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
22. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
23. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
24. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
25. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
26. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
27. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
28. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
29. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
30. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
31. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
32. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pterid
ospermae
33. ^ Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
34. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
35. ^ A. G. Long, Trans. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh V64, 29, 201, 261 (1960);
ibid, V64, 281 (1961), V64, 401.
36. ^
"Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
37. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
38. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
39. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
40. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
41. ^ "Genomosperma kidstonii."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>.
42. ^ Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 {359 MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}
43. ^
"Genomosperma kidstonii." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 27 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/229254/Genomosperma-kidstonii>. {359
MYBN (Lower Carboniferous}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
[3] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
(c320 (360 for living species)
[4] Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
[5] Dr. Singh, Dr. Pande & Dr.
Jain, "Diversity and Systematics of
Seed Plants",
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GTUgfghg80gC
[6] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845
earliest fossils: Scotland40 41  
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
355,000,000 YBN
3 4 		6410) Hearing in Amphibians adapts to
sounds transmitted through the air.
This is the beginning of vertebrates
making vocal sounds.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E G Wever and C Gans, "The
caecilian ear: further observations",
PNAS 1976 73 (10)
3744-3746. http://www.pnas.org/content/
73/10/3744.abstract
2. ^ E G Wever and C Gans, "The
caecilian ear: further observations",
PNAS 1976 73 (10)
3744-3746. http://www.pnas.org/content/
73/10/3744.abstract
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
4. ^ Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
[2]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=47210
[3] Peter M. Narins, Albert S. Feng,
Richard R. Fay and Arthur N. Popper,
"Hearing and Sound Communication in
Amphibians", Springer Handbook of
Auditory Research, Volume 28, 2006,
DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringer.com/life+sciences/animal+sciences
/book/978-0-387-32521-7
 
[1] Figure 6.2 from: Peter M. Narins,
Albert S. Feng, Richard R. Fay and
Arthur N. Popper, ''Hearing and Sound
Communication in Amphibians'', Springer
Handbook of Auditory Research, Volume
28, 2006, DOI:
10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1 http://www.sp
ringerlink.com/content/l637813537l70704/
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l637813537l70704/

[2] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
350,000,000 YBN
5 		361) The Ray-finned fishes, Sturgeons
and Paddlefish evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {350 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
350,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 		6355) The Neoptera: Dictyoptera
{DiKTEoPTRu10 } evolve (the ancestor of
Cockroaches, Termites, and Mantises).11
12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
3. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
6. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric Life",
2009, p143.
9. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001. Insect
evolutionary history from Handlirsch to
Hennig, and beyond. Journal of
Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dictyo
ptera&submit=Submit
11. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
12. ^ Grimaldi, D. 2001.
Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p146.
14. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
15. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p143.
16. ^ Prokop J, Nel A,
Hoch I (2005) Discovery of the oldest
known Pterygota in the
Lower Carboniferous of the Upper
Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic
(Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios
38:383–387. http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S001669950500028
8 {324 MYBN}
17. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
18. ^ Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
 
[1] Description English: Juvenile,
Madagascar hissing cockroach at the
Atlanta Botanical Garden. Taken
9/23/2007. Date 25 September 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Almabes at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Female Madagascar hissing
cockroach2.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Female_Madagascar_his
sing_cockroach.JPG

[2] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
340,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 		384) The first hard-shell egg.22 The
Tetrapods Amniota {aMnEOtu23 } evolve;
the ancestor of all reptiles, mammals
and birds and the first hard-shell
egg.24 The hard-shell egg is
waterproof.25 This is the start of
vertebrate internal fertilization,
because on land the egg cannot be
fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
{KoPYelAT26 } so that the sperm can
reach the eggs inside the female.27

Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.28

All living amniotes lay hard-shelled
eggs, except most mammals and some
snakes and lizards, where egg laying
has been replaced by live birth.29

The egg shell of amniotes may be
flexible (like the eggs of many turtles
and lizards) or mineralized and hard
(like the eggs of birds, crocodiles and
many tortoises).30
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
4. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
8. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Prothero, "Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters", 2007, p234.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
15. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
18. ^ "copulate." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/copulate
19. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
20. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
21. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
23. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=am
niota&submit=Submit
24. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=50568&tree=0.1
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
26. ^ "copulate." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 03
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/copulate
27. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p234.
28. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
29. ^ Benton MJ, 2010 Studying Function
and Behavior in the Fossil Record. PLoS
Biol 8(3): e1000321.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000321
30. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
31. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The
earliest known reptile", Nature 342,
676 - 678 (07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
32. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest
Reptile Fossil Reported Found in
Scotland", NY Times, Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html
33. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
34. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html {338
MYBN (oldest reptil fossil}
35. ^ JOHN NOBLE
WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338 MYBN (oldest
reptil fossil}
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
37. ^
"Eryops". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops
{295 MYBN (verify}
38. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree", 2009.
39. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Romer, Alfred Sherwood,
Price, Llewellyn Ivor, "The oldest
vertebrate egg", Am J Sci 1939 237:
826-829. http://www.ajsonline.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/237/11/826?maxtoshow=&hi
ts=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&title=The+oldest+ve
rtebrate+egg&andorexacttitle=and&andorex
acttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&s
earchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevanc
e&resourcetype=HWCIT
[2] Karl F. Hirsch, "The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?", Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086
[3] Robert R. Reisz, Johannes Müller,
Molecular timescales and the fossil
record: a paleontological perspective,
Trends in Genetics, Volume 20, Issue 5,
1 May 2004, Pages 237-241, ISSN
0168-9525,
10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.007. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
168952504000757)
[4] "fenestrae." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
enestrae>
[5] "orbit." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rbit>
earliest fossils: Bathgate, West
Lothian, Scotland31 32  
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
335,000,000 YBN
20 21 		6331) The Amniota divide into the
Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu14 } and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du15 }.16

The Sauropsida have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds).17 The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: the pelycosaurs (which
are sail-backed amniotes) and the
therapsids (which are mammal-like
amniotes).18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
7. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
sida&submit=Submit
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=synaps
ida&submit=Submit
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
17. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108-109.
18. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119.
19. ^ Carroll, R.L., 1964, The ear1iest
reptiles: Jour. Linn. Soc (Zool.), v.
45, p.
61-83. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1964.tb00488.x/ab
stract
20. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
21. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract

MORE INFO
[1] Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p271
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p263
[3] Reisz RR.
Pelycosaurian reptiles from the Middle
Pennsylvanian of North America. Bull
Mus Comp Zool Harv
1972;144:27-62. http://digitool.library
.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object
_id=47789&local_base=GEN01-MCG02
[4] "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
earliest possible Synapsid fossils:
(Cumberland group, Joggins formation)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada19  
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.

[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
330,000,000 YBN
11 		6307) The Synapsids Pelycosauria
{PeLiKuSOREu7 } evolve (the ancestor of
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS8 } and
Dimetrodon).9

The most notable feature in some
species of Pelycosaur is a broad "sail"
along the back.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
7. ^ "Pelycosaur." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
elycosaur>.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=edapho
saurus&submit=Submit
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
10. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
325,000,000 YBN
5 6 		381) The earliest extant Amphibians:
Caecilians evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p302-329.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p302-329.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {325 MYBN}
6. ^ Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 {370 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Andrea E. Feller, S. Blair
Hedges, Molecular Evidence for the
Early History of Living Amphibians,
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
Volume 9, Issue 3, June 1998, Pages
509-516, ISSN 1055-7903, DOI:
10.1006/mpev.1998.0500. (http://www.sci
encedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055
790398905000)
 
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
320,000,000 YBN
28 29 30 31 32 		238) The seed plants: Gymnosperms
evolve.19 Gymnosperms are the earliest
surviving seed plants, and ancestor of
all Cycads, Ginkgos and the Conifers20
21 ).22 23

The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.24

Gymnosperm is Greek for "Naked Seed".25
 A gymnosperm reproduces by a seed that
is in direct contact with the
environment, as opposed to an
angiosperm (a flowering plant) whose
seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries,
or fruits.26 27
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
2. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ "conifer." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
6. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
10. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
11. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
12. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
13. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
16. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
17. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
18. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
19. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
20. ^ "spermatophyte." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spermatophy
te-1
21. ^ "Pteridosperms." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pteridosper
ms
22. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
23. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
24. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.jstor.org/stable/412
3845 {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
25. ^ "gymnosperm." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
26. ^ "gymnosperm." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gymnosperm
27. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
28. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008.
29. ^ Norstog K, Nicholls TJ.
1997.The biology of cycads. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
30. ^ Pant, D.D., R.
Osborne, and Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany. An Introduction to
Gymnosperms, Cycas, and Cycadales.
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,
2002. BSIP
Monograph. http://books.google.com/book
s?ei=twN6UJqpA5D2qQGvhYHoAQ
31. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 {
Chase_Mark_2004.pdf} (c320 (360 for
living species)
32. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gymnosperms". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperms

[2] Gillespie, William H., Gar W.
Rothwell, and Stephen E. Scheckler.
“The earliest seeds.” Nature
293.5832 (1981) :
462-464. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v293/n5832/abs/293462a0.html
[3] Henry N. Andrews, "Early Seed
Plants", Science, New Series, Vol. 142,
No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577
[4]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Main/Overview/
3213.htm
 
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
320,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		6356) The Neoptera Order4 : Orthoptera
evolves (the ancestor of crickets,
grasshoppers, locusts, and walking
sticks).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
4. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=6993&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
5. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005,
p191. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ql6Jl6wKb88C&pg=PA191
7. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
8. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p208.

MORE INFO
[1] "orthopteran". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 06 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/433540/orthopteran/39576/Evoluti
on-and-paleontology>
[2]
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/orthopteroids.html#A
 
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg

[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
317,000,000 YBN
33 34 35 36 37 		385) The Sauropsid Class Reptilia
{reP-TiL-E-u21 } evolves, the Reptiles;
the ancestor of all turtles,
crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and
birds22 .23 24

The class Reptilia is a group of
air-breathing vertebrates that have
internal fertilization, and scales
covering part or all of their body.25
26 27 All reptiles are cold-blooded,
except for birds28 , and possibly some
or all pterosaurs29 and dinosaurs30
.31
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", 2002, p108.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
6. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
7. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
8. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
9. ^ Douglas Palmer, "The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals",
1999, p59.
10. ^ "reptilia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
eptilia>.
11. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
14. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
15. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
16. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
17. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p110-111.
18. ^ Peter Wellnhofer,
"Pterosaurs", 1991, p163-164.
19. ^ Robert
Bakker, "The Dinosaur Heresies", 1986.
20. ^
"reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
21. ^ "reptilia." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
eptilia>.
22. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p108.
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
24. ^ Benton, Michael J., and
Philip C. J. Donoghue.
“Paleontological Evidence to Date the
Tree of Life.” Molecular Biology and
Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
25. ^ "reptile". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 21 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/498684/reptile>.
26. ^ "reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
27. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p163.
28. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p110-111.
29. ^ Peter Wellnhofer,
"Pterosaurs", 1991, p163-164.
30. ^ Robert
Bakker, "The Dinosaur Heresies", 1986.
31. ^
"reptile." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 27 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/reptile
32. ^ Benton, Michael J., and Philip C.
J. Donoghue. “Paleontological
Evidence to Date the Tree of Life.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 24.1
(2007): 26 -53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
33. ^ Prothero, "Evolution What The
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2009,
p232.
34. ^ T. R. Smithson, "The earliest
known reptile", Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
{338MYBN (oldest reptile fossil}
35. ^ JOHN
NOBLE WILFORD, "Oldest Reptile Fossil
Reported Found in Scotland", NY Times,
Nov 17,
1988. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17
/us/oldest-reptile-fossil-reported-found
-in-scotland.html {338MYBN (oldest
reptile fossil}
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {310 MYBN}
37. ^
Benton, Michael J., and Philip C. J.
Donoghue. “Paleontological Evidence
to Date the Tree of Life.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 24.1 (2007): 26
-53.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/24/1/26.abstract
earliest fossils: (Joggins Formation)
Nova Scotia, Canada32  
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
314,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 		240) The Gymnosperms Pinophyta
{PInoFiTu11 } evolve (the ancestor of
the Conifers: includes Pine, Fir,
Spruce, Redwood, Cedar, Juniper,
Hemlock, Larch, Yew, and Cypress.12 13
).14 15

The oldest known living plants are
found among the conifers, some
estimated to be around 5000 years
old.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
2. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
3. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
7. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
8. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pinoph
yta&submit=Submit
12. ^ "conifer." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/conifer
13. ^ "Pinophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pinophyta
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
16. ^ Taylor,
E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M. Krings.
Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution
of Fossil Plants. Elsevier Science,
2008, p805.
17. ^ SCOTT, ANDREW. “The
Earliest Conifer.” Nature 251.5477
(1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
18. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
19. ^ SCOTT, ANDREW.
“The Earliest Conifer.” Nature
251.5477 (1974):
707–708. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v251/n5477/abs/251707a0.html
20. ^ Lyons, Paul C. et al.
“Radiometric Ages of the Fire Clay
Tonstein Pennsylvanian (Upper
Carboniferous), Westphalian,
Duckmantian. ^: A Comparison of U–Pb
Zircon Single-crystal Ages and
40Ar/39Ar Sanidine Single-crystal
Plateau Ages.” International Journal
of Coal Geology 67.4 (2006):
259–266. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0166516206000140
21. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008, p806.
22. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.abstract (c270 (290 for
living species)
23. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D.
Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)

MORE INFO
[1] Burleigh J. G. S. Mathews
2004 Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide
data from seed plants: implications for
resolving the seed plant tree of life.
American Journal of Botany 91:
1599-1613 http://www.amjbot.org/content
/91/10/1599.abstract?ijkey=b60985db66551
09e270893676c522743d400bc1e&keytype2=tf_
ipsecsha
earliest fossils: Wakefield, Yorkshire,
England17 18  
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta

[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
310,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 17 18 		6357) The Neoptera: Paraneoptera evolve
(the ancestor of bark lice, true lice,
thrips, and the Hemiptera {HemiPTRu9 }.
The Hemiptera have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking and include:10
 Cicadas, Aphids, and "true bugs": such
as Bed bugs, and Stink bugs).11 12
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
4. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
6. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
7. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
8. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p261.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=hemipt
era&submit=Submit
10. ^ "true bug." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 06 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/true-bug
11. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p261.
13. ^ David A.
Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p146.
14. ^
Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence for
an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
15. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/hemipteroids.html
16. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
17. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p286.
18. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p321.
 
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg

[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
310,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 		6359) The Neoptera Holometabola
{HoLomeTaBolu or HOlOmeTABolu13 14 }
evolve: Holometabolous insects:
(insects that undergo complete
metamorphosis, the ancestor of beetles,
bees, true flies, and butterflies).15

The holometabolous insects account for
nearly 85% of all insects.16

The Holometabola are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (or
holometabolous development). Unlike
hemimetabolous insects in which the
immature structures (legs, eyes,
antennae, etc.) must also serve the
adults, holometabolous insects have a
morphologically reduced larval stage17
and acquire a completely new body
during the pupal stage.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
3. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
4. ^ "holometabolous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
7. ^ "holometabolous."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 05 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
9. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
10. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
11. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
12. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
13. ^ "holometabolous." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/h
olometabolous>.
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=holome
tabolous+&submit=Submit
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146,331.
16. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
17. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p331.
18. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
20. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
21. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
22. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
 
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg

[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
305,000,000 YBN
11 		242) The Amphibians: Anura {unRu8 }
evolve (the ancestor of all Frogs and
Toads).9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anura&
submit=Submit
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ "frog." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frog
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Neil H. Shubin and Farish A.
Jenkins, Jr (7 September 1995). "An
Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature
377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html
[2] "Pliensbachian Stage."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/464801/Pliensbachian-Stage>
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
300,000,000 YBN
7 8 		1310) The Stramenopiles Chrysophyta
{KriSoFiTu5 } evolve (Golden algae).6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
2. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
4. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=chryso
phyta&submit=Submit
6. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
7. ^ Brown JW, Sorhannus U (2010) A
Molecular Genetic Timescale for the
Diversification of Autotrophic
Stramenopiles (Ochrophyta): Substantive
Underestimation of Putative Fossil
Ages. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12759.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012759
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/c
hrysophyta.html
 
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg

[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
4 		125) The end of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 300 Ma Late
Pennsylvanian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/300
_Penn_2globes.jpg
299,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 		6360) The Holometabola Order:
Coleoptera {KOlEoPTRu10 11 } evolves
(the ancestor of the Beetles).12 13

Coleoptera is the largest order of all
organisms known containing 350,000
named species; 40% of all the
insects.14

Well known beetles include: Ladybugs,
Fireflies, Dung beetles, Japanese
beetles, weevils, and scarabs.15
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Coleoptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
3. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
4. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
7. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ "Coleoptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/coleoptera-
2
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=coleop
tera&submit=Submit
12. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
13. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7041&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
14. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357.
15. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p357-406.
16. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The
Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal
of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
17. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. “Evidence
for an Earliest Late Carboniferous
Divergence Time and the Early Larval
Ecology and Diversification of Major
Holometabola Lineages.” Entomologica
Americana 117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
18. ^ Béthoux, Olivier. “The
Earliest Beetle Identified.” Journal
of Paleontology 83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1
19. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
20. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time
Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
earliest fossils: (Pennsylvanian
deposit) Mazon Creek, Illinois, USA16
 
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
290,000,000 YBN
7 8 		239) The Gymnosperms: Ginkgophyta
evolve (Ginkgos).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
5. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (c290 (300
for living species)
8. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah
D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele
Pinto and Debashish, "A Molecular
Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
 
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo

[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
290,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 		6358) The Holometabola Order:
Hymenoptera evolves (the ancestor of
all bees, ants, and wasps).4 5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
"Time Tree of Life", 2009, p260-263.
3. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p260-263.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7399&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
6. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146.
7. ^ Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
8. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
10. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
11. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p283.
12. ^
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/t
ext02/holometabola.html
 
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g

[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
287,000,000 YBN
4 		6308) The Synapsid Therapsids evolve
(Cynodonts).2

The Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs
and largely replace them for a time as
the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
The legs of Therapsids are more
directly positioned under the weight of
their body, which results in a more
efficient mode of movement.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
2. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p119-122.
 
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU

[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
274,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 24 25 26 		307) The Stramenopiles: Phaeophyta
{FEoFiTu15 } evolve (the ancestor of
all Brown Algae, includes many seaweeds
like the giant kelps16 ).17 18 19

Note that brown algae are not plants
but are protists.20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110
.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
5. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
6. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
10. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
11. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
14. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p117. timetree.org
15. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=phaeop
hyta&submit=Submit
16. ^ "Phaeophyta." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phaeophyta
17. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2 {Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_200311
10.pdf}
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
19. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full {Baldauf_Doolittle_199911
17.pdf} has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch
20. ^ Hedges
and Kumar, "Time Tree of Life", 2009,
p117. timetree.org
21. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {genetic) 274 mybn}
22. ^ Cédric
Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A molecular
time-scale for eukaryote evolution
recalibrated with the continuous
microfossil record", Proc. R. Soc. B
August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 200 mybn}
23. ^ Zhu
Shixing and Chen Huineng, "Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China", Science , New Series, Vol. 270,
No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf}
{Fossil) 1600-1800 mybn}
24. ^ S Blair
Hedges, Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi
and Jason L Shoe, "A molecular
timescale of eukaryote evolution and
the rise of complex multicellular
life", BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004,
4:2 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
{Alveolates and Plants) 1956mybn}
25. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009.
http://www.timetree.org/book.php
{1345 my}
26. ^ Cécile Gueidan,
Constantino Ruibal, G.S. de Hoog,
Harald Schneider, Rock-inhabiting fungi
originated during periods of dry
climate in the late Devonian and middle
Triassic, Fungal Biology, Volume 115,
Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 987-996,
ISSN 1878-6146,
10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.002. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii
/S1878614611000675) {822.5 my}

MORE INFO
[1] Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J.
Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972,
(2000). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/290/5493/972.full has heterkonts
before ciliophora and apicomplexa
branch
[2] Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. et al.
“The timing of eukaryotic evolution:
Does a relaxed molecular clock
reconcile proteins and fossils?”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 101.43 (2004): 15386
-15391. http://www.pnas.org/content/101
/43/15386.long
[3] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[4] Hackett JD, Yoon
HS, Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120
[5] "Phaeophyta". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaeophyta
[6] Michael Sleigh, "Protozoa and Other
Protists", (London; New York: Edward
Arnold, 1989)
[7] "Brown algae". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae

[8]
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/apbio30
.html
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
266,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		308) The Stramenopiles: Diatoms
evolve.4

Diatoms are microscopic unicellular or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
2. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
3. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
4. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883
5. ^ "diatom." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 23 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diatom
6. ^ Kooistra, W. H. C. F. and Medlin,
L. K. (1996). Evolution of the diatoms
(Bacillariophyta) : IV. A
reconstruction of their age from small
subunit rRNA coding regions and the
fossil record. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
6, 391-407.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S1055790396900883 {no
earlier than) 266 MYBN}
7. ^ S Blair Hedges,
Jaime E Blair, Maria L Venturi and
Jason L Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
{Hedges_Venturi_Shoe_20031110.pdf} (1
973mybn) {Alveolates) 1956mybn}
8. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (1600mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2,
(2004). http://www.biomedcentral.com/14
71-2148/4/2
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
260,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		232) The earliest endothermic (or
"warm-blooded") and hair growing
animal, a therapsid.13 14

Endothermy is the physiological
maintenance, by a body, of a constant
temperature independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to
endothermy.15

Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates (like amphibians
and crocodiles16 ) which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.17

Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
2. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
3. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
4. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
5. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
6. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
7. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
8. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
9. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Willem J. Hillenius,
"Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for
Late Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
12. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
13. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441
14. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
15. ^ "mammal." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 07 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/360838/mammal>.
16. ^ Ted Huntington.
17. ^ Willem J. Hillenius,
"Turbinates in Therapsids: Evidence for
Late Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
18. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
19. ^ Willem J. Hillenius, "Turbinates
in Therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian Origins of Mammalian
Endothermy", Evolution, Vol. 48, No. 2
(Apr., 1994), pp. 207-229. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2410089
20. ^ Ruben J.A. 1995. The evolution of
endothermy in mammals and birds: from
physiology to fossils. Ann Rev Physiol
57:69–95. http://www.annualreviews.or
g/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.0
00441 {c250 MYBN (Late Permian}
21. ^ Ted
Huntington. {230 MYBN (between
crocodilia 240mybn and pterosaur
220mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Schweitzer, Mary Higby, and
Cynthia Lee Marshall. “A molecular
model for the evolution of endothermy
in the theropod-bird lineage.”
Journal of Experimental Zoology 291.4
(2001) :
317-338. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/jez.1132/abstract
 
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg

[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
256,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 		6362) The Holometabola Order: Diptera10
11 {DiPTRe12 } evolves, true flies,
having a single pair of wings: the
ancestor of the mosquito, gnat, deer
fly, horse fly, fruit fly, drosophila
{DrO-SoF-u_lu13 }, and house fly)14 .
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
2. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
3. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
5. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
6. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
7. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
8. ^ "Diptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 07
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
9. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
10. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
11. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7147&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
12. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
13. ^ "drosophila." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jul.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
rosophila>.
14. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
15. ^ Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263.
16. ^ Labandeira, Conrad
C. “Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
17. ^ "Diptera." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 07 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/diptera
18. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M. et al.
“Episodic Radiations in the Fly Tree
of Life.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (2011): n.
pag. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/
2011/03/15/1012675108.full.pdf+html
19. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197
 
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g

[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
251,400,000 YBN
8 9 10 		102) The largest mass extinction of
history, the End-Permian mass
extinction. 82% of all genera are
observed extinct.4

The Permian–Triassic extinction event
is the Earth's most severe extinction
event, with up to 96% of all marine
species5 and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrate species becoming extinct6 .
It is the only known mass extinction of
insects.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
5. ^ Benton M J (2005). When life
nearly died: the greatest mass
extinction of all time. London: Thames
& Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28573-X.
6. ^ Sahney S and Benton
M.J (2008). "Recovery from the most
profound mass extinction of all time"
(PDF). Proceedings of the Royal
Society: Biological 275 (1636):
759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370.
PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
7. ^ Labandeira CC,
Sepkoski JJ (1993). "Insect diversity
in the fossil record". Science 261
(5119): 310–315.
doi:10.1126/science.11536548. PMID
11536548.
8. ^ Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W, Shang QH,
Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000). "Pattern of
Marine Mass Extinction Near the
Permian–Triassic Boundary in South
China". Science 289 (5478): 432–436.
Bibcode 2000Sci...289..432J.
doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID
10903200. {251.4 MYBN}
9. ^ Bowring SA, Erwin
DH, Jin YG, Martin MW, Davidek K, Wang
W (1998). "U/Pb Zircon Geochronology
and Tempo of the End-Permian Mass
Extinction". Science 280 (5366):
1039–1045.
doi:10.1126/science.280.5366.1039.
{251.4 MYBN}
10. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {245 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
[2]
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/200
6/06/060601174729.htm
[3]
http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?p
key=1073
 
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg

[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
251,000,000 YBN
4 		54) The end of the Paleozoic and start
of the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg
251,000,000 YBN
452) The supercontinent Pangea (PaNJEe)
forms.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] 260 Ma Late Permian UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/260
_Permian_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
250,000,000 YBN
5 6 		241) The gymnosperms "Gnetales"
{ne-TA-lEZ1 } evolve;2 3 thought to be
the closest living gymnosperm relatives
of the angiosperms.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gnetales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnetales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
4. ^ "Gnetales."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gnetales-1
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(c250 (270 for living species)
6. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004). (c350
(300 for radiation)
 
[1] Description English: Ephedra
fragilis growing at Cap de Formentor,
peninsula of Formentor, Pollença,
Mallorca Date created 18. Dec.
2009 Source Own work Author Frank
Vincentz Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL (self made) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg/1280px-Pollen%C3%A7a_-
_Ma-2210_-_Cap_de_Formentor_-_Ephedra_fr
agilis_05_ies.jpg

[2] Ephedra viridis in western
Nevada Ephedra_viridis_1.jpg (59KB,
MIME type:
image/jpeg) GFDL Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Ephedra viridis ('Green
Mormon Tea'), photo taken near Reno,
Nevada GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eph
edra
235,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 		304) The Protist Phlyum "Haptophyta"
{HaPTuFITu16 } evolves, the
Coccolithophores {KoK-o-lit-u-FORZ17
}.18 19 20

Most haptophytes are coccolithophores,
unicellular (flagellated21 22 ) marine
protists with calcified plates (or
coccoliths) embedded in their cell
walls.23 24 25

Some haptophytes turn parts of the
ocean bright turquoise during their
blooms.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
3. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger, I.
Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
8. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
13. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
14. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
15. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=haptop
hyta&submit=Submit
17. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=co
ccolithophores&submit=Submit
18. ^ S Blair Hedges, Jaime E Blair,
Maria L Venturi and Jason L Shoe, "A
molecular timescale of eukaryote
evolution and the rise of complex
multicellular life", BMC Evolutionary
Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
19. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
20. ^ Sandra L. Baldauf, A. J. Roger,
I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F. Doolittle, "A
Kingdom-Level Phylogeny of Eukaryotes
Based on Combined Protein Data",
Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p 972,
(2000).has heterkonts before ciliophora
and apicomplexa branch
21. ^
http://microscope.mbl.edu/scripts/protis
t.php?func=integrate&myID=P10520
22. ^ empty
23. ^ empty
24. ^ empty
25. ^ Morrissey, J.,
and J. Sumich. Introduction to the
Biology of Marine Life. Jones &
Bartlett Learning, 2011, p67.
26. ^
http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Bior
ealm/eukaryotes/emiliania/emiliania.htm
27. ^ Taylor, E.L., T.N. Taylor, and M.
Krings. Paleobotany: The Biology and
Evolution of Fossil Plants. Elsevier
Science, 2008,
p145. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_29tNNeQKeMC
28. ^ Yoon, Hwan Su et al. “A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.” Molecular
Biology and Evolution 21.5 (2004): 809
-818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract {c1050 mybn}
29. ^
Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski, "A
molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {920 mybn}
30. ^ S. Blair
Hedges and Sudhir Kumar, "The TimeTree
of Life", 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php {genetic)1382 mybn}
31. ^ De Vargas,
Aubry, Probert, Young, "Origin and
Evolution of Cocolithophores: From
Coastal Hunters to Oceanic Farmers",
Chapter 12, p251. in: Paul G.
Falkowski, Andrew H. Knoll, "Evolution
of primary producers in the sea",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5tRSAr1JMhwC {DNA)1900mybn}
{genetic)1900mybn}
32. ^ Linda Medlin, et al, "Phylogenic
relationships of the 'golden algae'
(haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes)
and their plastids", Plant Systematics
and Evolution (Supplement), v11, 1997,
p187-219. http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med
1997c.pdf {DNA)1750 mybn} {genetic)1750
mybn}
33. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {possible fossil)
318mybn}
34. ^ Cédric Berney and Jan Pawlowski,
"A molecular time-scale for eukaryote
evolution recalibrated with the
continuous microfossil record", Proc.
R. Soc. B August 7, 2006 273:1867-1872;
doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3537 http://rspb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1
596/1867.short {genetic) 920 mybn}
35. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {possible fossil) 318mybn}
36. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chromista/p
rymnesiophyta.html {certain fossil)
201mybn}
37. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/ {certain fossil) 201mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] S Blair Hedges, Jaime E
Blair, Maria L Venturi and Jason L
Shoe, "A molecular timescale of
eukaryote evolution and the rise of
complex multicellular life", BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004, 4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2, (2004).
(1973mybn)
[2] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (1600mybn)
[3] Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, "A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data", Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000). (has heterkonts before
ciliophora and apicomplexa branch)
[4]
http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/PS
life/lectures/Haptophyta.html
 
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703

[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
22 23 24 		412) The Reptiles: Dinosaurs evolve.16
17 18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
4. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
7. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
8. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate Paleontology",
2005, p154.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
11. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
12. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
15. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
16. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
17. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
18. ^ "dinosaur." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dinosaur
19. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
20. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
21. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
22. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
23. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
24. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina20 21  
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html

[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
228,000,000 YBN
13 		6282) Dinosaurs divide into two major
lines: the Ornithischians
{ORnitiSKEiNZ9 } (Bird-hipped
dinosaurs) and the Saurischians
{SoriSKEiNZ10 } (Lizard-hipped
dinosaurs).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithischian." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
2. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

3. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
4. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
5. ^ "ornithischian."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
6. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

7. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
8. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
9. ^ "ornithischian."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 10 Jun. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/o
rnithischian>.
10. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

11. ^ James O. Farlow, M. K.
Brett-Surman, "The Complete Dinosaur",
1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C
12. ^ Harold Levine, "The Earth Through
Time", 2006, p417.
13. ^ James O. Farlow, M.
K. Brett-Surman, "The Complete
Dinosaur", 1999,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=FOViD-lDPy0C {Carnian:
average of) 235-228 mybn}
 
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
228,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 		6283) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN17 }
Dinosaurs split into two major lines:
The Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu18 }
and the Therapoda {tiRoPiDu19 }.20

The Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.21

The Theropod {tERePoD22 } dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.23 24
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

2. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
4. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
5. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
6. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
7. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
9. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

10. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
12. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
13. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
14. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
15. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
16. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
17. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

18. ^ "sauropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sauropod
19. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=therop
oda
20. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
21. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
22. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
23. ^ "theropod." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
24. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
25. ^ Sereno, Paul C. et al.
“Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
26. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154.
27. ^ Sereno, Paul
C. et al. “Primitive dinosaur
skeleton from Argentina and the early
evolution of Dinosauria.” Nature
361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html {228
MYBN}
28. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {228 MYBN}
29. ^ Benton, "Vertebrate
Paleontology", 2005, p154. {230-220
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=saurop
odomorpha&submit=Submit
earliest fossils: (Ischigualasto
Formation) Valley of the Moon,
Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina25 26  
[1] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.

[2] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
225,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		126) The Synapsids Mammals evolve.8
The first mammary gland.9

Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates
that have four limbs (except for some
aquatic species).10
The female has
mammary glands, which secrete milk for
the nourishment of the young after
birth. In the majority of mammals the
body is partially or entirely covered
with hair.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
2. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and
Zhexi Luo, "Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal", Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "mammal." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mammal
11. ^ "mammal." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2013. Answers.com 04
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mammal
12. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
13. ^ Spencer G. Lucas and Zhexi Luo,
"Adelobasileus from the Upper Triassic
of West Texas: The Oldest Mammal",
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology,
Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23, 1993), pp.
309-334 Published by: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The Society
of Vertebrate Paleontology Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514
{225 MYBN}
14. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p197.
15. ^ Palmer, Tree of
Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Shedlock2
009Chap52.pdf

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.abqtrib.com/albq/nw_science/a
rticle/0,2668,ALBQ_21236_4546322,00.html

earliest fossils: (Dockum Formation)
Kalgary, Crosby County, Texas, USA12
 
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514

[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
225,000,000 YBN
9 10 		369) The Ray-Finned Fishes Teleost
(TeLEoST) fishes evolve.6

Teleosts are a large group of fishes
with bony skeletons, including most
common fishes.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "teleost." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 26 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ "teleost." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 26 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/teleost
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p197.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
14 15 		387) The most primitive extant
reptiles9 , the Testudines
{TeSTUDinEZ10 } evolve: the ancestor of
all Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins.11
12

The turtle shell evolves from broadened
ribs.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
5. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
8. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
9. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=testud
ines&submit=Submit
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
12. ^ "turtle."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 10 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turtle
13. ^ Melissa Hogenboom, "How the
turtle got its unique hard shell", BBC
5/31/2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/sc
ience-environment-22715018
14. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p196.
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262. {300
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "terrapin." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrapin
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. ‪中文(简体)‬:
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
5 6 7 		389) The reptiles: Tuataras {TUeToRoZ}
evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ "tuatara." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 27 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tuatara
5. ^ "tuatara." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/608113/tuatara>.
6. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {255 MYBN}
(Islands of) New Zealand4  
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
220,000,000 YBN
19 20 		428) The first flying vertebrate, the
Reptiles Pterosaurs evolve.11 12

Flight in pterosaurs, birds, and bats
evolves independently.13 14

Pterosaurs actively fly (contracting
their wing muscles to flap), as opposed
to only glide.15

That some pterosaurs had hair16 is
evidence that they may have been
warm-blooded.17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
2. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
3. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
4. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
5. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
6. ^
Unwin, David M. “Pterosaurs: back to
the traditional model?” Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 14.7 (1999) :
263-268. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534799016055
7. ^ Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
8. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
9. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
10. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
11. ^
Éric Buffetaut, "Evolution and
palaeobiology of pterosaurs",
Geological Society, 2003,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8CKYxcylOycC
12. ^ Steven M. Stanley, "Earth System
History", Third edition, 2009, p390.
13. ^
Alexander, D.E., and S. Vogel.
Nature’s Flyers: Birds, Insects, and
the Biomechanics of Flight. Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2004.
Nature’s Flyers,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=zj
395mz_GYkC&pg=PA3
14. ^ Publishing, DK. DK Eyewitness
Books: Animal. DK Publishing, 2012. DK
EYEWITNESS BOOKS,
p38. http://books.google.com/books?id=j
l0cNGQ0gJ0C&pg=PT40
15. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
16. ^ R. Wild, "A juvenile specimen of
Eudimorphodon ranzii Zambelli
(Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the upper
Triassic (Norian) of Bergamo", Rivista
del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali
'Enrico Caffi', Bergamo, 16, 95-120.
17. ^
Niels Bonde and Per Christiansen, "The
detailed anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus:
axial pneumaticity and its
implications", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003, v.
217, p. 217-232 doi:
10.1144/​GSL.SP.2003.217.01.13 http:/
/sp.lyellcollection.org/content/217/1/21
7.abstract
18. ^ Martill, David M., and David M.
Unwin. “Exceptionally well preserved
pterosaur wing membrane from the
Cretaceous of Brazil.” Nature
340.6229 (1989) :
138-140. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v340/n6229/abs/340138a0.html
19. ^ Peter Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs",
1991, p59-60,166. {220MYBN}
20. ^
http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/dallav.htm
{215 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://dipbsf.uninsubria.it/paleo/dvecch
ia.htm
[2] Eberhard Frey, Helmut Tischlinger,
Marie-Céline Buchy, and David M.
Martill, "New specimens of Pterosauria
(Reptilia) with soft parts with
implications for pterosaurian anatomy
and locomotion ", Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 2003,
217:233-266;
doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.217.01.14
 
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.

[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
210,000,000 YBN
5 		390) The Reptiles Iguania evolve: (the
ancestor of iguanas, chameleons, and
spiny lizards).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p261-301.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
210,000,000 YBN
5 		391) The Reptiles: Scleroglossa evolve
(the ancestor of snakes, skinks, and
geckos).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {210 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.

[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
210,000,000 YBN
4 		6313) The earliest extant Teleosts:
Bonytongues evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).

MORE INFO
[1] Inoue, JG, Miya, M,
Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M (2003) "Basal
actinopterygian relationships: A
mitogenomic perspective on the
phylogeny of the ldquoancient
fish.rdquo" Mol Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317
 
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk

[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
6 7 8 		127) The End-Triassic mass extinction.
53% of all genera are observed
extinct.4

Many terrestrial vertebrates and large
amphibians go extinct.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ Palmer, et, al., "Primitive Life"
2009, p197.
4. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
5. ^ Palmer, et, al., "Primitive Life"
2009, p197.
6. ^ The geological Society of
America 2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
7. ^ Whiteside, Jessica H.; Paul E.
Olsen, Timothy Eglinton, Michael E.
Brookfield, and Raymond N. Sambrotto
(March 22, 2010). "Compound-specific
carbon isotopes from Earth's largest
flood basalt eruptions directly linked
to the end-Triassic mass extinction".
PNAS 107 (15): 6721–5.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1001706107. PMC
2872409. PMID 20308590. {201.4 MYBN}
8. ^
David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8 {208 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] David Jablonski, "Lessons
from the Past: Evolutionary Impacts of
Mass Extinctions", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 98, No.
10 (May 8, 2001), pp.
5393-5398. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
3055638
 
[1] A modified version of
Image:Extinction
Intensity.svg. Changes: Time
runs from left to right Periods
are coloured as per the Paris system -
see w:Template:Period color for full
explanation Text removed so
wikilinks can be floated over. See
w:Template:Annotated image/Extinction
for implementation. Cubic
polynomial removed as this doesn't
convey any useful information and is
mainly an artefact. The caption on
the original file is: Marine Genus
Biodiversity: Extinction
Intensity GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Extinction_intensity.
svg

[2] Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
May 1954 eruption of Kilauea Volcano.
Halemaumau fountains. Photo by J.P.
Eaton, May 31, 1954. Image file:
/htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch
37/hvo00014.jpg PD
source: http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/
htmllib/batch37/batch37j/batch37z/batch3
7/hvo00014.jpg
201,600,000 YBN
4 		228) The end of the Triassic (251-201.6
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] USGS "Divisions of Geologic
Time— Major Chronostratigraphic and
Geochronologic Units", July
2010. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059
/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf
 
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g

[2] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
201,600,000 YBN
14 15 		6372) The Ornithischians Thyreophora
{tIrEoFeru9 } evolve; the ancestor of
the armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ10 }
and the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ11
}.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
6. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
7. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
11. ^ "stegosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stegosaur
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p271.
13. ^ Colbert, "A primitive
ornithischian dinosaur from the Kayenta
Formation of Arizona", Bulletin (Museum
of Northern Arizona), No 53, 1981.
14. ^
Colbert, "A primitive ornithischian
dinosaur from the Kayenta Formation of
Arizona", Bulletin (Museum of Northern
Arizona), No 53, 1981, p56-57.
15. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p224.

MORE INFO
[1] Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.
London: Marshall Editions. pp.
134–135. ISBN 1-84028-152-9
(Kayenta Formation) Arizona, USA13
 
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg

[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
201,000,000 YBN
2 		6652) Wasps evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p409,412.
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p409,412.

MORE INFO
[1] Labandeira, C. C. and T. L.
Phillips. 2002. Stem borings and
petiole galls from Pennsylvanian tree
ferns of Illinois, USA: Implications
for the origin of the borer and galler
functional-feeding-groups and
holometabolous insects.
Palaeontographica A 264:1–84, 16 pls
[2]
"gall." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/gall
[3] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p408
[4] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p428
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458
[6] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
 
[1] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p411. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p411.

[2] Description English: Xiphydria
prolongata (Symphyta) Date Source
British Phytophagous
Hymenoptera Author Peter Cameron
(died 1912) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Xiphydria_prolongata.
jpg
200,000,000 YBN
5 		370) The Teleosts: eels and tarpons
evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {200 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
200,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		392) The Reptiles: Crocodilia
{KroKoDiLEu6 } evolve (the ancestor of
Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}).7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=crocod
ilia&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301.
8. ^ "crocodile."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/143679/crocodile>.
9. ^ Cracraft, J., and M.J. Donoghue.
Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2004. Nueva
Colecci�n Labor,
p452. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA452
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p261-301. {245 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
195,000,000 YBN
25 26 		246) The Saurischian {SoriSKEiN16 }
Sauropods {SoRuPoDZ17 } evolve; the
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS18 }, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS19 }, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS20 }.21 22 23
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
2. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

3. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
8. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

9. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
10. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

11. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
12. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
15. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
16. ^ "saurischian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saurischian

17. ^ "Sauropod." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/S
auropod>.
18. ^ "apatosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apatosaurus

19. ^ "brachiosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/brachiosaur
us
20. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diplod
ocus&submit=Submit
21. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
22. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p115-116,
2002.
23. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
24. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
25. ^ Palmer et al, "Primative Life",
2009, p224.
26. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
western USA24  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg

[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
195,000,000 YBN
10 		6373) The Ornithischian Ornithopoda
{ORnitoPiDu7 } evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.8
9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
5. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ornith
opoda
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p224.
9. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p115-116, 2002.
10. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p224.
 
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg

[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
190,000,000 YBN
5 		371) The Teleosts: herrings and
anchovies evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {190 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=201773&tree=0.1
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
190,000,000 YBN
6 		6289) The Supercontinent Pangea splits
into Laurasia and Gondwana. The
northern part, Laurasia will form North
America and Europe. The southern part,
Gondwana will form South America and
Africa.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
2. ^
Harold Levin, "The Earth Through Time",
Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
3. ^ Harold
Levin, "The Earth Through Time", Eighth
Edition, 2006, p176,375.
4. ^ Harold Levin, "The
Earth Through Time", Eighth Edition,
2006, p176,375.
5. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176,375.
6. ^ Harold Levin, "The Earth Through
Time", Eighth Edition, 2006, p176,375.
{190 mybn}
Pangea5  
[1] 200 Ma Early Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/200
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg

[2] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
190,000,000 YBN
15 16 17 18 19 20 		6347) The Holometabola Order
Lepidoptera {lePiDoPTRu10 } evolves
(the ancestor of moths, butterflies,
and caterpillars).11 12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
2. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
3. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
5. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
6. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
8. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect molecular
clock dates the origin of the insects
and accords with palaeontological and
biogeographic landmarks.", Mol Biol
Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
9. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lepido
ptera&submit=Submit
11. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
12. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing of
eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
13. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=7088&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p556.
15. ^ Palmer, et
al, "Prehistoric Life", 2009, p224.
16. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p556.
17. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p469.
18. ^
Hedges and Kumar, "TimeTree of Life",
2009, p262.
19. ^ Douzery et al., "The timing
of eukaryotic evolution: does a relaxed
molecular clock reconcile proteins and
fossils?", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
2004. http://www.pnas.org/content/101/4
3/15386.abstract
20. ^ Gaunt et al., "An insect
molecular clock dates the origin of the
insects and accords with
palaeontological and biogeographic
landmarks.", Mol Biol Evol,
2002. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/con
tent/19/5/748.full.pdf {Gaunt_Insects_2
002.pdf}
earliest fossils: Dorset, England14
 
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg

[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
180,000,000 YBN
23 24 25 		456) The earliest extant mammals, the
Mammal Order Monotremata10
{moN-O-Tre-moD-e11 } evolves: the
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ12 }.13

Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. The
Monotremes consist of only the platypus
and two species of echidna.14 15

Monotreme means "single hole" in
Greek.16 Like birds and reptiles,
monotremes have a single opening, the
cloaca {KlO-A-Ko17 }, for the passage
of liquid and solid wastes, the
transfer of sperm, and, in the female,
the laying of eggs.18

After hatching, young cling to the
belly of the mother. Monotremes have no
nipples, but milk is secreted for the
young by mammary glands on the belly of
the mother through openings in the
mother's skin.19 20

Monotremes are also the most primitive
extant warm blooded and hair growing
species.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
3. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
5. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
7. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
8. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9255&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
11. ^ "Monotremata." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotremata
-2
12. ^ "monotreme." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
14. ^ "monotreme." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
15. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 238-260.
17. ^ "cloaca." The
American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cloaca
18. ^ "monotreme." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 25 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
19. ^ Starr, C., C.A. Evers, and L.
Starr. Biology: Concepts and
Applications Without Physiology.
Cengage Learning,
2010. http://books.google.com/books?id=
edTsIG--n5QC&pg=PA387
20. ^ Campbell et al, "Biology", 2008,
p722.
21. ^ Ted Huntington.
22. ^ "monotreme." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
23. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {180 MYBN}
24. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
25. ^
Hedges, Tree of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Monotremata". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremata

Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea22
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
170,000,000 YBN
5 		372) The Teleosts: carp, minnows, and
piranhas evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {170 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
170,000,000 YBN
5 		373) The Teleosts: salmon, trout, and
pike evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
170,000,000 YBN
7 8 		383) The Amphibians: Salamanders
evolve.4

Salamanders are able to regenerate a
lost limb or tail,5 by cells in the
damaged area changing back to slightly
less mature versions6 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "salamander." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2013.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/salamander
6. ^ Keim, Brandon (July 1, 2009).
"Salamander Discovery Could Lead to
Human Limb Regeneration".
Wired. http://www.wired.com/wiredscienc
e/2009/07/regeneration/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p225.
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {305 MYBN}
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.

[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
165,000,000 YBN
13 14 		358) The Cartilaginous fishes: batoidea
{BuTOEDEu9 } evolve, the ancestor of
all rays, skates, and sawfishes.10 11
12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
3. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
4. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
7. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
8. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=batoid
ea&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363.
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl
12. ^ Douady, Christophe J. et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetic Evidence
Refuting the Hypothesis of Batoidea
(rays and Skates) as Derived Sharks.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
26.2 (2003):
215–221. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790302003330
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363. {190
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?name=Elasmobranchii
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.

[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
8 9 		330) Stegosaurus, an armored,
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN4
} dinosaur lives around this time.5 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002,
p115-116.
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {150 MYBN}
9. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p225.
western USA7  
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
6 		374) The Teleosts: Lightfish and
Dragonfish evolve.4

Lightfish are characterized by
luminescent organs on the undersides of
their bodies.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "lightfish>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"lightfish." © Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc.. Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc.. 04 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ightfish>.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {150 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
150,000,000 YBN
17 		393) The Therapods {tERePoDZ10 } Birds
evolve. The first feather.11

Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from
China indicate that feathers may have
originally evolved on non-flying
reptiles for insulation (or courting12
) and not for flight.13

At least one known feathered dinosaur
can probably glide, which suggests that
flapping flight evolves as an extension
of gliding from trees.14 15

Birds have highly developed color
vision.16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
"theropod." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 15 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and
Christopher A Brochu. “Phylogenetic
Context for the Origin of Feathers.”
American Zoologist 40.4 (2000) :
486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
7. ^ Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A.
Norell, and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two
feathered dinosaurs from northeastern
China. Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
8. ^ Xu, Xing et al. “Four-winged
dinosaurs from China.” Nature
421.6921 (2003) :
335-340. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v421/n6921/abs/nature01342.html
9. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates
and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
10. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Sumida, Stuart S, and
Christopher A Brochu. “Phylogenetic
Context for the Origin of Feathers.”
American Zoologist 40.4 (2000) :
486-503.
Print. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/40/4/486.abstract
13. ^ Ji, Q., P. J. Currie, M. A.
Norell, and S.-A. Ji. 1998. Two
feathered dinosaurs from northeastern
China. Nature,
393753-761. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v393/n6687/full/393753a0.html
14. ^ Xu, Xing et al. “Four-winged
dinosaurs from China.” Nature
421.6921 (2003) :
335-340. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v421/n6921/abs/nature01342.html
15. ^ Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates
and rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115
16. ^ Mark Pagel, "Encyclopedia of
Evolution", 2002, vol 1,
p110. {Pagel_Encyclopedia_Of_Evolution_
2002.pdf}
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {245 MYBN} {245 MYBN
(bird and croc split}

MORE INFO
[1] Xu, X., Z. Tang, and X. Wang.
1999a. A therizinosauroid dinosaur with
integumentary structures from China.
Nature, 399350-354
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[4] Hedges, S. Blair et al.
“Continental breakup and the ordinal
diversification of birds and
mammals.” Nature 381.6579 (1996) :
226-229. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v381/n6579/abs/381226a0.html
[5] Ivanov, M., Hrdlickova, S. &
Gregorova, R. (2001) The Complete
Encyclopedia of Fossils. Rebo
Publishers, Netherlands. pp. 312
[6] Zhang,
Z., Gao, C., Meng, Q., Liu, J., Hou,
L., & Zheng, G. (2009). Diversification
in an early cretaceous avian genus:
evidence from a new species of
Confuciusornis from china. Journal of
Ornithology , 150 (4), 783-790. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-009-039
9-x
[7] Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
145,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 30 31 		245) The Seed plants angiosperms
evolve. The first flowering plant.21 22
23

Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our
clothing comes from flowering plants
too, for example: cotton and linen are
made from "fibers" of flowering plants,
as are rope and burlap. Many commercial
dyes and drugs also come from flowering
plants.24

Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are
vascular seed plants in which the ovule
(or egg) is fertilized and develops
into a seed in an enclosed hollow
ovary. The ovary is usually enclosed in
a flower, the part of the angiosperm
that contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both.25 The
fruit is the ovary of a plant which
encloses seeds.26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). http://www.amjbot.org/content/9
1/10/1437.short
2. ^ Hwan Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett,
Claudia Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and
Debashish, "A Molecular Timeline for
the Origin of Photosynthetic
Eukaryotes", Molecular Biology and
Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1088868/
4. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
13. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
14. ^ "fruit". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"fruit", Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBcheck
ed/topic/221056/fruit
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
17. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
19. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
20. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
21. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
22. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
23. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
24. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/
anthophyta.html
25. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
26. ^ "Article". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "angiosperm",
Encyclopedia Britannica 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/24667/angiosperm/24667main/Article
27. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p607-613.
28. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
29. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short (175mybn) {Gymno-angio spilt)
320 mybn (radiation at 180my}
30. ^ Hwan Su
Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution,
(2004). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/c
ontent/21/5/809.abstract (c100mybn)
{320-290 mybn (radiation at 100 mybn}
31. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009,
p135. http://timetree.org/pdf/Magallon2
009Chap11.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP.
“An Update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group Classification for the
Orders and Families of Flowering
Plants: APG III.” Botanical Journal
of the Linnean Society 161.2 (2009):
105–121. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339
[3] Kumar, Hedges, "Time Tree of Life",
2009. http://timetree.org/book.php
Israel, Morocco, Libya, and possibly
China 
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg

[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692http://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2896858
144,000,000 YBN
128) The end of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn), and start of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 150 Ma Late Jurassic UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/150
_Jurassic_2globes.jpg
143,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 20 21 		6288) The earliest extant Angiosperm
"Amborella".13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
3. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
7. ^ N Wikstrom,
V Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of
the angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
11. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
13. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ Hwan Su Yoon,
Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia Ciniglia,
Gabriele Pinto and Debashish, "A
Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
15. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
18. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (175mybn) {179mybn}
20. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). (175mybn)
21. ^ Hwan
Su Yoon, Jeremiah D. Hackett, Claudia
Ciniglia, Gabriele Pinto and Debashish,
"A Molecular Timeline for the Origin of
Photosynthetic Eukaryotes", Molecular
Biology and Evolution, (2004).
(c100mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fruit". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit
[2] Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. , Zheng,
S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of the
first flower: A Jurassic angiosperm,
Archaefructus, from northeast China.
Science 282, 1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858

 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
140,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		247) The Angiosperms Nymphaeales
{niM-FE-A-lEZ10 } evolve, the Water
Lilies.11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
8. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
10. ^ based on:
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=nympha
eaceae
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ Kumar and
Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (171mybn)
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer,
Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase,
"The plant tree of life: an overview
and some points of view", American
Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445.,
(2004). (165mybn)
 
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae

[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
140,000,000 YBN
10 11 		421) The Ornithiscian5 Ceratopsian
dinosaurs evolve (the ancestor of
Triceratops).6

Ceratopsian dinosaurs are plant-eating
dinosaurs.7 Later ceratopsians have
massive heads armed with a sharp beak,
long horns and a large sheet of bone
that grows from the back of the skull.8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
3. ^ Kardong, "Vertebrates",
p116, 2002.
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p282.
5. ^ Kardong,
"Vertebrates", p116, 2002.
6. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
7. ^
Kardong, "Vertebrates", 2002, p115.
8. ^
Palmer, "The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric
Animals", 1999, p162-163.
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
11. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
Mongolia, China9  
[1] Psittacosaurus Palmer, ''The
Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Animals'',
1999, p162-163. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, "The Marshall
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs &
Prehistoric Animals", 1999, p162-163.

[2] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
140,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 23 24 		457) The Mammals Marsupials evolve.12
The first nipple and breast.13 14

Marsupium means pouch in Latin.
Marsupials are born as tiny embryos and
crawl through their mother's fur into
the pouch where they clamp their mouths
to a nipple. The other main group of
mammals are called placentals because
they feed their embryos using a
placenta which allows the baby to be
born much later. The pouch is like an
external womb.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
5. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
7. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
8. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
10. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
11. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
13. ^ Williams, W.R. A
Monograph on Diseases of the Breast:
Their Pathology and Treatment, with
Special Reference to Cancer. Bale,
1894,
p9. http://books.google.com/books?id=QB
01AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9
14. ^ Loke, Y.W. Life�s Vital Link:
The Astonishing Role of the Placenta.
OUP Oxford,
2013. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ELoP_omQfkoC&pg=PP34
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
16. ^ Rincon, Paul
(2003-12-12). "Rincon, P., Oldest
Marsupial Ancestor Found, BBC, Dec
2003". BBC News. Retrieved
2010-03-16. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/3311911.stm
17. ^ "Pickrell, J., Oldest Marsupial
Fossil Found in China, National
Geographic, December 2003".
News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2003/12/1215_031215_oldestmarsupial.ht
ml
18. ^ "Vertebrate Paleontology:
Sinodelphys szalayi". Carnegie Museum
of Natural History. Retrieved
2010-10-21. http://www.carnegiemnh.org/
vp/sinodelphys.html
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237. {140 MYBN}
20. ^
Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), "A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {165MYBN}
21. ^ Hedges, Tree
of Life,
2009 http://timetree.org/pdf/Madsen2009
Chap68.pdf
22. ^ van Rheede, T. et al. The
platypus is in its place: nuclear genes
and Indels confirm the sister group
relation of monotremes and therians.
Mol. Biol. Evol. 23, 587–597 (2006).
{143-178MYBN}
23. ^ Phillips, M. J., Bennett, T. H. &
Lee, M. S. Y. Molecules, morphology,
and ecology indicate a recent,
amphibious ancestry for echidnas. Proc.
Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 17089–17094
(2009). {193-186}
24. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p282.
China16 17 18  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
136,000,000 YBN
7 		460) The Birds Enantiornithes
{iNaNTEORNitEZ5 } evolve.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=enanti
ornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Enantiornithes
{136 MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil-Pictu
res/Birds/Protopteryx/Protopteryx-fengni
ngensis.htm
 
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg


[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
134,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		250) The Angiosperms: "Magnoliids"
{maGnOlEiDZ14 } evolve (the ancestor of
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamon,
black and white pepper, camphor, bay
(or laurel) tree, and magnolia.15 16
).17 18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.short
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
4. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
6. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
9. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
11. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
14. ^ "magnoliid>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"magnoliid." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 20 May. 2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnoliid>.
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1088868/
16. ^ "Magnoliid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliid
17. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids
19. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
20. ^ Kumar and
Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
21. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). entire group is called
magnoliids {179 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales

[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using
source: same
133,000,000 YBN
18 19 20 		253) The Angiosperms Eudicots
{YUDIKoTS13 } evolve (the largest
lineage of flowers).14 15

The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".16

Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ "eudicot>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^
"eudicot>.". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"eudicot." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "eudicot>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "eudicot." The
American Heritage® Science Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 29 Dec. 2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
udicot>.
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
19. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153mybn) {155 mybn}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2]
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=eudico
t&submit=Submit
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
132,000,000 YBN
5 		462) The Birds Hesperornithiformes
{HeS-Pe-rOR-nit-e-FOR-mEZ3 } evolve.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hesperornithiformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hesperornit
hiformes
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
3. ^ "Hesperornithiformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 04
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hesperornit
hiformes
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.500.html#Hesperornithiforme
s (estimate from)
 
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg

[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
9 		375) The Teleosts: Perch, seahorses,
flying fish, pufferfish, and barracuda
evolve.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/Ta
xonTree.aspx?id=44719&tree=0.1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
130,000,000 YBN
5 		376) The Teleosts: cod and anglerfish
evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {130 MYBN}
 
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.

[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
125,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		163) The Mammals Eutheria evolve:
Placental mammals.8

The Eutheria are mammals that have a
placenta. The placenta is an organ that
forms in the uterus to aid in the
exchange of food and wastes between the
blood of the mother and fetus through
an umbilical cord.9 10

Placental mammals include all living
mammals except marsupials and
monotremes. The placenta allows for a
longer developmental period within the
protection of the womb which may give
the placentals a selective advantage.11

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei
Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
2. ^ Russell F. Doolittle,
Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang, Glen Cho,
Elizabeth Little, "Determining
Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms
of Living Organisms with a Protein
Clock", Science, (1996).
3. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
4. ^ Russell
F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
5. ^
"placental mammal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
6. ^ "placenta." The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 25 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/placenta
7. ^ "placental mammal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
8. ^ Russell F. Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng,
Simon Tsang, Glen Cho, Elizabeth
Little, "Determining Divergence Times
of the Major Kingdoms of Living
Organisms with a Protein Clock",
Science, (1996).
9. ^ "placental mammal".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
10. ^ "placenta." The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy, Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 25 Oct. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/placenta
11. ^ "placental mammal". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/462577/placental-mammal>.
12. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf}
13. ^ Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q
(2011), "A Jurassic eutherian mammal
and divergence of marsupials and
placentals", Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
 {nature10291.pdf} {160MYBN}
14. ^ Russell F.
Doolittle, Da-Fei Feng, Simon Tsang,
Glen Cho, Elizabeth Little,
"Determining Divergence Times of the
Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with
a Protein Clock", Science, (1996).
{130MYBN}
15. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p282.
16. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

MORE INFO
[1] Nature. "Ji, Q., et al., The
Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal,
Nature, 416, Pages 816-822, Apr 2002".
Nature.com.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
416/n6883/full/416816a.html
earliest fossils: (Daxigou) Jianchang
County, Liaoning Province, China12
 
[1] Description English:
Juramaia Date 30 April 2012 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
http://paleoexhibit.blogspot.com/
http://spinops.blogspot.com/
http://www.palaeocritti.com CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Juramaia_NT.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C,
Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic
eutherian mammal and divergence of
marsupials and placentals'', Nature
476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
125,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		395) The bird beak evolves.4 5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
2. ^ Swisher, Carl C.,
Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu,
Xing, Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous
age for the feathered dinosaurs of
Liaoning, China". Nature 400:58–61 1
July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
3. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
4. ^ Hou L, Zhou Z, Gu Y, Zhang H
(1995a) Confuciusornis sanctus, a new
Late Jurassic sauriurine bird from
China. Chin Sci Bull 40:1545–1551
5. ^ Swisher, Carl C.,
Wang, Yuan-qing, Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu,
Xing, Wang, Yuan. (1999). "Creatceous
age for the feathered dinosaurs of
Liaoning, China". Nature 400:58–61 1
July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
6. ^
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/bi
rds/birdfr.html
7. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing,
Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the
feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html
8. ^ Swisher, Carl C., Wang, Yuan-qing,
Wang, Xiao-lin, Xu, Xing, Wang, Yuan.
(1999). "Creatceous age for the
feathered dinosaurs of Liaoning,
China". Nature 400:58–61 1 July 1999.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
400/n6739/abs/400058a0.html {125 MYBN}
9. ^
Smith, Patrick E. et al. “Dates and
rates in ancient lakes: 40Ar–39Ar
evidence for an Early Cretaceous age
for the Jehol Group, northeast
China.” Can. J. Earth Sci. 32.9
(2011) :
1426-1431. http://www.nrcresearchpress.
com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1139%2F
e95-115 {145 MYBN}
10. ^ "Jurassic."
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2005. Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jurassic
{145 MYBN}
earliest fossils: (Yixian Formation)
Liaoning Province, northeastern China7
 
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg

[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
120,000,000 YBN
9 		463) The birds Neornithes {nEORnitEZ7 }
evolve (modern birds: the most recent
common ancestor of all extant birds).8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ne
ornithes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.800.html#Neornithes
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from) {120
MYBN (estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
 
[1] aepyornis The same image appears
in: Palmer, The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals, 1999,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic
_Wallpapers/Zhizn/Dikie_zhivotnye/dinosa
urs_fossils/images/aepyornis.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
120,000,000 YBN
3 4 5 		6361) Bees evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
2. ^ Sara Ball,
"100-million-year-old discovery pushes
bees' evolutionary history back 35
million years", Cornell Chronicle, Nov.
6,
2006. http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2
006/11/two-studies-bee-evolution-reveal-
surprises
3. ^ Poinar, G. O., and B. N. Danforth.
A Fossil Bee from Early Cretaceous
Burmese Amber. Science 314.5799
(2006):
614614. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/314/5799/614.short
4. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458.
5. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p283.

MORE INFO
[1] Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1
[2] Hedges and Kumar, "Time Tree of
Life", 2009, p260-263
(possibly) Africa2  
[1] Fig. 1. Melittosphex burmensis.
(A) Ventral view of fossil with key
features labeled. (B) Photograph of
fossil as seen in ventral view. (C)
Reconstruction of head based on details
visible in fossil and information from
modern bees. (D) Morphology of branched
hairs on the hind femur. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/314/5799/614/F1.large.jpg
120,000,000 YBN
2 		6653) Ants evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p431,440.
2. ^ David A. Grimaldi, Michael
S. Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p431,440.

MORE INFO
[1] Labandeira, C. C. and T. L.
Phillips. 2002. Stem borings and
petiole galls from Pennsylvanian tree
ferns of Illinois, USA: Implications
for the origin of the borer and galler
functional-feeding-groups and
holometabolous insects.
Palaeontographica A 264:1–84, 16 pls
[2]
"gall." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 May.
2012. http://www.answers.com/topic/gall
[3] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p408
[4] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p428
[5] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p458
[6] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p146
 
[1] Description Atta cephalotes. Left
most 7 are workers of various castes,
right 2 are queens (rightmost: winged
form). Date 2008-06-08 10:32
(UTC) Source
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg Author
derivative work: GameKeeper
Atta.cephalotes.gamut.jpg:
Sarefo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Atta.cephalotes
.gamut.selection.jpg/1280px-Atta.cephalo
tes.gamut.selection.jpg

[2] David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'',
2005, p431. COPYRIGHTED
source: David A. Grimaldi, Michael S.
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p431.
112,000,000 YBN
21 22 23 		252) The Angiosperms Monocotyledons (or
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.15 16 17

Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.18 19

The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".20
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
6. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary
of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ "Monocotyledon", Oxford
Dictionary of Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
17. ^
"Monocotyledon", Oxford Dictionary of
Biochemistry,
http://www.answers.com/topic/monocotyled
on
18. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
20. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
22. ^ Kumar and Hedges,
"Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
23. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (154mybn)

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
108,000,000 YBN
17 18 19 		254) The Basal Eudicots evolve (the
ancestor of the buttercup, clematis,
poppy, macadamia, lotus, and
sycamore).13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
4. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
6. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
8. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM
PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
16. ^ Jeffrey D.
Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis and Mark W.
Chase, "The plant tree of life: an
overview and some points of view",
American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
18. ^ Kumar and Hedges, "Time
Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (145mybn) {147 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] wiki
 
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg

[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
106,000,000 YBN
21 22 		267) The "Core Eudicots" evolve (the
ancestor of the cactus, caper,
buckwheat, rhubarb, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, and grape plants).16 17 18 19
20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
2. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
4. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
5. ^ wiki
6. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
9. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
10. ^ wiki
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
14. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
15. ^ wiki
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY
GROUP*, "An update of the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering
plants: APG II", Botanical Journal of
the Linnean Society Volume 141 Page
399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^ S.
Blair Hedges, "The Origin and Evolution
of Model Organisms", Nature Reviews
Genetics 3, 838-849;
doi:10.1038/nrg929, (2002).
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
19. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845
20. ^ wiki
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.
22. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract (145my)
{124 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4123845 (
128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, ''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
105,000,000 YBN
11 12 13 		491) The Eutheria Superorder7
Afrotheria evolves (the ancestor of all
elephants, manatees, and aardvarks).8

Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=311790&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p224-229.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p224-229. {105 MYBN}
12. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
100,000,000 YBN
11 		465) The Birds "Ratites" evolve (the
ancestor of the ostrich, rhea {rEe7 }8
, emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE9 }, and
kiwi).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
7. ^ "rhea."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rhea
8. ^
http://taxonomicon.taxonomy.nl/TaxonTree
.aspx?id=51257&tree=0.1
9. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=ca
ssowary&submit=Submit
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (estimate from) {100 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/350Aves/350.900.html#Ratites
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[3] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
95,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 		498) The Eutheria Superorder
"Xenarthra" {ZeN-oR-tro13 } evolves in
South America, the Xenarthrans
{ZeNoRtreNZ14 } (the ancestor of
Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos).15
16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
3. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
7. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
11. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hra&submit=Submit
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=xenart
hran
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p219-223.
16. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
17. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
18. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p219-223.
19. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004),219-223. {95 MYBN}
20. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
21. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Cornelis, Guillaume et al.
“Ancestral Capture of syncytin-Car1,
a Fusogenic Endogenous Retroviral
Envelope Gene Involved in Placentation
and Conserved in Carnivora.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 109.7 (2012):
E432–E441. http://www.pnas.org/conten
t/109/7/E432.abstract
[2] Delsuc, Frédéric et al.
“Molecular Phylogenetics Unveils the
Ancient Evolutionary Origins of the
Enigmatic Fairy Armadillos.”
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
62.2 (2012):
673–680. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1055790311004799
[3] Shattuck, Milena R., and Scott A.
Williams. “Arboreality Has Allowed
for the Evolution of Increased
Longevity in Mammals.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 107.10
(2010): 4635–4639.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/
10/4635.abstract
South America18  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.

[2] Description Hoffmann's Two-toed
Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
93,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		256) The Angiosperms: "Rosids" evolve
(Basal Rosids include: the pomegranate,
clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
6. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
7. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
9. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
12. ^ THE
ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*, "An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
14. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
15. ^
N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (122mybn) {117} {109}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
93,000,000 YBN
18 19 		261) The Rosids Order "Fabales"
{FoBAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor of
beans, pea, peanut, soy, and lentil).14
15 16 17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=fabace
ae
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=72025&lvl=3
&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
19. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
93,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 12 		265) The Monocots "Base Monocots"
evolve (the ancestor of vanilla,
orchid, asparagus, onion, garlic,
agave, aloe, and lily).7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
2. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.
10. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.
11. ^
Kumar and Hedges, "Time Tree", 2009.
http://timetree.org/book.php
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (153my) {141 MYBN} {154 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards),
Angiosperm Phylogeny
Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/res
earch/APweb/welcome.html
 
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus

[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
93,000,000 YBN
17 18 		266) The Monocots "Commelinids"
{KomelIniDZ13 } evolve (the ancestor of
palms, coconut, corn, rice, barley,
oat, wheat, rye, sugarcane, bamboo,
grass, pineapple, papyrus, turmeric
{TRmRiK14 }, banana, and ginger).15 16

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
2. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
3. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
4. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
5. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
6. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
10. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
11. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
12. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ "Commelinidae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commelinida
e
14. ^ "turmeric." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turmeric
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
17. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p612.
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (153my)
{94 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales

[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
21 22 		275) The Basal Asterids Order
"Ericales" {AReKAlEZ16 17 } evolves
(the ancestor of the kiwifruit, ebony,
persimmon, blueberry, cranberry, brazil
nut, new world pitcher plant, and
tea).18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
2. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
7. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
8. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
12. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
13. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ericac
eae&submit=Submit
17. ^ "Ericales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ericales-1
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
19. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
20. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
22. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {113
MYBN} {100 MYBN} {114 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
17 18 		283) The Asterids Order "Apiales"
{APEAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor of
dill, celery, cilantro, carrot,
parsnip, fennel, parsley, and ivy).14
15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apiace
ae+&submit=Submit
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
18. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen,
MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102mybn)
{95 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg

[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
93,000,000 YBN
17 18 		285) The Asterids Order "Asterales"
{aSTRAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor of
tarragon, daisy, artichoke, sunflower,
lettuce, and dandelion).14 15 16
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Asterales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Asterales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asterales
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ Grimaldi,
Engel, "Evolution of the Insects",
2005, p612.
18. ^ wiki

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg

[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
91,000,000 YBN
20 21 		259) The Rosids Order "Malpighiales"
{maLPiGEAlEZ15 } evolves 16 17 18 (the
ancestor of coca, rubber tree, cassava,
poinsettia, willow, poplar, and
aspen).19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ wiki
10. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
11. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
12. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
13. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
14. ^ wiki
15. ^
"Malpighiaceae." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malpighiace
ae-1
16. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
17. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
18. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
19. ^ wiki
20. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {90 MYBN} {81 MYBN} {91 MYBN}
21. ^
Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of the
Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia

[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
90,000,000 YBN
21 		270) The Rosids Order "Brassicales"
{BraSiKAlEZ16 } evolves (the ancestor
of horseradish, mustard, cabbage,
broccoli, radish, and papaya).17 18 19
20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
wiki
5. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
wiki
10. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
wiki
15. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=brassi
cacea
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
wiki
20. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
21. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {88 MYBN} {90 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
89,000,000 YBN
17 18 		262) The Rosids Order "Rosales"
{ROZAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor of
hemp, hop, jackfruit, fig, strawberry,
rose, raspberry, apple, pear, plum,
cherry, peach, and almond).14 15 16
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Rosales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Rosales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rosales-1
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{76 MYBN} {89 MYBN}
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engel,
"Evolution of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula

[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
89,000,000 YBN
19 		279) The Asterids Order "Gentianales"
{JeNsinAlEZ14 } evolves15 16 17 (the
ancestor of oleander, and coffee).18
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Gentianales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "Gentianales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ wiki
14. ^
"Gentianales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gentianales
-1
15. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
16. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
17. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ wiki
19. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {87 MYBN} {89 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
86,000,000 YBN
17 		278) The Asterids Order "Solanales"
{SOlanAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor of
bell pepper, tomato, tobacco, potato,
and eggplant).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=solana
cea
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {87 MYBN}
{86 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
17 18 		263) The Rosids Order "Cucurbitales"
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ13 } evolves (the ancestor
of melon, cucumber, pumpkin, squash,
and zucchini).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cucurbit." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
6. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
7. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
8. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
9. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "cucurbit."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cucurbit
14. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
15. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
16. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {85 MYBN}
{65 MYBN}
18. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg

[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
20 21 		264) The Rosids Order "Fagales"
{FaGAlEZ15 } evolves (the ancestor of
many flowers that produce edible nuts:
for example Birch, Hazel {nut},
Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak, Walnut,
Pecan {PEKoN16 }, and Hickory).17 18 19

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary
of Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
2. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
3. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
6. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
7. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
8. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
9. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
10. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
11. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
12. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
14. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
15. ^
"Fagales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fagales-1
16. ^ "pecan." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Jan.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/peca
17. ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas
E. Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
18. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
19. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
20. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004). {85 MYBN}
{61 MYBN}
21. ^ Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution
of the Insects", 2005, p612.

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
 
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg

[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
9 		466) The Bird Order "Galliformes"
{GaLliFORmEZ7 } evolves (the ancestor
of the Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, and Quail).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gallif
ormes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN
(estimate from}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.100.html#Galloanser
ae
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
9 		467) The Bird Order "Anseriformes"
{aNSRiFORmEZ7 } evolves (the ancestor
of ducks, geese, and swans).8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Anseriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "Anseriformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anseriforme
s-1 and
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=anse
riformes&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {85 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/360Galloanserae/360.500.html#Anseriform
es
 
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.

[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
85,000,000 YBN
12 13 		499) The Eutheria Superorder7
"Laurasiatheres" evolves.8 The
Laurasiatheres are a major line of
placental mammals9 that originate in
the northern continent Laurasia.10
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=314145&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p200. {85 MYBN}
13. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
Laurasia11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
85,000,000 YBN
3 		6654) The Eutheria Superorder
Euarchontoglires {YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ1
} evolves (the ancestor of all Rabbits,
rodents, tree shrews, colugos, and the
primates).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euarch
ontoglires&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=314146&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p200. {85 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] Palmer, et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360
 
[1] Description English: American
pika (Ochotona princeps) ''haying'' in
rocks (carrying back a mouthful of
grass it has dried for winter food). At
2,340 m (7,700 ft) in streamside
campsite below Black Rock Pass, Sequoia
National Park, California. Date 6
August 2006 Source Own work Author
Dcrjsr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ochotona_prince
ps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg/1280px-Ochot
ona_princeps_pika_haying_in_rocks.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
84,000,000 YBN
454) The Rocky mountains start to
form.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] 90 Ma Late Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/090
_Cretaceous_3globes.jpg

[2] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
27 		271) The Rosids Order "Malvales"
{moLVAlEZ20 } evolves (the ancestor of
okra, marsh mallow {malO21 }, durian
{DUREiN22 }, cotton, balsa, and cacao
{KoKoU23 }.24 25 26
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Malvales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
2. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
3. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
4. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
5. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
6. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
7. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
8. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
9. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
10. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
11. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
12. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
13. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
14. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
15. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
16. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ "Malvales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/malvales-1
21. ^ "mallow." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jun.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
allow>.
22. ^ "Durian", The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia Copyright ©
2004. Licensed from Columbia
University Press
http://www.reference.com/browse/Durian
?s=ts
23. ^ "cacao." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacao
24. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
25. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
26. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
27. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). {83 MYBN}
{68 MYBN} {82 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102my)
[3] wiki
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract

[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
82,000,000 YBN
21 		272) The Rosids Order "Sapindales"
{SaPiNDAlEZ16 } evolves (the ancestor
of the maple, lychee, mahogany, cashew,
mango, pistachio, and the citrus trees:
orange, lemon, and grapefruit).17 18 19
20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sapindales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ wiki
6. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ wiki
11. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ wiki
16. ^
"Sapindales." McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Scientific and Technical Terms.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sapindales-
1
and http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=s
apindaceae
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ wiki
21. ^ N
Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). {80 MYBN} {61 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
[2] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
"Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001). (102mybn)
Americas 
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg

[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
82,000,000 YBN
420) The Ornithopods {ORnitePoDZ5 }
Hadrosaurs evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "ornithopod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ornithopod
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg

[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg

82,000,000 YBN
10 11 		500) The Laurasiatheres Order7
Insectivora evolves (the ancestor of
shrews, moles, and hedgehogs).8 9
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
2. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9362&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
9. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218. {82 MYBN}
11. ^ Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
80,000,000 YBN
10 		422) The Therapods {tERePoDZ7 }
Dromaeosaurs {DrOmEoSORZ8 } evolve:
Raptors.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=dromae
osaur&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {80 MYBN}
 
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg

[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
80,000,000 YBN
11 		482) The earliest extant Marsupials,
the Order7 "Didelphimorphia" evolve
(New World opossums).8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
2. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
4. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
6. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
7. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=38605&lvl=3
&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=g
enome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlo
ck
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
9. ^ Hedges and Kumar,
Time Tree of Life,
2009. http://timetree.org/pdf/Springer2
009Chap70.pdf
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p230-237.
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p230-237. {80 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Didelphimorphia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didelphimor
phia
Americas10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
75,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 		492) The Afrotheres: Aardvarks evolve.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {75 MYBN}
7. ^ Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
8. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
Africa5  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
74,000,000 YBN
20 		280) The Asterids Order "Lamiales"
{lAmEAlEZ15 } evolves (the ancestor of
many spices: mint, basil, marjoram
{moRJ uruM16 }, oregano, rosemary,
sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame,
olive, ash, lilac and jasmine).17 18 19

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lamiales." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
2. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
3. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
4. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
5. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
6. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
7. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
8. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
9. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
10. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
11. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
12. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
13. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
14. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
15. ^ "Lamiales."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lamiales
16. ^ "marjoram." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marjoram
17. ^ N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW
Chase, "Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree", Proc Biol
Sci. 2001 Nov 7;268(1482):2211-20.,
(2001).
18. ^ THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP*,
"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny
Group classification for the orders and
families of flowering plants: APG II",
Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society Volume 141 Page 399 - April
2003 doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339, (2003).
19. ^
Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E. Soltis
and Mark W. Chase, "The plant tree of
life: an overview and some points of
view", American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
20. ^ N Wikstrom, V
Savolainen, MW Chase, "Evolution of the
angiosperms: calibrating the family
tree", Proc Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001). (102my)
{74 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, "The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view", American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
(128mybn)
 
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg

[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
73,000,000 YBN
10 		484) The Marsupials: Bandicoots and
Bilbies {BiLBEZ7 } evolve; in
Australia.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=bi
lby&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {73
MYBN}
Australia9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
14 		424) Two of the largest meat-eating
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoDZ9 }): Tyrannosaurus
rex {TiraNiSORuS reKS10 } is the top
predator in North America and
Giganotosaurus {JiGuNOTuSORuS11 } is
the top predator in South America.12
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ "theropod." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theropod
10. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=tyrann
osaurus+rex&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=gigano
tosaurus&submit=Submit
12. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
13. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
Americas13  
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg

[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
7 		425) The Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereNZ4 }
Ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ5 } evolve (the
shield back and/or clubbed tail
dinosaurs); the most heavily armored
land-animals known.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
2. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thyreo
phora&submit=Submit
5. ^ "ankylosaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ankylosauru
s
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {70 MYBN}
 
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng

[2] Description the image shows
an edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
70,000,000 YBN
426) The Marine reptiles Mosasaurs
{mOSeSORZ7 } evolve.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
4. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
5. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
6. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
7. ^ "mosasaur." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mosasaur
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ "Mosasaurs". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaurs
 
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG

[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
10 		469) The Bird Order "Podicipediformes"
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ7 } evolves (grebes
{GreBS8 }).9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
2. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
3. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
4. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
5. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Podicipediformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/podicipedif
ormes-1
8. ^ "grebe." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 03 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/grebe
9. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {70 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
70,000,000 YBN
14 15 		507) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ8 } Order
"Lagomorpha" {loGomORFo9 } evolves: the
ancestor of Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas
{PIKuZ10 }.11 12

Rabbits, like Rodents also have very
prominent gnawing teeth at the front.13

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ "pika." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lagomo
rpha&submit=Submit
6. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euarch
ontoglires&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=lagomo
rpha&submit=Submit
10. ^ "pika." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/pika
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
12. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=314146&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}
15. ^
Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
70,000,000 YBN
11 		516) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ7 } Tree Shrews
and Colugos {KolUGOZ8 } evolve.9 10
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colugo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euarch
ontoglires&submit=Submit
8. ^ "colugo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/colugo-1
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=314146&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {70 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Colugo". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugo
[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[5] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
[6] "Colugos". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colugos
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.

[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
66,000,000 YBN
8 		120) The largest Pterosaur and largest
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS5 }
evolves.6
Quetzalcoatlus has a wing
span of 12 meters (or 40 feet).7
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=quetza
lcoatl
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^ Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p142.
 
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG

[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
65,500,000 YBN
15 		129) The End-Cretaceous mass
extinction. 47% of all genera are
observed extinct.9

Made extinct are: 60% of plant species,
and all dinosaurs, mosasaurs,
pterosaurs, plesiosaurs {PlESEoSORZ10 }
and pliosaurs {PlIoSORZ11 }.12

A comet or meteor collides with the
Earth in what is now the Yucatan
{YUKoTaN13 } Peninsula of Mexico and
huge amounts of lava erupt from India.
No large animals survive on land, in
the air, or in the sea.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
2. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
3. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
4. ^ "plesiosaur." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plesiosaur
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pliosa
ur&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p283.
7. ^ "Yucatán." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yucat-n
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
9. ^ David Jablonski and W. G.
Chaloner,"Extinctions in the Fossil
Record (and Discussion)", Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol.
344, No. 1307, Estimating Extinction
Rates: Sir Joseph Banks Anniversary
Meeting (Apr. 29, 1994), pp.
11-17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/5614
8
10. ^ "plesiosaur." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plesiosaur
11. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=pliosa
ur&submit=Submit
12. ^ Palmer, et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p283.
13. ^ "Yucatán." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/yucat-n
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^
http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1
116/16macro.htm {65.5 MYBN}
 
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm

[2] Cretaceous meteor impact. Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
65,500,000 YBN
5 		397) The end of the Mesozoic and start
of the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn)
Period.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
4. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
5. ^ The geological Society of America
2009 Time
Scale http://www.geosociety.org/science
/timescale/timescl.pdf
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 65 Ma K-T Boundary -
Tertiary/Cretaceous UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/065
_K_Tboundary_3globes.jpg
65,000,000 YBN
4 5 		429) The start of the rapid
diversification of mammals.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
3. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {65 MYBN}
5. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: http://bp0.blogger.com/_AejGb2Gc
r_o/SIlTsz-2RrI/AAAAAAAAAAY/8b_-LPsmDbc/
s1600/mammal3.jpg

[2] Fig 3.46 from: Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', 2002,
p123. COPYRIGHTED
source: from: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002, p123.
65,000,000 YBN
11 		468) The Bird Order "Gruiformes"
{GrUiFORmEZ8 } evolves (the ancestor of
cranes, rails, and bustards {BuSTRDZ9
}).10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
6. ^ "bustard." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ustard>.
7. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
8. ^ "Gruiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gruiformes-
1
9. ^ "bustard." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ustard>.
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
6 		485) Marsupial moles evolve.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
Australia5  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
10 		486) The Marsupials Tasmanian Devil and
Numbat {nuMBaT7 } evolve.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=nu
mbat&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
65,000,000 YBN
10 		488) The Marsupial Order
"Diprotodontia" {DIPrOTODoNsEu7 }
evolves (the ancestor of Wombats,
Kangeroos, Possums, and Koalas).8
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=diprot
odontia&submit=Submit
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {65
MYBN}
Australia9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.

[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
65,000,000 YBN
26 27 		508) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ18 } Order19
"Rodentia" evolves; rodents.
The Rodents:
"Myomorpha" {MIemORFu20 } evolve (the
ancestor of rats, mice, gerbils, voles
{VOLZ21 }, lemmings, and hamsters).22
23 24 25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "vole." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
8. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

9. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

14. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
16. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
17. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euarch
ontoglires&submit=Submit
19. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9989&lvl=3&
lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock
20. ^ "Myomorpha." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/myomorpha-2

21. ^ "vole." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2011. http://www.answers.com/topic/vole
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
23. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
24. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
25. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=314146&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
26. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
27. ^ Palmer, et
al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
63,000,000 YBN
11 		587) The Euarchontoglires
{YU-oR-KoNT-u-GlI-rEZ6 } Order Primates
evolve, most likely in Africa or the
Indian subcontinent.7 8 The first
opposable thumb.

The primates contain more than 300
species, including monkeys, apes, and
humans.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "primate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=euarch
ontoglires&submit=Submit
7. ^ "The Origin of Primates", Walter
Carl Hartwig 2002
8. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=314146&lvl=
3&p=mapview&p=has_linkout&p=blast_url&p=
genome_blast&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unl
ock
9. ^ "primate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/primate
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (=63my) {63
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/
first_primates.htm
[2]
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html
Africa or India10  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
13 14 		470) The Bird Order "Strigiformes"
{STriJiFORmEZ10 } evolve (owls).11 12
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ "Strigiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/strigiforme
s-1
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
14. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {65 MYBN(need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[2] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and RICHARD L.
ZUSI. “Higher-order phylogeny of
modern birds (Theropoda, Aves:
Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
60,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 		504) The Laurasiatheres Order
"Carnivora" evolves (the ancestor of
Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, and Walruses).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "carnivora?s=t&ld=1089".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^
"carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^
"carnivora?s=t&ld=1089". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
arnivora?s=t&ld=1089
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Michael
J. Benton and Francisco J. Ayala,
"Dating the Tree of Life", Science,
(2003).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
13. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
14. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {75 MYBN}
15. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia12  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
58,000,000 YBN
9 		524) The Primates: Tarsiers {ToRSERZ7 }
evolve.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "tarsier." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tarsier
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Tarsier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsier
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.

[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
55,000,000 YBN
13 14 		471) The Bird Order "Apodiformes"
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ10 } evolves (the
ancestor of hummingbirds, and
swifts).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ "Apodiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/apodiformes
-1 AND
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=apod
iformes&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
14. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
55,000,000 YBN
13 14 		476) The Bird Order "Piciformes"
{PESiFORmEZ10 } evolves (the ancestor
of woodpeckers, and toucans).11 12
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
5. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ "Piciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piciformes-
1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
iciformes&submit=Submit
11. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
14. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}

MORE INFO
[1] Hackett, Shannon J. et al.
“A Phylogenomic Study of Birds
Reveals Their Evolutionary History.”
Science 320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
21 22 		477) The Bird Order "Passeriformes"
{PaSRiFORmEZ14 } evolves (perching
songbirds). This order includes many
common birds: for example crows, jays,
sparrows, warblers, mockingbirds,
wrens, robins, orioles, bluebirds,
vireos {VEREOZ15 }, larks, swallows,
and finches.16 17

More than half of all species of birds
are passerines.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
2. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
3. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
5. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
6. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
7. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
9. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
10. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
11. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
12. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
13. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
14. ^ "Passeriformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/passeriform
es-1
AND http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=p
asseriformes&submit=Submit
15. ^ "vireo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vireo
16. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
17. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
18. ^ "Passeriformes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passeriform
es
19. ^ Boles, Walter E. (1997): Fossil
Songbirds (Passeriformes) from the
Early Eocene of Australia. Emu '97'(1):
43–50. doi:10.1071/MU97004
20. ^ L. Christidis, A.
Cooper, M. Irestedt, et al., "A
Gondwanan origin of passerine birds
supported by DNA sequences of the
endemic New Zealand wrens" Proceedings
of the Royal Society B, February
2002:235–241.
21. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
22. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)

MORE INFO
[1] Ericson, Per G. P. et al.
“A Gondwanan Origin of Passerine
Birds Supported by DNA Sequences of the
Endemic New Zealand Wrens.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B: Biological Sciences
269.1488 (2002):
235–241. http://rspb.royalsocietypubl
ishing.org/content/269/1488/235.abstract

earliest fossils: Australia19
|Gondwana20  
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
13 14 15 16 		495) The Afrotheres Order Proboscidea
{PrO-Be-SiD-E-e7 } evolves (the
ancestor of Mammoths, Mastodons, and
Elephants).8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
2. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
3. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
4. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ "Proboscidea."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/proboscidea
-1
8. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
10. ^
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Bro
wser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=9779&lvl=3
&srchmode=1&keep=1&unlock
11. ^ Delmer, C., Mahboubi, M., Tabuce,
R. & Tassy, P. 2006. "A new species of
Moeritherium (Proboscidae, Mammalia)
from the Eocene of Algeria: new
perspectives on the ancestral
morphotype of the genus." Palaeontology
49 (2),
421-434. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00548.x/ab
stract
12. ^ Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
13. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
14. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). {62 MYBN}
15. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^ Palmer, D., ed.
(1999). The Marshall Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall
Editions. p. 238. ISBN 1-84028-152-9.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Algeria, Africa11 |Africa12  
[1] Description Moeritherium Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Moeritherium.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		497) The Afrotheres: Manatee and Dugong
evolve.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Mark S. Springer, William
J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen
J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
5. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
10. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {59 MYBN}
12. ^ Mark S. Springer,
William J. Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and
Stephen J. O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003).
13. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.

[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
34 35 36 		502) The Laurasiatheres
"Cetartiodactyla" {SiToRTEODaKTilu26 }
evolve (the ancestor of all
Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu27 }: camels,
pigs, ruminants, hippos, and all
Cetacea {SiTASEu or SiTAsEu28 }:
Whales, and Dolphins).29 30 31

Hippos are the closest living land
relative of the whales and dolphins.32

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
5. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
6. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
9. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
10. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
11. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
12. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
13. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
15. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
16. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
18. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
19. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
20. ^ "artiodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/artiodactyl
a-1
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
22. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
23. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
24. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
25. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
26. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
27. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=artiod
actyla&submit=Submit
28. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetace
a&submit=Submit
29. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
30. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
31. ^
"Cetartiodactyla", Oxford Dictionary
for Scientific Writers and Editors. New
Oxford Dictionary for Scientific
Writers and Editors. ©
1991 http://www.answers.com/topic/cetar
tiodactyla
32. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
33. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218.
34. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
35. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218. {78
MYBN}
36. ^ Michael J. Benton and Francisco
J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia33  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
27 28 29 		503) The Laurasiatheres
"Perissodactyla" {PeriSODaKTilu19 }
evolve (also called "odd-toed
ungulates"20 ) {uNGYUlATS21 or
uNGYUliTS22 } (the ancestor of all
Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ 23 }, and
Rhinos).24 25
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
2. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
4. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
5. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
6. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
8. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
9. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
11. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
12. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
13. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
14. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
15. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
16. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
17. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
18. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
19. ^
"Perissodactyla." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/perissodact
yla-2
20. ^ "ungulate." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 02 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
21. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=ungula
te&submit=Submit
22. ^ "ungulate." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ungulate
23. ^ "tapir." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tapir
24. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
25. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).
26. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004), p199-218.
27. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
28. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p199-218. {76 MYBN}
29. ^ Michael J. Benton
and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the
Tree of Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia26  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
9 10 11 		509) The Rodents: Beavers.7 8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^
http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {65 MYBN}
11. ^
Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003). {65 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
8 9 10 		511) The Rodents: Dormouse, Mountain
Beaver, Squirrel and Marmot {moRmuT6 }
evolve.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
4. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=marmot
&submit=Submit
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {58 MYBN}
10. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003). {58 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
55,000,000 YBN
10 11 		585) The Bird Order Psittaciformes
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ7 } evolves (Parrots).8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Psittaciformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
2. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
3. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
4. ^ "Psittaciformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 19
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
5. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^ "Psittaciformes."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 19
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/psittacifor
mes-1
8. ^ Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. "Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages." BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p360.
11. ^ Brown, Joseph,
Joshua Rest, Jaime G. Moreno, Michael
Sorenson, and David Mindell. "Strong
mitochondrial DNA support for a
Cretaceous origin of modern avian
lineages." BMC Biology 6 (January
2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6

MORE INFO
[1] LIVEZEY, BRADLEY C., and
RICHARD L. ZUSI. “Higher-order
phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda,
Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative
anatomy. II. Analysis and
discussion.” Zoological Journal of
the Linnean Society 149.1 (2007) :
1-95. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x/full
[2] Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763
[3] "Neornithes." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neornithes
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (estimate from)
 
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
55,000,000 YBN
4 		6381) Horses evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {55 MYBN}
 
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg

[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
55,000,000 YBN
3 		6387) The Ruminants Giraffes evolve.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] Description Adult male Reticulated
giraffe feeding high up on an acacia,
in central Kenya Date 8 July 2010,
10:25 Source High-rise living Author
Steve Garvie from Dunfermline, Fife,
Scotland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Flickr_-_Rainbirder_-
_High-rise_living.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
54,000,000 YBN
5 6 		810) The last common ancestor between
hippos with dolphins and whales.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=54) {54 MYBN}
6. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=53) {53 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
 
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg


[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
53,500,000 YBN
8 9 10 11 		812) The earliest marine mammal (and
earliest whale) "Himalayacetus".5 6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
3. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D.
Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene
archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from
India and the time of origin of whales.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
5. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D.
Gingerich. 1998. A new Eocene
archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from
India and the time of origin of whales.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
7. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm
8. ^ S. Bajpai and P. D. Gingerich.
1998. A new Eocene archaeocete
(Mammalia, Cetacea) from India and the
time of origin of whales. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences
95:15464-15468 http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/95/26/15464.abstract
9. ^
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc9
8/10_10_98/fob3.htm (=53.5) {53.5 MYBN}
10. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (=50) {50 MYBN}
11. ^ Mark S.
Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (=52) {52 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
earliest fossils: (Subathu Formation)
Northern India7  
[1] The evolution of whales The
first thing to notice on this evogram
is that hippos are the closest living
relatives of whales, but they are not
the ancestors of whales. In fact, none
of the individual animals on the
evogram is the direct ancestor of any
other, as far as we know. That's why
each of them gets its own branch on the
family tree. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/evograms/whale_evo.jpg

[2] Description Pakicetus inachus, a
whale ancestor from the Early Eocene of
Pakistan, after Nummelai et al.,
(2006), pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 29 November
2007 Source Own work Author Nobu
Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
52,000,000 YBN
14 15 16 		501) The Laurasiatheres Order
"Chiroptera" {KIroPTRu10 } evolves (the
ancestor of fruit bats, and
echolocating bats).11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Chiroptera." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
4. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
7. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
10. ^ "Chiroptera."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chiroptera-
1
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).
13. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
14. ^ Palmer,
et al., "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.
15. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {80 MYBN}
16. ^ Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003).

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia13  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
51,000,000 YBN
5 		513) The Rodents: Old World Porcupines
evolve.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {51 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
50,000,000 YBN
8 		438) The Himalayan {HiMolAYeN5 }
mountains start to form.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
imalayan>.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
imalayan>.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ "Himalayan." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
imalayan>.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {50 MYBN}
Himalyia Mountains, India7  
[1] 50 Ma Eocene NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/050
_Eocene_3globes.jpg

[2] Himalayas as pictured by NASA
Landsat 7 Satellite. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/25/Himalayas_landsat_7.png
50,000,000 YBN
4 		816) The early whale Ambulocetus
evolves.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
2. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
3. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp
4. ^
http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/article
s/5359_71_miller_1999_iof_panda_12_6_200
4.asp (=40)
 
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg

[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
50,000,000 YBN
3 		6382) The first camels.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cetart
iodactyla&submit=Submit
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
Laurasia2  
[1] Description English: Dromedary
camel in outback Australia, near
Silverton, NSW. Date 7 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Jjron Taken by John
O'Neill This image has been
released for use worldwide under the
licensing specified below. If you
require different licensing (e.g., for
commercial publishing), or a larger or
higher quality version of this image,
it may be available from the author.
You can contact the author by clicking
here and leaving a message, or by
sending me an email. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/07._Camel_Profile%2C_
near_Silverton%2C_NSW%2C_07.07.2007.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
50,000,000 YBN
3 		6383) The first rhinos.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360.
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218.
3. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p360.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
Laurasia2  
[1] English: Male Diceros bicornis
(Black rhinoceros or Hook-lipped
rhinoceros) at the Saint Louis
Zoological Park in Missouri Date
4 March 2011 Source Own
work Author Jonathunder GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Diceros_bicornis.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
49,000,000 YBN
9 10 		474) The Bird Order "Falconiformes"
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ7 } evolves (the ancestor
of falcons, hawks, eagles, and Old
World vultures).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^ "Falconiformes." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/falconiform
es-1
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
10. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {49 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
49,000,000 YBN
11 		515) The Rodents: New World porcupines,
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ8 }, and
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ9 } evolve.10
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
6. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ "agouti." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/agouti
9. ^ "capybara." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capybara
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {49 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[4] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.

[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg

40,000,000 YBN
12 		525) The Primates "New World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Sakis,
Spider, Howler and Squirrel monkeys,
Capuchins {KaP YU CiNZ8 }, and
Tamarins).9

The ancestor of all New World monkeys
probably originates in Africa, but all
surviving descendants now live in the
Americas, which suggests that a small
group of New World monkeys got across
the early Atlantic Ocean to South
America, perhaps by rafting on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "capuchin." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ "capuchin." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/capuchin
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p147
(guess is in Africa).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {40
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "New world monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_world_m
onkey
Africa11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.

[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
4 5 		442) Dogs evolve.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {37 MYBN}
5. ^ Palmer, et al.,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
 
[1] Cynodictus from: A history of land
mammals in the western hemisphere By
William Berryman Scott PD
source: https://play.google.com/books/re
ader?id=HbAlAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover
&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.P
A529

[2] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
37,000,000 YBN
9 		475) The Bird Order Cuculiformes
{KUKUliFORmEZ7 } evolves (the ancestor
of cuckoos, and roadrunners).8
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
2. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
4. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
5. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
6. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=cuculi
formes&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2)
9. ^
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units
/370Gruimorpha/370.100.html#Gruimorpha
(from need to check with fossil record
2) {37 MYBN (need to check with fossil
record 2}
 
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg

[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
35,000,000 YBN
2 		6384) The Xenarthrans Ground sloths
evolve.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.
 
[1] Description English: (Rusty, the
giant ground sloth, at the Iowa Museum
of Natural History, University of Iowa.
Based on Megalonyx jeffersonii.) Date
16 October 2008 (original upload
date) Source Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Giant_ground_sl
oth_Iowa.JPG/768px-Giant_ground_sloth_Io
wa.JPG
34,000,000 YBN
10 		813) Toothed and Baleen whale lines
split.7

Toothed whales include dolphins, sperm,
and killer whales. Baleen whales
include blue, humpback, and gray
whales.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
3. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
6. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ "toothed whale."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/toothed-wha
le
9. ^ "baleen whale." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baleen-whal
e
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (=34) {34 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
 
[1] Dorudon apparently from Walking
With Beasts UNKNOWN
source: http://www.makradafish.newmail.r
u/WalkingWithBeast/dorudon.jpg

[2] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale
for the orders of placental mammals
based on the 16,397-bp data set and
maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with
an opossum outgroup (data not shown),
13 fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg

30,000,000 YBN
7 8 		444) Cats evolve.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
4. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
8. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
 
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
5 		520) The Primates: True Lemurs evolve.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
2. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn)
4. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). (63 mybn)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (63 mybn) {30
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[2] "Strepsirrhini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhi
ni
[3] "Lemuridae". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuridae
[4] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] "Lemur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur
[6] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). (63 mybn) (=63 mybn)
[7] Mark
S. Springer, William J. Murphy, Eduardo
Eizirik, and Stephen J. O'Brien,
"Placental mammal diversification and
the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003). (70 mybn) (=70 mybn)
[8] Michael J.
Benton and Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating
the Tree of Life", Science, (2003). (70
mybn) (=70 mybn)
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.

[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
30,000,000 YBN
3 		6385) The first pigs evolve.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p361.
 
[1] Description Wild pig (Sus scrofa)
stop near the Kennedy Space Center
Press Site in the Launch Complex 39
Area on their daily foraging
rounds. Not a native in the
environment, the pigs are believed to
be descendants from those brought to
Florida by the early Spanish explorers.
Without many predators other than
human, the pigs have flourished in the
surrounding environs. Date May
2002 Source
http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail
.cfm?mediaid=9807 Author NASA or
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.
jpg

[2] en:Pig: sow with
piglet de:Hausschwein: Sau mit
Ferkel Photo by Scott Bauer. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Sow_with_piglet.jpg
25,000,000 YBN
12 		531) The Primates "Old World Monkeys"
evolve (the ancestor of the Macaques,
Baboons, Mandrills, Proboscis and
Colobus {KoLiBeS7 } monkeys).8

This is also the last common ancestor
of the Old World monkeys and the
hominoids, which includes apes and
humans.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "colobus monkey." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "colobus monkey." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 06 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/black-and-w
hite-colobus
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ "hominoid." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hominoid
10. ^ Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd R
Disotell. “Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa.” Current Biology 8.16
(1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
12. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {25 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Michael J. Benton and
Francisco J. Ayala, "Dating the Tree of
Life", Science, (2003)
[2] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[3] Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) . see image
[4]
"Placentalia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[5] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
(perhaps around Lake Victoria) Africa11
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
25,000,000 YBN
3 		6386) The first deer evolves.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p361.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p361.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p361.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] White-tailed deer in Toronto,
Canada PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c2/White-tail_deer.jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
24,000,000 YBN
6 		662) The ancestor of all Hominoids
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (based on
Aegyptopithecus=22my) {24 MYBN (based
on Aegyptopithecus=22my}
 
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
23,000,000 YBN
6 		478) The Monotreme: Echidna evolves.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "monotreme." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/monotreme
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea5
 
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
23,000,000 YBN
6 		479) The Monotreme: Duck-Billed
Platypus evolves.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ "platypus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/platypus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {23 MYBN}
Australia and Tasmania5  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.

[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source

Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
22,000,000 YBN
7 8 9 10 		559) The Hominoid Proconsul evolves in
East Africa.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
5. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R.
Disotell, "Primate evolution - in and
out of Africa", Current Biology Volume
8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart
and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
(c22-c16mybn)
9. ^
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/apes
/proconsul/ 22-10 mybn (22-10 mybn)
10. ^
"Proconsul (genus) 27-17 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%
28genus%29 27-17 mybn (27-17mybn)
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
20,000,000 YBN
3 4 		549) The ancestor of all Homonids may
move (over land) from Africa into
Eurasia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). {20MYBN}
4. ^ Caro-Beth
Stewart and Todd R. Disotell, "Primate
evolution - in and out of Africa",
Current Biology Volume 8, Issue 16, 30
July 1998, Pages R582-R588, (1998).
{20MYBN}
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
18,000,000 YBN
10 		537) The Hominoids: Gibbons evolve in
South-east Asia.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
6. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
8. ^
Caro-Beth Stewart and Todd R. Disotell,
"Primate evolution - in and out of
Africa", Current Biology Volume 8,
Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998) .
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {18 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Euarchontoglires".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euarchontog
lires
[4] "Old World monkey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_m
onkey
[5] "Gibbon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon
[6] "Placentalia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia

[7] http://sn2000.taxonomy.nl/
South-East Asia9  
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
15,000,000 YBN
3 		6388) The first Kangeroos evolve.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
2. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.
3. ^ Palmer et al,
"Primitive Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004)
Australia 
[1] Description English: Agile
Wallaby Latina: Macropus
agilis Nederlands:
Zandwallabie Deutsch:
Flinkwallaby Date November
2004 Source Own work Author
User:Nino Barbieri GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/26/Macropus_agilis_-_02.
jpg

[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
15,000,000 YBN
7 		6389) The first bovids {BOViDZ4 }
evolve (hollow-horned ruminants: oxen,
antelopes, sheep, cattle, and goats5
).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
2. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
3. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
4. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
5. ^ "bovid." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 08 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
ovid>.
6. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p388.
7. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p388.

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] "Laurasiatheria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiathe
ria
[3] "ruminant." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 08 Jan.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ruminant
[4] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p360
[5] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p199-218
 
[1] Description Slender-horned
gazelle, at the Cincinnati Zoo Date
10 November 2007 Source Own
work Author FisherQueen GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Slender-horned_
gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo%29.jpg/1280px-
Slender-horned_gazelle_%28Cincinnati_Zoo
%29.jpg

[2] Español: Antílope sable Sable
Antelope (Bull), photo taken and
submitted by Paul Maritz (paulmaz).
Photo taken near Kafue River in Zambia,
2004 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Sable_bull.jpg/
1186px-Sable_bull.jpg
14,000,000 YBN
10 11 12 13 		542) The earliest extant Hominids:
Orangutans evolve in South-East Asia.7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Begun, "African and
Eurasian Miocene hominoids and the
origins of the Hominidae", in Louis de
Bonis, George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
3. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
4. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
5. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
6. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
7. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
8. ^ Begun, "African and Eurasian
Miocene hominoids and the origins of
the Hominidae", in Louis de Bonis,
George D. Koufos, Peter Andrews,
"Phylogeny of the Neogene hominoid
primates of Eurasia", p232.
9. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {14 MYBN}
11. ^ Chan Y-C,
Roos C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih
C-C, et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419
12. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
13. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A. Rodrigues, E.J.P.
Douzery, Patterns of macroevolution
among Primates inferred from a
supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
South-East Asia9  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
10,500,000 YBN
3 4 5 		550) The ancestor of all Gorillas,
Chimpanzees, and archaic humans may
move over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998).
3. ^ Record ID543. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {9 MYBN}
5. ^ Caro-Beth Stewart and
Todd R. Disotell, "Primate evolution -
in and out of Africa", Current Biology
Volume 8, Issue 16, 30 July 1998, Pages
R582-R588, (1998). {9 MYBN}
 
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
10,000,000 YBN
6 7 8 9 10 11 		543) The Hominids: Gorillas evolve in
Africa.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
4. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004).
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
6. ^ P-.H. Fabre, A.
Rodrigues, E.J.P. Douzery, Patterns of
macroevolution among Primates inferred
from a supermatrix of mitochondrial and
nuclear DNA, Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution, Volume 53, Issue 3,
December 2009, Pages 808-825, ISSN
1055-7903,
10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.004. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1055790309003169)
7. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p442.
8. ^ Suwa, Gen et al. "A New Species of
Great Ape from the Late Miocene Epoch
in Ethiopia." Nature 448.7156 (2007):
921–924. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v448/n7156/full/nature06113.htm
l
9. ^ Kunimatsu, Yutaka et al. "A New
Late Miocene Great Ape from Kenya and
Its Implications for the Origins of
African Great Apes and Humans."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.49 (2007): 19220 –19225.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
49/19220.abstract
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {7 MYBN}
11. ^ Chan Y-C, Roos
C, Inoue-Murayama M, Inoue E, Shih C-C,
et al. (2010) Mitochondrial Genome
Sequences Effectively Reveal the
Phylogeny of Hylobates Gibbons. PLoS
ONE 5(12): e14419.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014419 http:/
/www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10
.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014419

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Gorilla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
[4] Prothero, "Bring Fossils To Life",
Second Edition, 2004, p34
Africa5  
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e

[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
6,000,000 YBN
12 13 		544) The Hominids: Chimpanzees evolve
in Africa. This is the last common
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.9 10

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). 6mybn
2. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
3. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
4. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
5. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
6. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
7. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
8. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
9. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
10. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4)
11. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). 6mybn
12. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). 6mybn (6mybn) {6 MYBN}
13. ^
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/compress/T
oumai/Tounaigb/lienparengb.html (8
mybn see image 4) (8mybn) {8 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Africa11  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
4,400,000 YBN
40 41 		546) The Hominid: Ardipithecus
evolves.29 30 31 32 33 34 The earliest
bipedal primate.35

Bipedalism may evolve so that hands are
free to carry food for later use,36
and to use weapons37 .

Hominids walking upright on two legs,
away from a life in the trees, may
signal that they have become the top of
the food chain on land as the result of
using weapons.38
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
2. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
3. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
4. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
5. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
7. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
8. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
9. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D. Gommery,
P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y. Coppens ,
First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino
Formation, Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris, série IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
10. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
11. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949):
75–86. http://www.sciencemag.org/cont
ent/326/5949/64.abstract
12. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
13. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
14. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
15. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
16. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
17. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
18. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
19. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
20. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
21. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
22. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
23. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
24. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
25. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
26. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
28. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
29. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282
30. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
31. ^ Perlman, David (July 12, 2001).
"Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest
Human Ancestor". National Geographic
News. Retrieved July 2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html
32. ^ White, Tim D.; Asfaw, Berhane;
Beyene, Yonas; Haile-Selassie,
Yohannes; Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen;
WoldeGabriel, Giday (2009).
"Ardipithecus ramidus and the
Paleobiology of Early Hominids.".
Science 326 (5949): 75–86.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
33. ^ White, T. D.; Suwa, G.; Asfaw, B.
(1994). "Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from
Aramis, Ethiopia". Nature 371 (6495):
306. Bibcode 1994Natur.371..306W.
doi:10.1038/371306a0.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/
5949/64.abstract
34. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p93.
35. ^ B. Senut, M.
Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K.
Cheboi and Y. Coppens , First hominid
from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation,
Kenya). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série
IIa 332 (2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
36. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004)
37. ^ Ted Huntington.
38. ^ Ted
Huntington.
39. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
40. ^ Pickford, M. & Senut, B. The
geological and faunal context of Late
Miocene hominid remains from Lukeino,
Kenya. C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. IIa 332,
145-152
(2001). http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1251805001015282 {6
MYBN}
41. ^ B. Senut, M. Pickford, D.
Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi and Y.
Coppens , First hominid from the
Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya). C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris, série IIa 332
(2001), pp.
137–144. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S1251805001015294
{6 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Haile-Selassie, Y. Late
Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash,
Ethiopia. Nature 412, 178-181 (2001).
http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.103
8/35084063
Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Kenya,
Africa39  
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS

[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
4,000,000 YBN
19 20 21 22 		547) The Hominid: Australopithecus
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS13 } evolves.14 15 16

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Australopithecus." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
4. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
5. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
8. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
9. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
11. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
12. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
13. ^ "Australopithecus."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 31
Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australopit
hecus
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
15. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V.
Tobias (1995). Sterkfontein Member 2
foot bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
16. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
17. ^ Clarke, R.J. and P.V. Tobias
(1995). Sterkfontein Member 2 foot
bones of the oldest South African
hominid. Science 269,
521–524. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/269/5223/521
18. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger, D.E.,
Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J. (2003),
"Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains from
Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300, pp.
pp. 607–612.
19. ^ Partridge, T.C., Granger,
D.E., Caffee, M.W. and Clarke, R.J.
(2003), "Lower Pliocene Hominid Remains
from Sterkfontein", Science, Vol. 300,
pp. pp. 607–612. {4MYBN}
20. ^ Richard
Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). {4MYBN}
21. ^ "Australopithecus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus {3.9 to 3my}
22. ^ "Australopithecus
afarensis". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopit
hecus_afarensis (3.9 to 3my)

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Sterkfontein, South Africa17 18  
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478

[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg

SCIENCE
3,390,000 YBN
7 		269) Hominids use stones as tools.4

Some may view the use of stones as
tools by hominids as the start of
science on Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
2. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
3. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
4. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et
al. “Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
7. ^ McPherron, Shannon P. et al.
“Evidence for stone-tool-assisted
consumption of animal tissues before
3.39 million years ago at Dikika,
Ethiopia.” Nature 466.7308 (2010) :
857-860. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v466/n7308/full/nature09248.html
{3.39 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
[2] "Stone Age". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age
[3] "Paleolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic

Dikika, Ethiopia6  
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
3,000,000 YBN
3 		446) North and South America connect.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {3 MYBN}
 
[1] Present Day NONCOMMERCIAL
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
2,700,000 YBN
10 		564) The Hominid: Paranthropus {Pa raN
tru PuS7 } evolves; a line of extinct
early bipedal hominids.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
2. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
3. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
4. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
5. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
6. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
7. ^
http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=pa
ranthropus&submit=Submit
8. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
9. ^ "Paranthropus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropu
s
10. ^ Palmer, et al., "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.

MORE INFO
[1] Thure E. Cerling, Emma Mbua,
Francis M. Kirera, Fredrick Kyalo
Manthi, Frederick E. Grine, Meave G.
Leakey, Matt Sponheimer, and Kevin T.
Uno. Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the
early Pleistocene of East Africa; PNAS
2011; published ahead of print May 2,
2011, doi:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/0
4/27/1104627108.full.pdf+html?sid=71bf86
4d-bcc2-420e-9c3d-6c390c4a31c3
[2] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The
Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage To the
Dawn of Life. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. p. 90. ISBN 0-297-82503-8
Africa9  
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG

[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
2,500,000 YBN
13 		455) The oldest formed stone tools.8
The start of the Paleolithic or "Old
Stone Age".9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
2. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
3. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
4. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
5. ^ "Paleolithic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

6. ^ Fagan, Brian M, and Charlotte
Beck. The Oxford Companion to
Archaeology. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996. Internet
resource.
7. ^ "Paleolithic." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

8. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
9. ^ "Paleolithic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

10. ^ Fagan, Brian M, and Charlotte
Beck. The Oxford Companion to
Archaeology. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996. Internet
resource.
11. ^ "Paleolithic." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paleolithic

12. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
13. ^ Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html {2.5 MYBN}
Gona, Ethiopia12  
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html

[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
2,200,000 YBN
23 		447) The first humans.16 The Hominid:
Homo habilis evolves (the earliest
member of the genus "Homo"17 ).18

This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "human." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
4. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
5. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
8. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
9. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
10. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
11. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
12. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
13. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
14. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
15. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
16. ^ "human." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 04 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/human-1
17. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
18. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
19. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p78
20. ^ F. Spoor, M. G.
Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S.
C. Antón, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F.
K. Manthi & L. N. Leakey (2007-08-09).
"Implications of new early Homo fossils
from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana,
Kenya". Nature 448 (7154): 688–691.
doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID
17687323 http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v448/n7154/full/nature05986.html
21. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Fidelis T.
Masao, Gerald G. Eck, Tim D. White,
Robert C. Walter, William H. Kimbel,
Berhane Asfaw, Paul Manega, Prosper
Ndessokia & Gen Suwa (21 May 1987).
"New partial skeleton of Homo habilis
from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". Nature
327 (6119): 205–209.
doi:10.1038/327205a0. PMID 3106831
22. ^
Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's Tale",
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004). p78
23. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p445.
(Kenya20 and Tanzania21 ) Africa22
 
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg

[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
2,000,000 YBN
10 		545) The Hominids: Bonobos {BunOBOZ7 }
evolve.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bonobo." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 10 Sep.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
3. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
7. ^ "bonobo." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bonobo
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
9. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004).
10. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004). {2
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
[3] "Bonobo". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo
Africa9  
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.

[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
1,800,000 YBN
130) The end of the Tertiary {TRsEARE7
} (65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE8 }
(1.8 mybn-now) Period.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
2. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
3. ^ The geological Society of America
4. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
5. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ The geological Society of America
7. ^
"Tertiary period." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 17 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tertiary-1
8. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
9. ^ The geological Society of America
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf

[2] 000 Ma - Present Time UNKNOWN
source: http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/000
_present_3globes.jpg
1,800,000 YBN
12 13 14 		563) Homo erectus {hOmO ireKTuS9 }
evolves in Africa.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Homo erectus." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
2. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
3. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
5. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
6. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
7. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
8. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
9. ^ "Homo erectus."
The American Heritage® Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 10 Sep. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/homo-erectu
s
10. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p68-71
11. ^ Brown, Frank et
al. “Early Homo Erectus Skeleton from
West Lake Turkana, Kenya.” Nature
316.6031 (1985):
788–792. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v316/n6031/abs/316788a0.html
12. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4 mybn".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}
13. ^ Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p445.
14. ^ "Homo ergaster 1.9-1.4
mybn". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergast
er 1.9-1.4 mybn (1.9-1.4mybn) {1.9-1.4
MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
[2] Palmer et al, "Primitive Life",
2009, p416
[3] Templeton, Alan. “Out of
Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
[4] Vekua, Abesalom et al. “A New
Skull of Early Homo from Dmanisi,
Georgia.” Science 297.5578 (2002):
85–89. Print. New Series
Lake Turkana, East Africa11  
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm

[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
1,700,000 YBN
14 		449) Homo erectus moves into Eurasia
from Africa.12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
2. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
3. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
4. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
5. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
6. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
7. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004).
8. ^ Templeton, Alan. “Out
of Africa again and again.” Nature
416.6876 (2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/full/416045a.html
9. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
10. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
11. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
12. ^ "Homo erectus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectu
s
13. ^ G. Philip Rightmire, "The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans", Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
14. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). {1.7 MYBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p69-77
[2] Parker, G.
Compact History of the World. Barnes &
Noble, 2001.
 
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324

[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
1,500,000 YBN
8 		583) The controlled use of fire by
Hominids.5

Controlled fires may be made first by
Australopithecus or Homo erectus.6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
2. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
3. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
4. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
5. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3557
077.stm
7. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
8. ^ Brain, C. K., and A. Sillent.
“Evidence from the Swartkrans cave
for the earliest use of fire.” Nature
336.6198 (1988) :
464-466. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v336/n6198/abs/336464a0.html
{1.0-1.5
MYBN} {Brain_Sillent_19881201.pdf}
(Swartkrans cave) Swartkrans, South
Africa7  
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png

[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
1,000,000 YBN
6 7 		589) Homo erectus evolves far less body
hair, except on the head, face, airpit,
chest, and groin.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
2. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
3. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
4. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275
5. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The Ancestor's
Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004). p69-70,273-275
6. ^ Richard Dawkins,
"The Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004).
p69-70,273-275 {1 MYBN}
7. ^ Rogers AR, Iltis
D, Wooding S, "Genetic variation at the
MC1R locus and the time since loss of
human body hair." Curr Anthropol
2004;45:105-108. http://www.jstor.org/p
ss/10.1086/381006 {1.2 MYBN}
 
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
1,000,000 YBN
3 		6467) Homo erectus reaches China.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
2. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
3. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
Gongwangling, Lantian County, Shaanxi
Province, China2  
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC

[2] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
970,000 YBN
12 13 14 		200) Humans wear clothing.9 10
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
2. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
3. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
4. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
5. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
6. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
7. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
8. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
9. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M. Ashton,
Simon G. Lewis, Richard L. Abel, G.
Russell Coope, Mike H. Field, and
others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
10. ^ Pallab Ghosh, "Humans' early
arrival in Britain", BBC News,
07/07/2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10
531419
11. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html
12. ^ Parfitt, Simon A., Nick M.
Ashton, Simon G. Lewis, Richard L.
Abel, G. Russell Coope, Mike H. Field,
and others, ‘Early Pleistocene Human
Occupation at the Edge of the Boreal
Zone in Northwest Europe’, Nature,
466 (2010), 229-233
. http://nature.com/nature/journal/v466
/n7303/full/nature09117.html {970,000}
13. ^
Melissa A. Toups, Andrew Kitchen,
Jessica E. Light, and David L. Reed,
"Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates
Early Clothing Use by Anatomically
Modern Humans in Africa", Mol Biol Evol
(2011) 28(1): 29-32 first published
online September 7, 2010
doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234
{83,000-170,000YBN}
14. ^ Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser,
Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of
Pediculus humanus and the Origin of
Clothing, Current Biology, Volume 13,
Issue 16, 19 August 2003, Pages
1414-1417, ISSN 0960-9822,
10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0960982203005074) {72,000YBN +/-
42,000years}
Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK11  
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg

[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
400,000 YBN
8 9 10 		615) The earliest evidence of spears.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
2. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
3. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
4. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
5. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
6. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence
for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
7. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
8. ^ Wilkins, Jayne et al.
“Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting
Technology.” Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942
9. ^ Thieme, Hartmut, ‘Lower
Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from
Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997), 807-810
. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} {400,000YBN}
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Lower Palaeolithic hunting
spears from Germany. Hartmut Thieme.
Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 -
810 (27 February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385807a0
Kathu Pan 1, South Africa6
|(Schöningen, Germany.7 ) 
[1] (Photo : Jayne Wilkins) Replicas of
the 500,000-year-old stone points from
Kathu Pan 1 were hafted onto wooden
dowels with acacia resin and sinew, and
plunged into antelope carcasses Read
more at
http://www.latinospost.com/articles/6938
/20121115/oldest-stone-spear-tips-found-
came-200.htm#irhScS4kokLTYQJp.99 UNKNOW
N
source: http://images.latinospost.com/da
ta/images/full/8174/early-hafted-spears.
jpg?w=600

[2] Fig. 2 (A and B) Distal
step-terminating bending fractures on
ventral surfaces of complete
nonretouched convergent blades, banded
ironstone. (C) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of a complete
nonretouched convergent flake, banded
ironstone. (D) Distal impact burination
on ventral surface of complete
nonretouched convergent blade, banded
ironstone. (E) Comparison of DIF
frequencies (95% confidence intervals)
at Holocene kill and habitation sites
with well-established weapon tips (11,
27, 28, 36), experimental weapon tip
studies (10, 27, 37–40), trampling
experiments (32, 41), and KP1.
Wilkins, Jayne et al. “Evidence for
Early Hafted Hunting Technology.”
Science 338.6109 (2012):
942–946. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/338/6109/942 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/338/6109/942
302,000 YBN
7 		6517) There are 1 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
6. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
7. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
200,000 YBN
25 26 27 		548) Homo sapiens evolve in Africa.17
18 19 20

The oldest Homo sapiens fossils are
from Ethiopia.21
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
2. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
3. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
4. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
5. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
6. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
7. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
8. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, David
DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
9. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
10. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
11. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
12. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
13. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
14. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
15. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
16. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
17. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
18. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
19. ^ University Of Utah. "The Oldest
Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human
Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago."
ScienceDaily, 28 Feb. 2005. Web. 9 Oct.
2011.
20. ^ Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw,
David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D.
Richards, Gen Suwa & F. Clark Howell,
"Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle
Awash, Ethiopia", Nature 423, 742-747
(12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html
21. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
22. ^ Day, M. H. "Omo human skeletal
remains." Nature 222, 1135–1138
(1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
23. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
24. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
25. ^ McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown,
and John G. Fleagle. “Sapropels and
the age of hominins Omo I and II,
Kibish, Ethiopia.” Journal of Human
Evolution 55.3 (2008) :
409-420. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0047248408001024
26. ^ Ian McDougall, Francis H. Brown &
John G. Fleagle, "Stratigraphic
placement and age of modern humans from
Kibish, Ethiopia", Nature 433, 733-736
(17 February
2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v433/n7027/abs/nature03258.html
{200,000 YBN}
27. ^ Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p65. (165,000
YBN) {200,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark S. Springer, William J.
Murphy, Eduardo Eizirik, and Stephen J.
O'Brien, "Placental mammal
diversification and the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary",
PNAS,Feb. 4 2003,100,3,1056-1061,
(2003)
[2] Michael J. Benton and Francisco J.
Ayala, "Dating the Tree of Life",
Science, (2003)
Ethiopia, Africa22 23 24  
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
200,000 YBN
590) The Human language of thirty short
sounds begins to develop.9 All words
are single syllable.10

This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimpanzees
and monkeys, to the language humans use
now, which has shorter sound duration
and a larger number of sounds.11

The majority of the 40 or so basic
sounds in human language (A, B, K, D,
E, etc.) are probably learned before
humans leave Africa, because although
words vary, all humans use the same
base sounds.12

Humans start to name objects and
actions.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ (The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ (The vast majority of Sumerian
language is made of one-syllable words)
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ (The vast majority of
Sumerian language is made of
one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington
9. ^ Ted Huntington
10. ^ (The vast majority of
Sumerian language is made of
one-syllable words) Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
11. ^ Ted
Huntington
12. ^ Ted Huntington.
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg

[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
130,000 YBN
7 8 		450) Homo Neanderthalensis evolves in
Europe and Western Asia.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
2. ^ Douglas Palmer, et al, "Primitive
Life", 2009, p464.
3. ^ Donald Johanson,
"Origins of Modern Humans:
Multiregional or Out of Africa?",
ActionBioscience.org, May 2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
4. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
5. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
6. ^ Donald Johanson, "Origins of
Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html
7. ^Donald Johanson, "Origins of Modern
Humans: Multiregional or Out of
Africa?", ActionBioscience.org, May
2001
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolut
ion/johanson.html {000}
8. ^
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/gene
tics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals

MORE INFO
[1] "Neanderthal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal

Europe and Western Asia6  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg

[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
120,000 YBN
572) The start of the Wurm glaciation,
which connects a land bridge between
Asia and America.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
2. ^
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/le
c04/b65lec04.htm
 
[1] Description English: Ice age
Earth at glacial maximum. Based on:
''Ice age terrestrial carbon changes
revisited'' by Thomas J. Crowley
(Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 9,
1995, pp. 377-389 Date 30 January
2010 Source Own work Author
Ittiz CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg
/1024px-IceAgeEarth.jpg
101,000 YBN
[99000 BC] 10 11 12 		594) Homo sapiens move out of Africa
into Eurasia.8 This is the beginning
of differences in race within the human
species.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
2. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
3. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
4. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
5. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
6. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
7. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
8. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
9. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short
10. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
11. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html {000 YBN}
12. ^
Cavalli-Sforza, L L et al.
“Reconstruction of human evolution:
bringing together genetic,
archaeological, and linguistic data.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 85.16 (1988) : 6002
-6006. http://www.pnas.org/content/85/1
6/6002.short {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
[2] Templeton, Alan. “Out of Africa
again and again.” Nature 416.6876
(2002) :
45-51. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/abs/416045a.html
 
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml

[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 5 6 		257) The oldest Homo sapiens skull
outside of Africa; in Israel.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
2. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
3. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
4. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)
5. ^ N. Mercier, H.
Valladas, O. Bar-Yosef, B.
Vandermeersch, C. Stringer, J.-L.
Joron, Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
6. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (92,000-115,000)

MORE INFO
[1] Bar-Yosef, O. in The
Geography of Neandertals and Modern
Humans in Europe and the Greater
Mediterranean (eds Bar-Yosef, O. &
Pilbeam, D.) 107−156 (Peabody Museum,
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 2000)
[2] Mellars, Paul.
“Neanderthals and the modern human
colonization of Europe.” Nature
432.7016 (2004) :
461-465. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v432/n7016/full/nature03103.html
[3] Bar-Yosef, O., B. Vandermeersch, B.
Arensburg, A. Belfer-Cohen, P.
Goldberg, H. Laville, L. Meignen, Y.
Rak, J. D. Speth, E. Tchernov, A. M.
Tillier, S. Weiner, G. A. Clark, A.
Garrard, D. O. Henry, F. Hole, D. Roe,
K. R. Rosenberg, L. A. Schepartz, J. J.
Shea, F. H. Smith, E. Trinkaus, N. M.
Whalen and L. Wilson. 199. The
Excavations in Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel
(and Comments and Replies). Current
Anthropology
33(5):497-550. http://www.jstor.org/dis
cover/10.2307/2743915?uid=3739256&uid=21
29&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101120105141

[4] "Skhul remains". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skhul_remai
ns
[5] McCown, Keith, "The Stone Age of
Mount Carmel", Vol II, 1939
[6] Stringer, C.
B. et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid
Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.”
Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
(Skhul Cave) Mount Carmel, Israel4
 
[1] Индекс: Кафзех 9
(Qafzeh IX) Место
находки: Qafzeh Cave,
Israel Найден: B. Vandermeersch,
1969 Предполагаемый
возраст находки: 90–115
тыс. лет
Разновидность: Homo
sapiens Объем мозга: 1500
см3 Примечания:
Женщина была
захоронена вместе с
маленьким
ребенком. Автор: Sasha
на 15:13 UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-atwty2
hbM9Y/TxIL8eshIkI/AAAAAAAAGG4/KNd7DfaWco
s/s1600/qafzeh_9_big.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of
the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from
Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000
years old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 6 7 8 		597) The earliest human burial, Skhul
{SKuL?} cave in Israel.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
2. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
3. ^ Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR
Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es
Skhul in Israel.” Nature 338.6218
(1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
4. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
5. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
6. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
7. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
8. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, et al, "The Stone Age
of Mount Carmel", 1939
(es-Skhul cave) Mount Carmel, Israel3
4 5  
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
100,000 YBN
[98000 BC] 9 10 11 		6333) The theory that the universe is
controlled by Gods.5

The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Stringer, C. B.
et al. “ESR Dates for the Hominid
Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel.”
Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
8. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
9. ^ Philip Lieberman, "Uniquely human:
the evolution of speech, thought, and
selfless behavior", 1993, p163.
10. ^
Stringer, C. B. et al. “ESR Dates for
the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in
Israel.” Nature 338.6218 (1989):
756–758. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v338/n6218/abs/338756a0.html
11. ^ N. Mercier, H. Valladas, O.
Bar-Yosef, B. Vandermeersch, C.
Stringer, J.-L. Joron,
Thermoluminescence Date for the
Mousterian Burial Site of Es-Skhul, Mt.
Carmel, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 20, Issue 2, March
1993, Pages 169-174, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1006/jasc.1993.1012. http://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03054
40383710125
(Es-Skhul) Mount Carmel, Israel7 8
 
[1] {ULSF: Skhul IV from Mugharet
Es-Skhul, corresponds to images in
pages between p112 and p113 Garrod,
''The Stone Age of Mount Carmel
excavations at the
Wady-el-Mughara'',1937} Reconstructio
n of the burial of Skhul 4 , a
strongly-built, ''early modern''
human. (photograph from Stringer C.S.
et al., 1994) UNKNOWN
source: http://indiaeng.com/Tsunami-2004
--Andaman%20fault/Toba%20Volcano,%20ch_5
%20-%20Human%20evolution_files/mht1055(1
).TMP

[2] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
61,000 YBN
[59000 BC] 13 14 15 16 17 		614) Humans use a bow and arrows, and
poison arrow heads.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

2. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
3. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

4. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
5. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

6. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
7. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

8. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
9. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

10. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
11. ^ "Stone-Age arrows found", News,
University of Johannesburg. See also
Antiquity
84:635-648 http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsr
oom/News/Pages/Stone-Agearrowsfound.aspx

12. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
13. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
14. ^ "Modern culture emerged in Africa
20,000 years earlier than thought", LA
Times,
07/30/2012 http://www.latimes.com/news/
science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-modern-cult
ure-africa-20120730,0,4412702.story?trac
k=rss
15. ^ Paola Villa, et al, "Border Cave
and the beginning of the Later Stone
Age in South Africa", PNAS, July 30,
2012. http://www.pnas.org/content/early
/2012/07/23/1202629109.abstract
16. ^ Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
"Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa". ScienceDirect.
{10,000YBN}
17. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jim Hamm, "The Traditional
Bowyer's Bible", Volume 2, 2000,
p86. books.google.com/books?id=D9yQiKTt
prAC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86
[2] Collins, Desmond (1973). Background
to archaeology: Britain in its European
setting (Revised ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521201551
Sibudu Cave, South Africa11 12  
[1] Lucinda Backwella, Francesco
d'Erricob and Lyn Wadley (june 2008).
''Middle Stone Age bone tools from the
Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave,
South Africa''. ScienceDirect.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0305440307002142
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440307002142

[2] Objects found in the
archaeological site called Border Cave
include a) a wooden digging stick; b) a
wooden poison applicator; c) a bone
arrow point decorated with a spiral
incision filled with red pigment; d) a
bone object with four sets of notches;
e) a lump of beeswax; and f) ostrich
eggshell beads and marine shell beads
used as personal ornaments. (Francesco
d'Errico and Lucinda Backwell / July
30, 2012) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.trbimg.com/img-5016e6
83/turbine/la-sci-sn-modern-culture-afri
ca-20120730-001/600
53,300 YBN
[51300 BC] 5 		557) Homo Erectus goes extinct.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
2. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

3. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

4. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688

5. ^ Swisher, C. C. et al. “Latest
Homo erectus of Java: Potential
Contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in
Southeast Asia.” Science 274.5294
(1996) : 1870 -1874.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/274/5294/1870
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2891688
{300 YBN}
Ngandong, Indonesia4  
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg

[2] [t Note that this skull is from
Junniushan and is 280,000 years
old] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
50,000 YBN
[48000 BC] 4 		6399) The start of the mass extinction
of large mammals due in part to human
impact.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
2. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
3. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
4. ^ Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. "Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate." (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df
 
[1] Description Glyptodon Date 1920
(probably) Source The Wonderful Paleo
Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
AND Smilodon, Sabertooth
Tiger Source: Painting; Smilodon from
the American Museum of Natural
History. By: Charles R.
Knight Status: Public Domain in the
USA* PD AND Description Wooly
mammoths near the Somme River, AMNH
mural. Date 1916 Source
http://io9.com/5891441/celebrating-char
les-r-knight-the-artist-who-first-brough
t-dinosaurs-and-megafauna-to-life Autho
r Charles R. Knight PD
AND Description English: (Rusty,
the giant ground sloth, at the Iowa
Museum of Natural History, University
of Iowa. Based on Megalonyx
jeffersonii.) Date 16 October 2008
(original upload date) Source
Uploader - Billwhittaker
(talk) Author Billwhittaker (talk) at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD AND Artist
[show]Roelant Savery (1576–1639)
Link back to Creator infobox
template Description One of the most
famous and often copied paintings of a
Dodo specimen, as painted by Roelant
Savery in 1626. The image came into the
posession of the ornithologist George
Edwards, who later gave it to the
British Museum, hence the name.[1][2]
The bird swallowing a frog in the lower
right may be the likewise extinct Red
Rail. Date 1626 Current location
[show]British MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Source/Photographer
http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uplo
ads/2010/07/History-of-the-dodo-Hume.pdf
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing
.jpghttp://www.fantasy-workshop.com/faw/
image-files/smilodon-1.jpghttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Woo
ly_Mammoths.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Giant_ground_s
loth_Iowa.JPGhttp://upload.wikimedia.org
/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edward%27s_Dodo.
jpg

[2] Koch, Paul L. and Anthony D.
Barnosky. ''Late Quaternary Extinctions
: State of the Debate.'' (2006):
215-252. http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/ba
rnosky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.p
df COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/barn
osky/Koch%20%20and%20Barnosky%202006.pdf

46,000 YBN
[44000 BC] 11 12 13 		577) The earliest water ship. Sapiens
from Southeast Asia reach Australia by
water ship.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
2. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
421/n6925/abs/nature01383.html
3. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
4. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
5. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
6. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
7. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
8. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
9. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
10. ^ Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New
ages for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
11. ^
Bowler, James M. et al 2003, "New ages
for human occupation and climatic
change at Lake Mungo, Australia",
Nature 421, 837-840 (20 February 2003)
12. ^
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview
/0,10987,1169905,00.html
13. ^ Palmer, "Primitive Life", 2009,
p471.

MORE INFO
[1] David B. Goldstein and
Lounès Chikhi, "HUMAN MIGRATIONS AND
POPULATION STRUCTURE: What We Know and
Why it Matters", Annual Review of
Genomics and Human Genetics, Vol. 3:
129 -152 (Volume publication date
September
2002) http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/
abs/10.1146/annurev.genom.3.022502.10320
0
[2] Peter A. Underhill and Toomas
Kivisild, "Use of Y Chromosome and
Mitochondrial DNA Population Structure
in Tracing Human Migrations", Annual
Review of Genetics, Vol. 41: 539 -564
(Volume publication date December
2007) http://www.annualreviews.org/acti
on/showCitFormats?doi=10.1146%2Fannurev.
genet.41.110306.130407
[3]
doi:10.1038/nature01383 http://www.natu
re.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/abs/nat
ure01383.html
[4]
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908490.h
tml
 
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.

[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
43,000 YBN
[41000 BC] 10 11 12 		1187) The earliest known mine: "Lion
Cave" in Swaziland, Africa; mined for
the iron mineral hematite which is
ground to produce the red pigment
ochre.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
2. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
3. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
4. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
5. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
6. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
7. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
8. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
9. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
10. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust
Commission, "Cultural Resources -
Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,"
Retrieved August 27, 2007.
http://www.sntc.org.sz/cultural/malarc
h.asp
11. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major
Features: Cultural Importance."
Republic of South Africa: Author.
Retrieved August 27,
2007 http://www.peaceparks.org/story.ph
p?mid=168&pid=148
12. ^ F. Yachir, "Mining in Africa
Today: Strategies and Prospects", 1988,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=9W
yyamT93REC&pg=PA1
Swaziland, Africa7 8 9  
[1] Oldest Mine in the World -
Swaziland The Lion Cavern at Ngwenya
Mountain, just north of the Swaziland
Capital Mbabane, is thought to be the
oldest evidence of human mining in the
world. Carbon-dating has shown mining
activity for red ocre (haematite)
within this cavity dating back to a
period between 41000 and 43000BC. The
site is preserved as an open-air museum
of visitors and is a popular tourism
attraction. (By Darron
Raw) www.swazi.travel CC
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/27
23/4303217549_a15d58e869_b.jpg

[2] Ngwenya Mountain Lion Cave in
Swaziland UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancienttrenches.com/_
/rsrc/1328277651042/ancient-mines/bb92d5
f7-639a-42d2-aee1-daaaa87267b8.jpg?heigh
t=300&width=400
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 7 8 9 10 11 12 		598) The earliest sapiens fossils in
Europe (Romania).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
2. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
3. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
4. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
5. ^ Benazzi, Stefano et al. “Early
Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe
and Implications for Neanderthal
Behaviour.” Nature 479.7374 (2011):
525–528. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10617.htm
l
6. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “The Earliest
Evidence for Anatomically Modern Humans
in Northwestern Europe.” Nature
479.7374 (2011):
521–524. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v479/n7374/full/nature10484.htm
l
7. ^ Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
8. ^ Tool to convert C14 age to
calendar
age: ht41264tp://radiocarbon.ldeo.colum
bia.edu/cgi-bin/radcarbcal?id=0&fig=1&en
try_type=0&add=1&age=34000&std=100
9. ^ JOHN NOBLE WILFORD, "Fossil Teeth
Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than
Thought", NY Times, November 2,
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03
/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-euro
pe-earlier-than-thought.html
10. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (40,000 YBN)
11. ^
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolutio
n/johanson.html
12. ^ Palmer, "primtive Life", 2009,
p472.
Peştera cu Oase, Romania4 (and baby
tooth: Grotta del Cavallo, Italy5 ,
jaw: Kent's Cavern, UK6 ) 
[1] Oblique view of the Oase 1
mandible. Figure 1 from: Trinkaus,
Erik et al. “An Early Modern Human
from the Peştera Cu Oase, Romania.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/
20/11231/F1.large.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en
/3/36/Cromagf.jpg

[2] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 7 8 9 		604) The earliest oil lamp.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
7. ^ Sophie A. de Beaune and Randall
White, "Ice Age Lamps", Scientific
American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
 {Beaune_White_199303xx.pdf}
{40,000YBN}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p5.
{79,000BCE}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {8000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient oil lamp".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_oil
_lamp
Southwest France6  
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf

40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 14 15 		1262) The earliest known human-made
painting.9 10 ; a cave painting made by
using a blowing technique in Spain.11
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
2. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
3. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
4. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
5. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
6. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
7. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
8. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
9. ^ BBC News "Red dot becomes 'oldest
cave art' ",
6/15/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/en
tertainment-arts-18459492
10. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
11. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
12. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
13. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
14. ^ Pike, A. W. G. et al. “U-Series
Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves
in Spain.” Science 336.6087 (2012):
1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract
15. ^ "Chauvet Cave". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvet_Cav
e
(The Panel de las Manos) El Castillo
Cave, Spain12 |Southern France13  
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg

[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 22 23 24 		5871) The earliest musical instrument,
a flute, made from the wing bone of a
vulture.17 18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
4. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
5. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
6. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
7. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
8. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
9. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology: The
earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
11. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
12. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
13. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
15. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
16. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
17. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
18. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8117915.stm
19. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
20. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
21. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2
22. ^ Daniel S. Adler, "Archaeology:
The earliest musical tradition", Nature
460, 695-696(6 August
2009) doi:10.1038/460695a http://www.n
ature.com/nature/journal/v460/n7256/full
/460695a.html?free=2 {40000YBN}
23. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/art
icle/ALeqM5j6MhTK_oltyMTR7POcAgfbT5XeZQ
{35000BCE}
24. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1.
{34000BCE}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany21  
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l

[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
40,000 YBN
[38000 BC] 6 7 		6483) Humans catch fish.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
2. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
3. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l
4. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
5. ^ Trinkaus, Erik et al. “An Early
Modern Human from the Peştera Cu Oase,
Romania.” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 100.20 (2003):
11231–11236. http://www.pnas.org/cont
ent/100/20/11231
6. ^ Richards, Michael P., and Erik
Trinkaus. “Isotopic Evidence for the
Diets of European Neanderthals and
Early Modern Humans.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 106.38
(2009): 16034–16039.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/160
34.abstract
7. ^ First direct evidence of
substantial fish consumption by early
modern humans in China PhysOrg.com, 6
July
2009. http://phys.org/news166120605.htm
l

MORE INFO
[1] Higham, Tom et al. “Revised
Direct Radiocarbon Dating of the
Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic
Neandertals.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 103.3 (2006):
553–557. http://www.pnas.org/content/
103/3/553.abstract
Peçstera cu Oase4 , Romania5  
[1] This is the lower mandible of the
40,000-year-old human skeleton, found
in the Tianyuan Cave near Beijing.
Analyses of collagen extracted from
this bone prove that this individual
was a regular consumer of fish. Credit:
Image: Hong Shang / Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing Read more at:
http://phys.org/news166120605.html#jCp
UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2009/fishonthemen.jpg

[2] Translated from Italian with
translate.google.com Revealed the face
of the first
European PHOTOGALLERY reading time
provided for 4 min. about This is
the face of the first anatomically
modern man lived in Europe. Belonged to
a man - or woman - who inhabited the
ancient forests of the Carpathian
Mountains in Romania, about 35,000
years ago. The reconstruction of the
artist - a face that can be of a male
or of a female - is based on the parts
of the skull and jaw found in a cave in
which it was known that bears
hibernate. The facial features indicate
the close affinity of these first
Europeans with their immediate
ancestors Africans, even if it was not
yet possible to determine the sex of
the person. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.antikitera.net/images
/imgNews/4253-european-head_169813t.jpg
39,000 YBN
[37000 BC] 10 11 12 13 14 		599) Sapiens reach China.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
2. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
3. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
4. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
5. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
6. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
7. ^ Shang, Hong
et al. “An Early Modern Human from
Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 104.16 (2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
8. ^ Shen, G et al. “U-Series Dating
of Liujiang Hominid Site in Guangxi,
Southern China.” Journal of human
evolution 43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6
9. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
10. ^ Shang, Hong et al. “An Early
Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave,
Zhoukoudian, China.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 104.16
(2007): 6573 –6578.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573.full?sid=be561296-85f1-4b9a-8eee
-04e66b845307
11. ^ "Ancient human unearthed in
China". BBC news. April 2, 2007.
Retrieved February 26, 2011.
12. ^ Palmer et
al, "Primitive Life", 2009, p473.
13. ^
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/bill
ings_africa.html (30,000 YBN)
14. ^ Shen, G
et al. “U-Series Dating of Liujiang
Hominid Site in Guangxi, Southern
China.” Journal of human evolution
43.6 (2002): 817–829.
Print. http://europepmc.org/abstract/ME
D/12473485/reload=0;jsessionid=lswboz0xC
pa7qfBZuHb2.6

MORE INFO
[1] Hu, Y. .; Shang, H. .; Tong,
H. .; Nehlich, O. .; Liu, W. .; Zhao,
C. .; Yu, J. .; Wang, C. . et al. (Jul
2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis
of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human".
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106 (27): 10971–4. Bibcode
2009PNAS..10610971H.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. ISSN
0027-8424. PMC 2706269. PMID 19581579
(Tianyuan Cave) Zhoukoudian, China7
(Tongtianyan Cave, Liujiang County,
Guangxi Zhuang8 9 ) 
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg

[2] Fossilized skull of the Liujiang
hominid, H. sapiens sapiens, found in a
cave in Liujiang County, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region Chang, P.K.C. et al.
The Formation of Chinese Civilization:
An Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC COPYRIGHTED
source: Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=s
P-PN2StH2cC
35,000 YBN
[33000 BC] 4 		3943) The oldest known sculpture of the
human form, a statue made from
mammoth-ivory.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html

2. ^
http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/arti
cle/ALeqM5gXbk_JfASsVGU1F48--LEj7X8n6wD9
85HLD02
3. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html

4. ^ Conard, Nicholas J., "A female
figurine from the basal Aurignacian of
Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern
Germany", Nature, 2009/05/14, vol. 459,
is 7244,
p248-252. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07995.html
 {35000ybn}
Hohle Fels Cave, Germany3  
[1] Photos by H. Jensen; copyright,
University of Tübingen.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v459/n7244/images/nature07995-f1.2.
jpg
32,000 YBN
[30000 BC] 12 13 14 15 16 		602) Humans weave textiles from flax
and use coloring dyes.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
2. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
3. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
4. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
5. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
6. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
7. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
8. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
9. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
10. ^ Michael Balter, "Clothes Make the
(Hu) Man", Science 11 September 2009:
325 (5946),
1329. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1329.1
11. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
12. ^ Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359 {32,000 YBN}
13. ^ ADOVASIO
J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996:
Upper Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {000 YBN}
{26,000 YBN}
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
15. ^
{9000YBN}
16. ^ E. J. W. Barber, "Prehistoric
Textiles: The Development of Cloth in
the Neolithic and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC {7000YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
Dzudzuana Cave, Georgia11  
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
31,700 YBN
[29700 BC] 7 8 		42) Humans raise dogs.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
2. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
3. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
4. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
5. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
6. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380)
7. ^ Mietje Germonpré, Mikhail V.
Sablin, Rhiannon E. Stevens, Robert
E.M. Hedges, Michael Hofreiter, Mathias
Stiller, Viviane R. Després, Fossil
dogs and wolves from Palaeolithic sites
in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia:
osteometry, ancient DNA and stable
isotopes, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 36, Issue 2, February
2009, Pages 473-490, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.033. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440308002380) {31,700 YBN}
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7. {10,000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticati
on
Goyet cave, Belgium6  
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg

[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
29,000 YBN
[27000 BC] 7 8 		6215) The earliest ceramic objects, the
Venus figurines.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
2. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81
3. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

4. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

5. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

6. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA SOFFER,
BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI SVOBODA, "The
Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni
Věstonice, Czechoslovakia", Science 24
November 1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937

7. ^ O. Soffer, J. M. Adovasio, D. C.
Hyland, "The “Venus” Figurines:
Textiles, Basketry, Gender, and Status
in the Upper Paleolithic", Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 {29,000}
8. ^ PAMELA B. VANDIVER, OLGA
SOFFER, BOHUSLAV KLIMA, and JIŘI
SVOBODA, "The Origins of Ceramic
Technology at Dolni Věstonice,
Czechoslovakia", Science 24 November
1989: 246 (4933), 1002-1008.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/246/49
33/1002.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/1704937
{26,000}
Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia6
 
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
28,000 YBN
[26000 BC] 5 6 		451) The Neanderthals go extinct.3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
2. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
3. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm
4. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
5. ^ Finlayson C, Pacheco FG,
Rodríguez-Vidal J, et al. (October
2006). "Late survival of Neanderthals
at the southernmost extreme of Europe"
(PDF). Nature 443 (7113): 850–3.
doi:10.1038/nature05195. PMID
16971951. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v443/n7113/abs/nature05195.html
{000 YBN}
6. ^
http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/timelin
e2.htm {000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Garrod, D. A. E., Buxton, L.
H. D., Elliot Smith, G. & Bate, D. M.
A. Excavation of a Mousterian
Rock-shelter at Devil's Tower,
Gibraltar. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 58,
91–113
(1928) http://www.jstor.org/stable/4619
528
[2] Busk, G. On a very ancient cranium
from Gibraltar. Report of the 34th
Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science (Bath, 1864)
91–92 (1865)
Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar, Spain4  
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date {ULSF: with top
part showing house removed} 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg

[2] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
26,000 YBN
[24000 BC] 8 		6224) The earliest "fired" clay (clay
dried and hardened by fire).5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534.
2. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
3. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
5. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p5.
7. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534.
8. ^ ADOVASIO J. M.,
SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526–534. {26000 YBN}
Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Czech
Republic7  
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
25,000 YBN
[23000 BC] 10 11 12 		724) Woven baskets.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
2. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
3. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
4. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70:
526-534. {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_199
6.pdf}
5. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
6. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
7. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70:
526-534. {Adovasio_Fibre_technology_199
6.pdf}
8. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
9. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.
10. ^ ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
11. ^ "weaving." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/weaving
12. ^ Hoffecker, John F. “Innovation
and technological knowledge in the
Upper Paleolithic of Northern
Eurasia.” Evolutionary Anthropology:
Issues, News, and Reviews 14.5 (2005) :
186-198.

MORE INFO
[1] "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 31 Jul. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>
[2] Eliso Kvavadze, Ofer Bar-Yosef,
Anna Belfer-Cohen, Elisabetta Boaretto,
Nino Jakeli, Zinovi Matskevich, and
Tengiz Meshveliani, "30,000-Year-Old
Wild Flax Fibers", Science 11 September
2009: 325 (5946),
1359. http://www.sciencemag.org/content
/325/5946/1359
[3] ADOVASIO J. M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA
B., 1996: Upper Paleolithic fibre
technology: Interlaced woven finds from
Pavlov I, Czech Republic, c. 26,000
years ago. Antiquity 70: 526–534
[4] Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000)
[5] E. J.
W. Barber, "Prehistoric Textiles: The
Development of Cloth in the Neolithic
and Bronze ...",
1991. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HnSlynSfeEIC
Pavlov, Czech Republic 7 8 9  
[1] Figures 3 and 4 from: ADOVASIO J.
M., SOFFER O., KLÍMA B., 1996: Upper
Paleolithic fibre technology:
Interlaced woven finds from Pavlov I,
Czech Republic, c. 26,000 years ago.
Antiquity 70: 526-534.
{Adovasio_Fibre_technology_1996.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 6 		6231) The earliest human-made
structure. A stone wall.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
2. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
3. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
4. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
5. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html
6. ^
http://news.discovery.com/history/oldest
-man-made-structure-found-in-greek-cave.
html {23,000 YBN}
(Theopetra Cave) Kalambaka, Greece5
 
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
23,000 YBN
[21000 BC] 3 		6461) The earliest fishing hooks.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.archaeology.org/1203/trenches
/jerimalai_cave_east_timor_fish_hooks.ht
ml
2. ^
http://www.archaeology.org/1203/trenches
/jerimalai_cave_east_timor_fish_hooks.ht
ml
3. ^
http://www.archaeology.org/1203/trenches
/jerimalai_cave_east_timor_fish_hooks.ht
ml
(Jerimalai Cave, east end of East
Timor, an island off northwestern
Australia)2  
[1] Fishing hook Source: Susan
O'Connor UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archaeology.org/1203/
trenches/images/fish-hooks.jpg
19,000 YBN
[17000 BC] 6 7 		6175) Cereal gathering.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
2. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
3. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
4. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
5. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
6. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. “How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?” Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {19000 YBN}
7. ^
Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67.
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
Near East (Southwest Asia Turkey,
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)5  
[1] escription Русский:
Дикая пшеница
Эребунийского
заповедника -
Однозернянка
араратская (Triticum
araraticum) English: The Wild Wheat of
Erebuni Reserve (Triticum
araraticum) Date 5 June 2007 Source
for-wikimedia.wowarmenia.ru Author
uncredited Permission (Reusing this
file) Released by WOWARMENIA for
Wikimedia under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license
(Multi-license with GFDL and Creative
Commons CC-BY-SA-3.0 and older versions
(2.5, 2.0 and 1.0)). If you wish to
reuse the photos elsewhere, please read
the instructions at COM:REUSE. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/WildWheat_Erebu
ni_Reserve.jpg/1280px-WildWheat_Erebuni_
Reserve.jpg

[2] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
18,000 YBN
[16000 BC] 12 13 14 15 		603) The earliest pottery.7 8 9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
6. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
9. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
10. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm
11. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46
12. ^ Elisabetta Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu,
Jiarong Yuan, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki
Chu, Yan Pan, Kexin Liu, David Cohen,
Tianlong Jiao, Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu,
Paul Goldberg, and Steve Weiner,
"Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
bone collagen associated with early
pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan
Province, China PNAS 2009 106 (24)
9595-9600;" published ahead of print
June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46 {18,000}
13. ^ "pottery." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2011.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pottery
{17,500YBN}
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/8077168.stm {17,500YBN}
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {8000 YBN}
(Yuchanyan cave), Daoxian County, Hunan
Province, China10 11  
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 16 		6225) The earliest rope.10 11 12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
3. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
4. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
5. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
6. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
7. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux Inconnu
(A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN, eds.),
Xlle Suppl. à Gallia Préhistoire,
CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
8. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
9. ^ Bahn, Paul G.,
"Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
10. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
12. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
13. ^ LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
14. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p7.
15. ^ Bahn,
Paul G., "Lascaux: ¿Composición o
Acumulación?", Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521
16. ^ Bahn, Paul G., "Lascaux:
¿Composición o Acumulación?",
Zephyrus, 47
(1994) http://gredos.usal.es/jspui/hand
le/10366/71521 {17000 YBN}
Lascaux, France13 14 15  
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.

[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
17,000 YBN
[15000 BC] 4 5 		6516) There are 10 million humans on
Earth, all hunter-gathering people.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
4. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 12 		6227) The earliest known map.7 8 9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Gladkih, M. I., Kornietz, N. L.,
and Soffer, 0. "Mammoth Bone Dwellings
on the Russian Plain." Scientific
American (1984): 251.
2. ^ Bibikov, S.
N. (Sergei Nikolaevich) (1981).
Drevneishii Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz
Kostei Mamonta: Ocherk Materialnoi i
Dukhovnoi Kultury Paleoliticheskogo
Cheloveka (The Oldest Musical Complex
Made of Mammoth Bones). Akademiia Nauk
Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut Arkheologii.
Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka. In
Russian. Contains summary in English
and French; table of contents also in
English and French.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
4. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
5. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
7. ^ Gladkih, M. I.,
Kornietz, N. L., and Soffer, 0.
"Mammoth Bone Dwellings on the Russian
Plain." Scientific American (1984):
251.
8. ^ Bibikov, S. N. (Sergei
Nikolaevich) (1981). Drevneishii
Muzykalnyi Kompleks iz Kostei Mamonta:
Ocherk Materialnoi i Dukhovnoi Kultury
Paleoliticheskogo Cheloveka (The Oldest
Musical Complex Made of Mammoth Bones).
Akademiia Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR, Institut
Arkheologii. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka. In Russian. Contains summary in
English and French; table of contents
also in English and French.
9. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
10. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p7.
11. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/
12. ^
http://www.infoukes.com/history/inventio
ns/ {12,000 BC (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1998)
Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of mammoth
bones in the Ukraine:
Kiev-Kirillovskii, Gontsy,
Dobranichevka, Mezin and Mezhirich,
Oxford: J. and E. Hedges. ISBN
0-86054-949-6
[2] Pidoplichko, I. H. (1978) The
Mezhirich mammoth-bone houses, U.S.
Geological Survey. ISBN B0006WZGIS
[3] (Ukrainian)
(1972). Icтopiя мicт i ciл
Укpaїнcькoї CCP -
Черкаськa область
(History of Towns and Villages of the
Ukrainian SSR - Cherkasy Oblast), Kiev
[4]
"Mezhyrich". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezhyrich
Mezhirich, Ukraine10 11  
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
14,000 YBN
[12000 BC] 9 		6439) Lime cement is used as an
adhesive on small stone tools
(microliths) from Northern Sinai.5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
2. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
3. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
4. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
5. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
6. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
7. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
8. ^ Bar-Yosef, O., and A. N.
Goring-Morris 1977 "Geometric Kebaran
Occurrences,"in O. Bar-Yosef and J. L.
Phillips, eds., Prehistoric
Investigations in Gebel Maghara,
Northern Sinai, Qedem 7. Monographs of
the Institute of Archaeology
Jerusalem: The Hebrew University,
331-368.
9. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
Geometric Kebaran site Lagama North
VIII, Gebel Maghara, Northern Sinai,
Egypt7 8  
[1] Figure 6 from: Kingery, W D,
Pamela B. Vandiver, and Martha
Prickett. ''The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04

[2] See text ''In the north corner of
the room was an interesting structure
of unbaked plano-convex bricks (Fig.
44). It had a rectangular base
measuring approximately 1.00 x 1.60 m.,
the north-east side of which was only
15 cm. from the outer inclosure wall.
... The tops of these two walls were
rounded off toward the outside
throughout their length, on the higher
as well as on the lower parts (Fig. 45;
cf. also Fig. 65), and trhe whole
structure was originally coated with a
thick layer of white lime plaster- a
circumstance which greatly facilitated
its excavation and the tracing of its
peculiar shape. ... Fig 44
from: Delougaz, Pinhas, ''The temple
oval at Khafājah'', University of
Chicago Press/Chicago Ill., 1940.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53.pdf
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip53
.pdf
13,000 YBN
[11000 BC] 18 19 20 		578) Sapiens reach America. The oldest
human bones in America.13 14 15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
3. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
4. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
5. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
6. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
7. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3, 2008).
"Oldest Skeleton in Americas Found in
Underwater Cave?". National Geographic
News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
8. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
9. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
10. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
11. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
12. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
13. ^ Eliza Barclay (September 3,
2008). "Oldest Skeleton in Americas
Found in Underwater Cave?". National
Geographic News (National Geographic).
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2008/09/080903-oldest-skeletons.html
14. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
15. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/
16. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm
17. ^ Michael Vincent McGinnis,
Negotiating ecology: Marine bioregions
and the destruction of the Southern
California Bight, Futures, Volume 38,
Issue 4, Futures of Bioregions, May
2006, Pages 382-405, ISSN 0016-3287,
DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382)
18. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/natur
e/2538323.stm {13000 YBN}
19. ^
http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/9906/08/an
cient.woman/ {13000 YBN}
20. ^ Michael
Vincent McGinnis, Negotiating ecology:
Marine bioregions and the destruction
of the Southern California Bight,
Futures, Volume 38, Issue 4, Futures of
Bioregions, May 2006, Pages 382-405,
ISSN 0016-3287, DOI:
10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.016. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0016328705001382) {13000 YBN}
Mexico City16 and Arlington Canyon on
Santa Rosa Island, California, USA17
 
[1] A member of Arturo González's
underwater archaeological team studies
a skull in an underwater cave on the
coast of the Yucatán Peninsula near
Tulum, Mexico. Skeletons found in
similar caves may be among the oldest
human remains ever found in North or
South America. Photograph courtesy
Arturo Gonzáles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/images/080903-oldest-s
keletons_big.jpg

[2] Tulum, Mexico UNKNOWN
source: maps.google.com
12,000 YBN
[10000 BC] 3 		6522) Humans transform from hunting and
gathering to agriculture, from a
migratory to a sedentary life, building
the first cities.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p16-17.
2. ^
Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p16-17.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p16-17.
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 7 8 		827) The end of the Pleistocene
(PlISTeSEN), and start of the Holocene
{HoLoSEN or HOLoSEN4 } epoch.5 This is
the end of the last Ice Age.6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Holocene." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
olocene>.
2. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/timescl.pdf
3. ^ "Holocene." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocene
4. ^ "Holocene." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 06 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/H
olocene>.
5. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/timescl.pdf
6. ^ "Holocene." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holocene
7. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
8. ^
http://www.geosociety.org/science/timesc
ale/timescl.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] 1999 Geologic Time Scale,
Geological Society of America
[2] "Mesolithic".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
 
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
11,700 YBN
[9700 BC] 5 6 7 8 9 		828) The start of the Neolithic or "New
Stone Age" in the Fertile Crescent, a
region of the Middle East arching from
the Nile Valley to the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers3 .4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fertile Crescent." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fertile-cre
scent
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithi
c/qt/Neolithic.htm
3. ^ "Fertile Crescent." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/fertile-cre
scent
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithi
c/qt/Neolithic.htm
5. ^ "Holocene Epoch." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 05 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/neolithi
c/qt/Neolithic.htm
7. ^ "Neolithic." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neolithic
8. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mesolith
icarchaic/qt/Mesolithic.htm
9. ^ "Neolithic" in Timothy Darvill,
"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology (2 ed.)", Oxford University
Press, 2008.

MORE INFO
[1] "Mesolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
 
[1] Lake dwellers lived in central
Europe and were ancestral to the Celts
and northern Italians, and built their
houses very near water so that their
kind of wheat, that grew in marshy
areas, could grow in fields nearby.
They built their houses on stilts to
keep them dry. They were genetically
characterized by a very large clade of
R2b1b2. UNKNOWN
source: http://freepages.genealogy.roots
web.ancestry.com/~villandra/McKinstry/I2
b1/lakedwellingNeolithic.jpg

[2] Catal Hoyuk
Reconstruction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.veeb.net/wp-content/u
ploads/2011/01/Catal_Hoyuk_Reconstructio
n.jpg
11,500 YBN
[9500 BC] 14 15 16 17 		829) Humans shape metal objects.5 6

Copper is the first metal shaped by
humans.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
2. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
3. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
4. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
5. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
6. ^ Cyril Stanley Smith, "Metallurgy
as a human experience", Metallurgical
and Materials Transactions A Volume 6,
Number 4 (1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/
7. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
8. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
9. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
10. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp
11. ^ Linda Braidwood and Robert
Braidwood, "Prehistoric Village
Archaeology in south-eastern Turkey:
The eight-millennium B.C> site at
Çayönü, its chipped and ground stone
undustries and faunal remains:, 1982,
p4,10-11.
12. ^ "Copper". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
13. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
14. ^ Rolf E. Hummel, "Understanding
Material Science", 2004,
p5. http://203.158.253.140/media/e-Book
/Engineer/Material/Understanding%20Mater
ials%20Science.pdf
15. ^ Noël H. Gale, "Metals and
Metallurgy in the Chalcolithic Period",
Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research , No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp.
37-61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
261
16. ^ "Bronze Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/81017/Bronze-Age>.
17. ^
http://www.codelco.com/english/cu_zonaco
bre/pasado.asp {700 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Iran%20informatio
n/iranian_copper_iran_exports.htm
(Shanidar Cave) North East Iraq8
|(Çayönü) Anatolia (modern Turkey)9
|Northern Iraq10 11 12 |Eastern
Anatolia13  
[1] from ''Metallurgy as a human
experience'': fgi2: Copper pendant from
Shanidar Cave, Northeast Iraq, about
9500 B.C. Length 2.3cm; thickness
0.3cm. Shaped by hammering a piece of
native metal and finishing with
abrasives. (It is completely
mineralized and there is a slight
possibility that it was originally
simply carved from a lump of
malachite.) Courtesy Professor Ralph S.
Solecki. --- Malachite is a green
mineral, basic copper carbonate, Cu 2
CO 3 (OH) 2 , an ore of copper, used
for making ornamental articles.
''Malachite.'' Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Jul.
2012. . Cyril Stanley Smith,
''Metallurgy as a human experience'',
Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A Volume 6, Number 4
(1975), 603-623, DOI:
10.1007/BF02672281 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/4r60p045832k01l6/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/4r60p045832k01l6/

[2] Description View of the exterior
of Shanidar Cave, taken during the
summer of 2005. Note for scale the two
crouching men in front of the cave. At
the time this photo was taken, the
interior of the cave was being used as
a pen by a local
shepherd. Licensing Date 2006-08-03
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was JosephV at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Erbil_governorate_sha
nidar_cave.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 8 9 		606) The oldest city, Jericho.5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
7. ^
"Jericho." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jericho
8. ^ "Jericho." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/302707/Jericho>. {9,000 BC}
9. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {000
YBN} {8,000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Kathleen Kenyon, "Excavations
at Jericho", 1981,
p6. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_1981
.pdf}
Jericho, (modern West Bank6 )
Palestine7  
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg

[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 14 15 		608) The oldest saddle quern {KWRN9 }
(a flat stone and rounded stone used to
grind grain into flour).10 11 12
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
4. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
5. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
8. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
9. ^ "quern." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
11. ^ "saddle quern". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Jun.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/515851/saddle-quern>.
12. ^ "quern." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quern
13. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
14. ^ British Museum: The oldest known
tool for making flour found in the
Middle
East http://www.britishmuseum.org/explo
re/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/q/que
rn_stone_for_making_flour.aspx
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Abu Hureyra, Syria13  
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg

[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 5 6 7 		617) Goats are kept, fed, milked, and
killed for food.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of
the Domestication of Goats". About.com.
5. ^
Hirst, K. Kris. "The History of the
Domestication of Goats". About.com.
6. ^ Breeds of
Livestock; Goats: (Capra hircus).
Oklahoma State University Board of
Regents
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori,
Turkey| (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).4  
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg

[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 7 		1292) The earliest stone buildings and
temple; in Turkey.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
2. ^ "The World's First Temple".
Archaeology magazine. Nov/Dec 2008. p.
23. http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abs
tracts/turkey.html
3. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
4. ^ "The World's First Temple".
Archaeology magazine. Nov/Dec 2008. p.
23. http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abs
tracts/turkey.html
5. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697
6. ^ "G�bekli Tepe." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/1498811/Gobekli-Tepe
7. ^ K., Schmidt. �G�bekli Tepe,
Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary
Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations.�
Pal�orient (2000): 45�54.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_1_4697

MORE INFO
[1] "Neolithic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
[2] "Göbekli Tepe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekl
i_Tepe (=9000bce)
Göbekli Tepe, near Sanliurfa,
Southeastern Turkey5 6  
[1] Description English: Göbekli
Tepe, Şanlıurfa Date 6 September
2011 Source Own work Author
Teomancimit CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/G%C3%B6bekli_Te
pe%2C_Urfa.jpg/1280px-G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe%
2C_Urfa.jpg

[2] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 3 		6468) The earliest settlement in
China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
2. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
3. ^ Cheung, Felix. “Plant
Domestication: The Grains of Time.”
(2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nchina/2012/
120307/full/nchina.2012.20.html?WT.ec_id
=NCHINA-20120307

MORE INFO
[1] Chi, Zang. "The discovery of
early pottery in China." Documenta
Prehistorica 29 (2002):
34. http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/doc
umenta/pdf29/29chi
Nanzhuangtou, Xushui County, Hebei
Province, China2  
[1] Chi, Zang. ''The discovery of early
pottery in China.'' Documenta
Prehistorica 29 (2002):
34. http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/doc
umenta/pdf29/29chi UNKNOWN
source: http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/
documenta/pdf29/29chi
11,000 YBN
[9000 BC] 5 6 		6509) Rye is grown in modern Syria.2

The domestication of plants is thought
to have originated in the Fertile
Crescent.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
2. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
3. ^ �zkan, H. et al. �AFLP
Analysis of a Collection of Tetraploid
Wheats Indicates the Origin of Emmer
and Hard Wheat Domestication in
Southeast Turkey.� Molecular Biology
and Evolution 19.10 (2002):
1797�1801.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/19/10/1797.full
4. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
5. ^ Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
6. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC
News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/489449.stm
Abu Hureyra, Syria4  
[1] Description an ear of rye Date
11 June 2007 Source Own work Author
LSDSL Permission (Reusing this file)
Please quote me as LSDSL Bitte
nennen Sie mich als LSDSL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ear_of_rye.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
10,870 YBN
[8870 BC] 6 		6438) The earliest settlement in
Mesopotamia.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "history of Mesopotamia".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 03 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/376828/history-of-Mesopotamia/55
488/The-emergence-of-Mesopotamian-civili
zation>.
2. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
3. ^ "history of Mesopotamia".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 03 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/376828/history-of-Mesopotamia/55
488/The-emergence-of-Mesopotamian-civili
zation>.
4. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
5. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
6. ^ Ralph S. Solecki and Meyer Rubin,
"Dating of Zawi Chemi, an Early Village
Site at Shanidar, Northern Iraq",
Science , New Series, Vol. 127, No.
3312 (Jun. 20, 1958), p.
1446 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175603
0
Zawi Chemi, Shanidar, Northern Iraq5
 
[1] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village Site
at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.

[2] Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica. COPYRIGHTED
source: Solecki, R.L. An Early Village
Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar. Undena
Publications, 1981. Bibliotheca
Mesopotamica.
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 6 7 		610) Flax is grown.3

Flax is an oil and fiber crop.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p9. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
5. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
6. ^ Zohary, D., and M. Hopf.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley. Oxford University
Press, 2000, p126-132. 2012 edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tc6vr0q
zk_4C
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria5  
[1] Lewis Blue Flax seeding along
I-86. PD
source: http://itd.idaho.gov/highways/op
s/maintenance/Roadside/ImageGalleries/Na
tive-Management/LewisBlueFlax4.jpg

[2] from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flax_
seeds.jpg I took this picture of flax
seed in July of 2005 and grant its use
under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg
10,500 YBN
[8500 BC] 6 7 		6315) Sheep are raised for wool, skins,
meat and dung (which is used for
fuel).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology
of domestic animals: an introductory
text. CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN
9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
5. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false
6. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
7. ^ Per Jensen (2009). The ethology of
domestic animals: an introductory text.
CABI. pp. 162–. ISBN 9781845935368.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FuJKS
EgccUEC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A.
(2003). Groundbreaking Scientific
Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries
of the Ancient World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3
Northern Zagros to southeastern
Anatolia4 |(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean5  
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg


[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 8 9 		205) Pigs are raised and killed for
food.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
2. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
3. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
4. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
5. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
6. ^ G. Larson, K. Dobney, U.
Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisso-Smith,
J. Robins, S. Lowden, H. Finlayson, T.
Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy,
L. Andersson, A. Cooper (March 2005).
"Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar
Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication". Science 307 (5715):
1618. doi:10.1126/science.1106927. PMID
15761152. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/307/5715/1618.full.pdf
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
8. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
9. ^ Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V,
Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April
2000). "The origin of the domestic pig:
independent domestication and
subsequent introgression". Genetics 154
(4): 1785–91. PMC 1461048. PMID
10747069.
http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup
?view=long&pmid=10747069
(Near East) Eastern Mediterranean4 5
and Island South East Asia6
|southeastern Anatolia7  
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg

[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬:
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 12 13 14 15 		1259) Clay tokens of various
geometrical shapes that represent
products are used in Mesopotamia.7 8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
2. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
3. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
5. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
6. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
8. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
9. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
10. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25.
11. ^ Nissen, et al, "Archaic
Bookkeeping", 1993, p11.
12. ^ Fischer, "A
History of Writing", 2001, p25.
13. ^
Nissen, et al, "Archaic Bookkeeping",
1993, p11.
14. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
15. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
eastern Iran, southern Turkey, Israel,
Sumer (modern Iraq)10 |Babylonia11
|Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran 
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg

[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
10,000 YBN
[8000 BC] 8 9 		6316) Cows are raised for milk, for
meat and eventually for plowing.5 6
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
3. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
5. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
7. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
8. ^ Zeder MA. 2008. Domestication and
early agriculture in the Mediterranean
Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
105(33):11597-11604. http://www.pnas.or
g/content/105/33/11597
9. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestic
ations/qt/cattle.htm
upper Euphrates Valley7  
[1] Description Deutsch: Heckrinder
in den Niederlanden. English: An Heck
cattle group, in Oostvaardersplassen, a
nature reserve in the province of
Flevoland in the
Netherlands. Français : Aurochs de
Heck Nederlands: Heckrunderen in de
Oostvaardersplassen, een natuurgebied
in de provincie Flevoland,
Nederland. Date 16 septembre
2004 Source Travail personnel Auteur
GerardM GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Heckrund1.JPG/1
280px-Heckrund1.JPG

[2] Wild Cattle in Britain The
Chillingham Herd Chillingham
cattle (picture from
Whitepark.org.uk) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vegaresearch.org/imag
es/Chillingham1.jpg
9,800 YBN
[7800 BC] 10 11 12 		607) The earliest flint sickle.6 7

A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
5. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
8. ^ "sickle." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sickle
9. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955
10. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher,
and Shahal Abbo. The Cradle of
Agriculture. Science 288.5471 (2000):
16021603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.summary
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
12. ^ Unger-Hamilton, Romana (July
1985). "Microscopic Striations on Flint
Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant
Cultivation: Preliminary Results".
World Archaeology 17 (1): 121-6.
doi:10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955. http
://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1985.99
79955 http://www.jstor.org/stable/12468
0

MORE INFO
[1] Banning, E.B. (1998). "The
Neolithic Period: Triumphs of
Architecture, Agriculture, and Art".
Near Eastern Archaeology 61 (4):
188–237. doi:10.2307/3210656. JSTOR
3210656. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F32
10656 AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210656
Tell Aswad (modern Syria)|Palestine9
 
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg

[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 9 10 11 12 		612) Wheat is grown in modern Syria.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher,
and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
2. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
3. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
4. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
5. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
6. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi Gopher, and
Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
7. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?"� Science 311.5769
(2006) : 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short
8. ^ Which came first, monumental
building projects or farming?". Archaeo
News. 2008-12-14.
9. ^ Lev-Yadun, Simcha, Avi
Gopher, and Shahal Abbo. "The Cradle of
Agriculture." Science 288.5471 (2000):
1602�1603.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/288/5471/1602.full
10. ^ Tanno, Ken-ichi, and George
Willcox. "How Fast Was Wild Wheat
Domesticated?" Science 311.5769 (2006)
: 1886.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/311/5769/1886.short {9300 YBN}
11. ^ Which
came first, monumental building
projects or farming?". Archaeo News.
2008-12-14.
12. ^ "First farmers discovered". BBC
News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/489449.stm

MORE INFO
[1] Diamond, Jared. "Evolution,
Consequences and Future of Plant and
Animal Domestication." Nature 418.6898
(2002):
700�707. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01019.htm
l
[2] Moore, Andrew Michael Tangye,
Gordon C. Hillman, and Anthony J.
Legge. Village on the Euphrates: from
foraging to farming at Abu Hureyra.
Oxford: Oxford University Press xvii,
2000, p.
528. http://www.amazon.com/Village-Euph
rates-Foraging-Farming-Hureyra/dp/019510
8078
[3] Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A;
Sch�fer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F
(October 2002). "AFLP analysis of a
collection of tetraploid wheats
indicates the origin of emmer and hard
wheat domestication in southeast
Turkey". Molecular Biology and
Evolution 19 (10): 1797�801. PMID
12270906
[4] Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria6 |southeastern
Turkey and northern Syria7 (Nevali
Cori, Turkey8 ) 
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG

[2] Nevali Cori, Turkey from Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
37.518333,38.605556&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=
37.518333,38.605556 http://localhost/ul
sf/images/Nevali_Cori_Turkey.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 8 9 10 11 		613) Common millet is grown in China.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
8. ^ Lu, H; Zhang, J; Liu, KB; Wu, N;
Li, Y; Zhou, K; Ye, M; Zhang, T et al.
(2009). "Earliest domestication of
common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in
East Asia extended to 10,000 years
ago". Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America 106 (18): 7367–72.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC
2678631. PMID
19383791. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2678631/
9. ^ Chang, P.K.C. et al. The Formation
of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sP-PN2StH2cC
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
11. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 83-88. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Cishan, North China7  
[1] Description English: Panicum
miliaceum Date 2008-5-4 Source Own
work Author Dalgial CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Panicum_miliace
um_2.JPG/768px-Panicum_miliaceum_2.JPG

[2] Name Panicum
miliaceum Family Poaceae
Bildbeschreibung: noch grüne
Rispenhirse Quelle: selbst
erstellt Fotograf:
User:MarkusHagenlocher Datum: 21.
Juli GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Rispenhirse_gr%C3%BCn
.jpg
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 5 6 		6185) Barley is grown in modern Syria.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59-69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59–69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 59–69. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
4. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
5. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 67. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA67
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria4  
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg

[2] Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria in Google
Maps UNKNOWN
source: https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=
35.866,38.4&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=35.866,3
8.4
9,500 YBN
[7500 BC] 4 5 		6440) The earliest gypsum cement (or
plaster).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Andrew M. T. Moore, "The
Prehistory of Syria", Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02
2. ^ Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. "The Beginnings of
Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production and
Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East."
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304
3. ^ Andrew M. T. Moore, "The
Prehistory of Syria", Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02
4. ^ Andrew M. T. Moore, "The
Prehistory of Syria", Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02
5. ^ Akkermans, P.M.M.G., and G.M.
Schwartz. The Archaeology of Syria:
From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early
Urban Societies (C. 16,000-300 Bc).
University Press, 2003. Cambridge World
Archaeology Series.
p110. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA110
Abu Hureyra, Syria3  
[1] Andrew M. T. Moore, ''The
Prehistory of Syria'', Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research ,
No. 270, Ancient Syria (May, 1988), pp.
3-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/13570
02 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357
002

[2] Kingery, W D, Pamela B. Vandiver,
and Martha Prickett. ''The Beginnings
of Pyrotechnology, Part Ii: Production
and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in
the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Near East.''
Journal of Field Archaeology. 15.2
(1988): 219-244.
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/
Publications/General/Lime%20and%20Gypsum
%20Plaster%20in%20the%20Pre-Pottery%20Ne
olithic%20near%20East.pdf AND
http://www.jstor.org/stable/530304 CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5303
04
9,240 YBN
[7240 BC] 7 8 		1478) The earliest domesticated plants
in America. Squash is grown in Peru.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
7. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {9240}
8. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/28/scienc
e/28cnd-squash.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=s
login&adxnnlx=1183057296-Up92joKUeK1fZr+
Wt4cXsQ (10000ybn)
Paiján, Peru6  
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 7 		1288) Mehrgarh {mARGoR}, an Indus
Valley city is founded.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g
/mehrgarh.htm
3. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g
/mehrgarh.htm
5. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g
/mehrgarh.htm
7. ^ Brian M. Fagan, "The Oxford
Companion to Archaeology", Oxford
University Press, (Print) 1996,
9780195076189, (electronic) 2012

MORE INFO
[1] "Indus Valley Civilization".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valle
y_Civilization
Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan5 6
 
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg

[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
9,000 YBN
[7000 BC] 4 		6484) The earliest fishing net.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Miettinen, Arto, Kaarina
Sarmaja-Korjonen, Eloni Sonninen,
Högne Junger, Terttu Lempiäinen,
Kirsi Ylikoski, Jari-Pekka Mäkiaho,
Christian Carpelan & Högne Jungner.
(2008) The palaeoenvironment of the
Antrea Net Find Iskos 16, 71-87,
(Journal of the Finnish Antiquarian
Society).
2. ^ Miettinen, Arto, Kaarina
Sarmaja-Korjonen, Eloni Sonninen,
Högne Junger, Terttu Lempiäinen,
Kirsi Ylikoski, Jari-Pekka Mäkiaho,
Christian Carpelan & Högne Jungner.
(2008) The palaeoenvironment of the
Antrea Net Find Iskos 16, 71-87,
(Journal of the Finnish Antiquarian
Society).
3. ^ "Antrea Net". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrea_Net
4. ^ Miettinen, Arto, Kaarina
Sarmaja-Korjonen, Eloni Sonninen,
Högne Junger, Terttu Lempiäinen,
Kirsi Ylikoski, Jari-Pekka Mäkiaho,
Christian Carpelan & Högne Jungner.
(2008) The palaeoenvironment of the
Antrea Net Find Iskos 16, 71-87,
(Journal of the Finnish Antiquarian
Society).
Korpilahti, Karelian Isthmus, Finland2
(Antrea, Finland, now:Kamennogorsk,
Russia3 ) 
[1] Description English: Some of the
remains of the Paleolithic Antrea
net. Suomi: Osa kivikautisen Antrean
verkon jäännöksistä. Date
1920 Source Suomen
Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja
XXVIII Author Sakari Pälsi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/AntreaNet.jpg
8,800 YBN
[6800 BC] 4 		6511) Lentils are grown in Israel.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
4. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 98-99. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Yifta'el, North Israel3  
[1] Name Lens
culinaris Family
Fabaceae Original book source: Prof.
Dr. Otto Wilhelm Thomé Flora von
Deutschland, Österreich und der
Schweiz 1885, Gera,
Germany Permission granted to use
under GFDL by Kurt Stueber Source:
www.biolib.de PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Illustration_Lens_cul
inaris0.jpg

[2] Description English: Lentil
plants 75 days after emergence,
Castelltallat, Catalonia Català:
Plantes de llentilla 75 dies després
de l'emergència Date
14/05/2011 Source Own work Author
Victor M. Vicente Selvas PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Llenties_maig.J
PG/1280px-Llenties_maig.JPG
8,500 YBN
[6500 BC] 4 		6512) Peas are grown in Turkey.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf
(2000). Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
2. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
3. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
4. ^ Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000).
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe,
and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 101-108. ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC {Zohary_Hopf_Domestica
tion_of_Plants_in_the_Old_World_2000.pdf
}
Çayönü, Turkey3  
[1] Pea plant: Pisum sativum Picture
taken by myself: (nl:Doperwt rijserwt
peulen)Pisum sativum pods; GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Doperwt_rijserwt_peul
en_Pisum_sativum.jpg

[2] Description English: Studio
photo of peas in their pods. Date 7
July 2011 Source Own work Author
Bill Ebbesen CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Peas_in_pods_-_
Studio.jpg/1186px-Peas_in_pods_-_Studio.
jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 6 7 		605) The oldest known boat, a dug-out
boat.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Oudste bootje ter wereld kon
werkelijk varen". Leeuwarder Courant.
ANP. 12 April
2001. http://www.archeoforum.nl/Pesse10
.html
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Netherlands5  
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg

[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
8,000 YBN
[6000 BC] 6 		6220) The earliest drums.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
2. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
3. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
4. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
5. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>.
6. ^ "drum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 12
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172045/drum>. {6000 BC}
Moravia, Czeck Republic5  
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
7,700 YBN
[5700 BC] 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 		719) Rice is grown near the Yangtze
river in China.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
2. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
3. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
4. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
5. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
6. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
7. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
8. ^ Normile,
Dennis. “Archaeology: Yangtze Seen as
Earliest Rice Site.” Science 275.5298
(1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
9. ^ Fuller, Dorian Q et al. “The
Domestication Process and Domestication
Rate in Rice: Spikelet Bases from the
Lower Yangtze.” Science 323.5921
(2009):
1607–1610. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/323/5921/1607.short {Fuller_Dom
estication_Rice_2009.pdf}
10. ^ Y. Zheng, G. Sun, X. Chen, Chin.
Sci. Bull. 52, 1654 (2007).
11. ^ Domestication
and the origins of agriculture: an
appraisal Progress in Physical
Geography 1 March 1999: 37-56.
http://ppg.sagepub.com/content/23/1/37
.short {Mannion_Agriculture_1999.pdf}
12. ^ Normile, Dennis. “Archaeology:
Yangtze Seen as Earliest Rice Site.”
Science 275.5298 (1997) : 309.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/275/5298/309.full {11500}
{Normile_Earliest_Rice_1997.pdf}
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3500 YBN}
14. ^ Zohary, Daniel;
Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of
Plants in the Old World: The Origin and
Spread of Cultivated Plants in West
Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd
ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 91.
ISBN
0-19-850357-1. http://books.google.com/
?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA91
{Zohary_Hopf_Domestication_of_Plants_i
n_the_Old_World_2000.pdf}
15. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
c6vr0qzk_4C
Kuahuqiao, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang
Province6 7 |Yangtze (in Hubei and
Hunan provinces), China8  
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg

[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
7,100 YBN
[5100 BC] 7 8 		720) Corn is grown in Mexico.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
2. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
3. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
4. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
5. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
6. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short
7. ^ Pope, Kevin O. et al. �Origin
and Environmental Setting of Ancient
Agriculture in the Lowlands of
Mesoamerica.� Science 292.5520
(2001): 1370�1373.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/292/5520/1370.abstract
8. ^ Piperno, D. R., and K. V.
Flannery. “The earliest
archaeological maize (Zea mays L.) from
highland Mexico: New accelerator mass
spectrometry dates and their
implications.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 98.4
(2001) : 2101 -2103.
Print. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/4
/2101.short {6250}

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
San Andrés, Mexico5 |(Oaxaca, Mexico6
) 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 10 11 12 13 		627) The first metal to be smelted and
casted (copper).6 Smelting is
separating a metal from its ore by
using heat and a reducing or oxidizing
material.7

Casting involves pouring liquid metal
into a shaped mold of baked clay,
stone, metal, or sand.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
2. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
3. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
4. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
5. ^ "smelt." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/smelting
6. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
7. ^ "smelt." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/smelting
8. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient
Mesopotamian Materials and Industries.
The Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p269-270. {Mesopotamian_Materials_and_I
ndustries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
AND {Moorey-Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materi
als_and_Industries-1994.pdf}
9. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986)
10. ^ Miljana Radivojević, Thilo
Rehren, Ernst Pernicka, Dušan
Šljivar, Michael Brauns, Dušan
Borić, On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe,
Journal of Archaeological Science,
Volume 37, Issue 11, November 2010,
Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) {c7000 YBN}
11. ^ P.t.,
Craddock. “From hearth to furnace :
evidences for the earliest metal
smelting technologies in the Eastern
Mediterranean.” Paléorient (2000) :
151-165.
Print. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/
home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_2
000_num_26_2_4716 {8000BCE}
{article_paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_2
_4716.pdf} {5500BCE}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 BCE)
(=3500bce)
13. ^ "Copper (5000 BCE)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
(5000 BCE) (=5000bce) {5000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Metals and Metallurgy in the
Chalcolithic Period Noël H.
Gale Bulletin of the American Schools
of Oriental Research No. 282/283,
Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus (May -
Aug., 1991), pp. 37-61 Published by:
The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357261
Belovode, Eastern Serbia9  
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986

[2] Byzantine Roman
Collection tanged arrowhead Inventory
#: 308-316 Type:
Arrowhead Material: Iron Period:
Byzantine (Eastern Roman) 6th - 14th
Cent. A.D. Provenance: Balkan
Region Measurements: (lengths in cm,
left to right): 14.5, 17 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/
img1000/308316b.jpg
7,000 YBN
[5000 BC] 6 7 		727) The earliest reed boats.3 4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

6. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918

7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Kuwait5  
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3076918

[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
6,900 YBN
[4900 BC] 9 10 11 		648) The sail boat.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
2. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
3. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
4. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
5. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
6. ^
http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/g
/h3sabiyah.htm
7. ^ Connan, Jacques et al. “A
comparative geochemical study of
bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p9.
9. ^
Connan, Jacques et al. “A comparative
geochemical study of bituminous boat
remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait),
and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman).”
Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16.1
(2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf}
{5300-4900 BC}
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p9. {5000-4001 BC}
11. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {3000 BC}
Mesopotamia7 8  
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
6,800 YBN
[4800 BC] 4 		6527) The first fruit trees, olives are
grown in Israel and Jordan.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
4. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p116-121. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
(Chalcolithic) Tuleilat Ghassul (north
of the Dead Sea)3  
[1] Description English: Olive trees
on Thasos Deutsch: Alte Olivenbäume
auf Thasos Date 9.7.2006 Source Own
work Author Petr Pakandl CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Olive_trees_on_
Thassos.JPG/1280px-Olive_trees_on_Thasso
s.JPG

[2] Description English: Unique
Ancient Olive Tree Date 30 January
2011 Source Own work Author Dennis
koutou CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Ancient_Olive_T
ree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg/768px-Ancien
t_Olive_Tree_in_Pelion%2C_Greece.jpg
6,500 YBN
[4500 BC] 7 8 		6437) The earliest settlement in
Europe, Provadia-Solnitsata {PrOVoDEYo
SOLnETSoTo?}, in Bulgaria is founded.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
2. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
3. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
4. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
5. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
6. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml
7. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town
unearthed in Bulgaria", BBC,
10/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/w
orld-europe-20156681
8. ^ "Archaeologists find Europe's most
prehistoric town", The Telegraph,
12/31/2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/9646541/B
ulgaria-archaeologists-find-Europes-most
-prehistoric-town-Provadia-Solnitsata.ht
ml

MORE INFO
[1] Vasil Nikolov, Kiril
Maslarov, "Ancient Settlements Near
Eleshnitsa", Sofia Press, 1987
(near) Provadia, Bulgaria5 6  
[1] The remains of the settlement made
of two-story houses near the town of
Provadia The prehistoric town at
Provadia features two-storey houses and
a defensive
wall (AFP/Getty) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b2_2384873c.jpg

[2] The remains of a man with a
ceramic bowl Photo:
AFP/GETTY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multime
dia/archive/02384/b1_2384879b.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 7 8 		665) Wine making.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
2. ^ Meg Sullivan, "Chemical analysis
confirms discovery of oldest
wine-making equipment ever found",
January 10,
2011. http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/u
cla/chemical-analysis-confirms-discovery
-188683.aspx
3. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
4. ^ Meg Sullivan, "Chemical analysis
confirms discovery of oldest
wine-making equipment ever found",
January 10,
2011. http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/u
cla/chemical-analysis-confirms-discovery
-188683.aspx
5. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Barnard, Hans et al. “Chemical
Evidence for Wine Production Around
4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
Eastern Highlands.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 38.5 (2011):
977–984. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0305440310004115
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
(Areni-1 cave complex in) southeastern
Armenia5 |Egypt6  
[1] Wine press The wine press (center)
is clearly evident in this photograph
of the excavation. Behind the press is
an archaeological identification kit.
The vat (to the right of the press),
which was apparently used for
accumulating grape juice and the
consequent wine fermentation, emerges
clearly here as a result of the
excavation. (Photo credit: Gregory
Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/wine_press
.jpg

[2] Grape stems and seeds A range of
6,100-year-old desiccated grape stems
and dried, pressed grapes was found on
and around the wine press in the
Armenian cave. The chemical studies
were led by UCLA scientists and
supported by the National Geographic
Society, which also funded the
archaeological work. (Photo credit:
Gregory Areshian) UNKNOWN
source: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/
ucla/artwork/8/8/6/8/3/188683/stems_seed
s_grapes.jpg
6,000 YBN
[4000 BC] 8 		6232) The earliest Sun-dried mud bricks
and mud-brick house; in Mesopotamia.4 5


Mud brick, dried by the Sun, is one of
the first building materials.6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
7. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
8. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 19 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {4000 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)7  
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC

source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg

[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
5,800 YBN
[3800 BC] 4 		6540) The earliest nut crops, almond
trees are grown in the eastern part of
the Mediterranean basin.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
4. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p147-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Eastern part of the Mediterranean
Basin3  
[1] Description English: Amond
blossom, Plants of Israel עברית:
פרי השקד, Original Image
Name:שקדיה,
Location:מודיעין Date circa
2010 Source Wild Flowers of Israel
via the PikiWiki - Israel free image
collection project Author שרה
גולד Permission (Reusing this
file) w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/84/PikiWiki_Israel_7025_
Amond_blossom.jpg

[2] Description English: Green
Almonds. Date 4 April 2009 Source
Own work Author 6th Happiness My
own work. Green Almonds, originally
posted here:
http://fithfath.com/images/2009/04/04/yo
ung-green-almonds/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Green_almonds.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 20 21 22 23 24 		233) The earliest writing (on clay
objects in Mesopotamia). The first
numbers. The first stamp (or seal).11


The first writing begins as symbols for
numbers on clay bulla (hollow clay
containers that hold clay tokens).
These symbols represent the quantity
and kind of tokens inside the bulla.12
13 14 Markings on clay tokens which
represent products like sheep, oil, or
metal, may lead to the first symbols of
the alphabet.15 16 17 Hollow bullae
and clay tokens are eventually replaced
by solid clay tablets with the same
impressions.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
4. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
5. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
8. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
9. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
10. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise.
"Two Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
11. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
12. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14.
13. ^ Schmandt-Besserat,
Denise. "Two Precursors of Writing:
Plain and Complex Tokens", in The
Origins of Writing / edited by Wayne M.
Senner. 1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
14. ^ Fischer, "A History of Writing",
2001, p25-27.
15. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat,
"The Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
16. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat,
"Reckoning Before Writing",
Archaeology. May/June 1979, Vol. 32,
No. 3, p. 22-31.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoni
ng_before_writing
17. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
18. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
19. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp13-14.
20. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm {5500 YBN}
21. ^ Denise
Schmandt-Besserat, "Reckoning Before
Writing", Archaeology. May/June 1979,
Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 22-31.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoni
ng_before_writing
22. ^ "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>. {3500 BC}
23. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000). {for
stamp)3500BC}
24. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
Mesopotamia (Babylonia)19 |Sumer
(Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran) 
[1] Fig 109 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p127. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p127.

[2] Fig 110 from: Nissen, Archaic
Bookkeeping, 1993, p128. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p128.
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 9 10 11 		294) The sundial, the earliest
timekeeping device.4 The length of the
shadow indicates the time of day.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
2. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
3. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
4. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
5. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
6. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
8. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>.
9. ^ "sundial." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
10. ^
"sundial." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 13 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/573826/sundial>. {-3500 BCE}
11. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p10.
{2600-2501 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p15
China6 7 and Chaldea8  
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 7 		621) The earliest plow. Plows are used
to break up soil4 .5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "plow." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plough
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Lal, R., D.C. Reicosky, and J.D.
Hanson. “Evolution of the Plow over
10,000 Years and the Rationale for
No-till Farming.” Soil and Tillage
Research 93.1 (2007):
1–12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S0167198706002522
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] M. Green/H. J. Nissen,
Zeichenliste der Archaischen Texte aus
Uruk (ATU 2; Berlin 1987)
Mesopotamia6  
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN

source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png

[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 7 		622) The earliest irrigation (an
artificial supply of water to land for
food crops4 ).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "irrigation." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 24 May.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/irrigation
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Middle east (eastern part of
Mediterranean)6  
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg

[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 4 		625) Donkeys are raised and used for
transport.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 7 		634) The Egyptian calendar (12 months
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days5 ).6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ O. Neugebauer, "A History of
Ancient Mathematical Astronomy: Volume
2", p1975,
1064 http://books.google.com/books?id=v
O5FCVIxz2YC&pg=PA1064
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
5,500 YBN
[3500 BC] 18 19 		646) The earliest known wheel, a
pottery wheel, in Mesopotamia.13 14 15

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sir Leonard Woolley, "Ur 'of the
Chaldees"', 1982, p27.
2. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
4. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
7. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
10. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
12. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
13. ^ Sir Leonard
Woolley, "Ur 'of the Chaldees"', 1982,
p27.
14. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500BCE)
15. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
16. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE)
17. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE)
18. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(3500BCE) (=3500BCE) {35000BCE}
19. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/wstartinve
ntions/a/wheel.htm (3500BCE) (=3500BCE)
{35000BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Margaret Sax, Nigel D. Meeks
and Dominique Collon , "The Early
Development of the Lapidary Engraving
Wheel in Mesopotamia", Iraq, Vol. 62,
(2000), pp. 157-176 Published by:
British Institute for the Study of
Iraq Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200487
[2]
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/image_archiv
e/ue/uea.html
[3] Stuart Piggott, "The earliest
wheeled transport : from the Atlantic
Coast to the Caspian Sea", Thames and
Hudson, 1983
[4] "WORLD'S OLDEST WHEEL FOUND
IN SLOVENIA" March
2003 http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_re
lations/background_information/culture/w
orlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/
Mesopotamia16 17 (and a similar
pottery wheel from Choga Mish,
Iran) 
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg

[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
5,490 YBN
[3490 BC] 7 8 		702) Cotton is grown in Peru.4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
2. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
3. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
4. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
5. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
7. ^ Tom D. Dillehay, Jack Rossen,
Thomas C. Andres, and David E.
Williams, "Preceramic Adoption of
Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern
Peru", Science 29 June 2007: 316
(5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract {5490 YBN}
8. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}
Northwestern Peru5 |Indus valley6
 
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
5,350 YBN
[3350 BC] 38 39 40 41 		1261) Writing on clay tablets.23 24 25


Symbols that represent a product (such
as cows, sheep, and cereals26 ), drawn
with a stylus on clay tablets, are the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.27 28 Many of the
symbols look like the marked clay
tokens that represent actual products,
and that are replaced by the drawn
symbols on clay tablets.29 30 31

This is the first training and industry
of scribes,32 which will ultimately
evolve into the modern school system.33
 Writing will be continuously taught
eventually in all major civilizations
(even through the Dark Ages) until
now.34

These tablets are all economic records,
used to keep a record of objects owned
or traded35 , and contain no stories.36

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
2. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
3. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
4. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
5. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
6. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
7. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
8. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
9. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
10. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
11. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
12. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
13. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
14. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
15. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
16. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
17. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
18. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
19. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
20. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
21. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
22. ^ Ted Huntington
23. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
24. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.
25. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
26. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
27. ^
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
28. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
29. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
30. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat,
"Reckoning Before Writing",
Archaeology. May/June 1979, Vol. 32,
No. 3, p. 22-31.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Reckoni
ng_before_writing
31. ^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "Two
Precursors of Writing: Plain and
Complex Tokens", in The Origins of
Writing / edited by Wayne M. Senner.
1991: 27-41.
http://en.finaly.org/index.php/Two_pre
cursors_of_writing:_plain_and_complex_to
kens#n_1_a
32. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, p105.
33. ^ Ted Huntington
34. ^ Ted Huntington
35. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
36. ^ Ted Huntington
37. ^
"Sumerian writing>.". Encyclopedia
wrBritannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 15 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/649670/writing/53659/Sumerian-wr
iting>.
38. ^ Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "The
Earliest Precursor of Writing",
Scientific American. June 1977, Vol.
238, No. 6, p.
50-58. http://en.finaly.org/index.php/T
he_earliest_precursor_of_writing
39. ^
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm (3300bce)
40. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press,
1994. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBAzXV4YtQ8C&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false
41. ^ "writing". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://cdli.ucla.edu:16080/wiki/index.ph
p/The_Late_Uruk_period
[2] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[3] Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nissen, 1993, pp13-14
Uruk37  
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg

[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
5,310 YBN
[3310 BC] 10 11 12 		704) The earliest wheeled vehicles, and
ox pulled wheeled vehicles; in Poland.7
8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Stuart and Piggott, "The Earliest
Wheeled Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
5. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
6. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
7. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
8. ^ Stuart
and Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
9. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
10. ^ Stuart and
Piggott, "The Earliest Wheeled
Transport", 1983, p40,62-63.
{c3530-3310 BC}
11. ^ Stuart and Piggott,
"The Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63. {Standard of Ur) 2600-2400
BC}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {4000 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Zettler, Richard L.; Horne,
Lee; Hansen, Donald P.; Pittman, Holly.
Treasures from the royal tombs of Ur,
pp. 45-47. UPenn Museum of Archaeology,
1998. ISBN 9780924171543
[2]
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_stand
ard_of_ur.aspx
(TRB - Funnel Beaker culture)
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland9  
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.

[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
5,200 YBN
[3200 BC] 3 		6493) Cheese-making.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Salque, Melanie et al.
“Earliest Evidence for Cheese Making
in the Sixth Millennium Bc in Northern
Europe.” Nature advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html
2. ^ Salque, Melanie et al. “Earliest
Evidence for Cheese Making in the Sixth
Millennium Bc in Northern Europe.”
Nature advance online publication
(2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html
3. ^ Salque, Melanie et al. “Earliest
Evidence for Cheese Making in the Sixth
Millennium Bc in Northern Europe.”
Nature advance online publication
(2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/cheese-first-made-
least-7-500-years-ago-180758880.html
[2]
http://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese
-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020#/b1
Linear Pottery settlements along the
lower Vistula river (including Brześć
Kujawski 3 and 4, Miechowice 4, Smólsk
4, Wolica Nowa 1, Stare Nakonowo 2, and
Ludwinowo 6 and 7)2  
[1] Figure 1: Drawings of
representative reconstructed sieve
vessels and photographs of specific
sieve fragments from the region of
Kuyavia submitted to lipid residue
analyses. a, b, KUY0750, from Brześć
Kujawski site 3. c, d, KUY0757 from
Smólsk site 4. The typology of the
sieve vessels is comparable to those
used by modern-day cheese producers
(Supplementary Fig. 1). Drawings used
with permission from ref. 20. Figure
1ab from: Salque, Melanie et al.
“Earliest Evidence for Cheese Making
in the Sixth Millennium Bc in Northern
Europe.” Nature advance online
publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11698.html
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/images/nature11698-f1
.2.jpg
5,100 YBN
[3100 BC] 5 		641) The earliest record of a belief in
Gods and Goddesses.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
2. ^ Nissen,
H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic
Administration in the Ancient Near
East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
3. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
4. ^ Nissen,
H.J. et al. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic
Administration in the Ancient Near
East. University of Chicago Press,
1994, p5, 20-21,116.
5. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al.
Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5, 20-21,116.
Uruk4  
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p20-21.
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 		569) The earliest stringed musical
instrument (the lyre and the harp); in
Mesopotamia.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
2. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
3. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17.
5. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80.
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p17.
7. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
8. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p17.
9. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p78-80.
10. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p78-80. {-3000 BC}
11. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p17. {-3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
{Ur_Excavations_Royal_Cemetary_1934.pd
f}
[2]
http://www.penn.museum/long-term-exhibit
s/267-iraq.html
Sumer (modern Iraq)9  
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg

[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 15 16 		596) Written symbols are combined to
form words;9 there is a transition
from word-writing to sound-writing in
Sumarian10 .11

The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words.12 This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p47-48.
4. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
6. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48.
7. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993,
p117.
8. ^ Ted Huntington
9. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping,
Nisson, 1993, p117.
10. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, p117.
11. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48.
12. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson,
1993, p117.
13. ^ Ted Huntington
14. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993, 9.
15. ^
Archaic Bookkeeping, Nisson, 1993
(during writing phase Uruk III 3000bce)
16. ^
"Sumer". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer
(3200bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565349/A
lphabet.html
Jemdet Nasr14  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 14 15 16 		628) Bronze (copper and tin) are
smelted and casted; in modern Turkey.8
9

The start of the Bronze Age; which
varies on different parts of Earth.10

Bronze is made by smelting together two
separate ores, one bearing copper, and
the other tin. Bronze tools will
replace copper tools.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
2. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
3. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
4. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
5. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
6. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
7. ^ "Bronze Age." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bronze-age
8. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
9. ^ Edwards I. E. S, "The Cambridge
ancient history, Volumes 1-3", 1970.
http://books.google.com/books?id=slR7S
FScEnwC&pg=PA342&lpg=PA342&dq=Tell+Judai
dah+bronze&source=bl&ots=nsUpGgmod8&sig=
hHbgeyEJy95EC7mkTgsuvCaMFR0&hl=en&sa=X&e
i=MPkRT5anJamoiAKilaXXDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQ
6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Tell%20Judaidah%20bro
nze&f=false
10. ^ "Bronze Age." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bronze-age
11. ^ "hand tool". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/254115/hand-tool/39209/Smelting>
.
12. ^ "Artifacts provide insights on
Fertile Crescent", University of
Chicago News Office, Jan. 12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
14. ^ "Artifacts
provide insights on Fertile Crescent",
University of Chicago News Office, Jan.
12,
2005 http://www-news.uchicago.edu/relea
ses/05/050112.oi-objects.shtml
15. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (3500 BCE) (=3500bce)
16. ^ "Bronze (late
3000 BCE)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE) (late 3000bce) {Late
3000 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Copper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
[2] V. Gordon Childe, "The Bronze Age",
Cambridge University Press, 2011
http://books.google.com/books?id=Fxb9brY
SPVYC
[3] "Bronze". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze
(late 3000 BCE)
[4] "Bronze Age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age
[5]
http://www.asa3.org/archive/ASA/199604/0
288.html
Tell Judaidah, Turkey12 |Egypt13  
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg

[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 6 7 		650) Cuneiform writing. Pictures are
not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn
with a cut reed-stem pressed into the
wet clay to make wedges.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
2. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
3. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993). p32
4. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm
5. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
6. ^ Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p116.
7. ^
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/2002/05/21/
cuneiform.htm (=3200BCE)
Uruk5  
[1] Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic
Bookkeeping,Nissen,1993,p118.

[2] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png

5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 6 7 8 9 		664) Soldering of metals.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p12.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p12.
3. ^ Herbert
Maryon, "Metal Working in the Ancient
World", American Journal of Archaeology
, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1949),
pp. 93-125;
p114. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
4. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The
Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy
and Related Technologies in
Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq ,
Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp.
13-38;
p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/420
0150
5. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter.
Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology
for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel
Dekker, 2004. Mechanical
Engineering. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
6. ^ P. R. S. Moorey, "The
Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy
and Related Technologies in
Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C.", Iraq ,
Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring, 1982), pp.
13-38;
p27-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/420
0150
7. ^ Puttlitz, K.J., and K.A. Stalter.
Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology
for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel
Dekker, 2004. Mechanical
Engineering. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA9
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p12.
9. ^ Singer, Charles Joseph, and
Trevor Illtyd Williams. "A history of
technology." (1954,1965). p640-641,653.
Tell al-'Ubaid3 4 |Mesopotamia5  
[1] Im-Dugud El-Ubaid Mesopotamia the
earliest soft solder 3000BC, presumably
with tin UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
116/2778973410_6db0e4ab03_o.jpg}
http://www.britishmuseum.org/images/ps16
5397_l.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Note that this may not be
the earliest known soldered
(soft-soldered joint) material
presumably with tin- update- this is
the correct panel- it's shown by the
Singer source in the Footnotes} Copper
frieze From the temple of Ninhursag,
Tell al-'Ubaid, southern Iraq About
2600-2400 BC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://link.springer.com/article
/10.1007%2FBF03216523?LI=true#
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 2 		668) Silk making; in China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Making and Hanging Skeins of
Silk Photo: Image ID: 1564083 +
1564090 NYPL Digital Gallery. From
Twelve pictures showing various stages
in the manufacture of silk. UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistor
y/1/0/d/E/3/Silk.png

[2] Putting Silkworms on Bamboo
Screens NYPL Digital Gallery UNKNOWN
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistor
y/1/0/a/E/3/Silk.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 10 11 		672) The earliest dam;4 5 6 built in
Egypt to provide a water reservoir.7
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem",
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Hellstrom, B. (1951). The oldest
dam in the world. Bull. Inst.
Hydraulics, Roy. Inst. Tech.,
Stockholm, no. 28.
4. ^ M. Kassas and M.
Imam, "Habitat and Plant Communities in
the Egyptian Desert: III. The Wadi Bed
Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol.
42, No. 2 (Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Hellstrom, B. (1951). The oldest
dam in the world. Bull. Inst.
Hydraulics, Roy. Inst. Tech.,
Stockholm, no. 28.
7. ^ M. Kassas and M.
Imam, "Habitat and Plant Communities in
the Egyptian Desert: III. The Wadi Bed
Ecosystem", Journal of Ecology, Vol.
42, No. 2 (Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
8. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem",
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^ M. Kassas and M. Imam, "Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem",
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Wadi Gerrawi, Egypt8 9  
[1] M. Kassas and M. Imam, ''Habitat
and Plant Communities in the Egyptian
Desert: III. The Wadi Bed Ecosystem'',
Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2
(Jul., 1954), pp.
424-441 http://www.jstor.org/stable/225
6869 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2256
869
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 6 		675) The earliest silver objects.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p72.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p72.
3. ^ Woolley,
C. Leonard, and L. Legrain. Ur
excavations. Oxford University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p72.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p72.
6. ^ "silver
(Ag)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/544756/silver-Ag>.
Ur3 4  
[1] Queen Shub-ad harp with
silver Woolley, C. Leonard, and L.
Legrain. Ur excavations. Oxford
University Press,
1934. http://www.clintgoss.com/flutoped
ia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_V
ol02_excerpt_FP.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clintgoss.com/flutope
dia.com/refs/Woolley_1934_UrExcavations_
Vol02_excerpt_FP.pdf
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 3 		676) Metal casting where wax is melted
in a clay mold.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Trevor I. Williams, ''A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips '', (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p79.
source: Trevor I. Williams, "A history
of invention : from stone axes to
silicon chips ", (New York: Checkmark
Books, 2000), p79.

[2] Description English: Liquid
bronze at 1200°C is poured into the
dried and empty casting mold. Date
Source Own work Author Takkk CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Born_bronze_-_Bronze_
casts.jpg
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 6 7 		1276) The first recorded political
assembly.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp29-31.
2. ^ Kramer,
Samuel Noah, and Thorkild Jacobsen.
“Gilgamesh and Agga.” American
Journal of Archaeology 53.1 (1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp29-31.
4. ^ Kramer,
Samuel Noah, and Thorkild Jacobsen.
“Gilgamesh and Agga.” American
Journal of Archaeology 53.1 (1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208
5. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p29.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981, p30.
7. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p29.
Sumer, Uruk, Kish5  
[1] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08

[2] Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Thorkild
Jacobsen. “Gilgamesh and Agga.”
American Journal of Archaeology 53.1
(1949):
1–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/501
208 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/5012
08
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 5 6 7 		6222) The inclined plane (or ramp).4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p9.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {3000 BC}
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p11. {2900
BCE (based on Pyramid of Giza}
7. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p9. {2.4 Million
BC}
Egypt? 
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 		6226) The abacus; a counting and
calculating device.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16. {3000 BC}

MORE INFO
[1] Ifrah, Georges (2001), The
Universal History of Computing: From
the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN
0471396710
Mesopotamia3  
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
5,000 YBN
[3000 BC] 4 		6441) The earliest bow drill.1 A bow
drill can drill holes and start a fire
from friction.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Woods, M., and M.B. Woods. Ancient
Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels.
Runestone Press, 2000. Ancient
Technology,
p16. books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aD
nxsC&pg=PA16
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Egypt3  
[1] Description Bow Drill Date
14:27, 7 April 2008 (UTC) Source Own
work Author
Reddi Permission (Reusing this file)
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/Bow_Drill.png
4,980 YBN
[2980 BC] 8 		654) The earliest pyramid in Egypt, the
step pyramid of Djoser, designed by
Imhotep, the earliest known scientist
of history.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
2. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
4. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
6. ^ "pyramid".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/484720/pyramid>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.1.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.1. {flourished
2980-2950 BCE}
Sakkara, Egypt7  
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
4,800 YBN
[2800 BC] 5 6 		6565) Musical reed instruments.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
2. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
3. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
4. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
5. ^ Wade-Matthews, M. Music: An
Illustrated History. Hermes House,
2002, p34-35.
6. ^ Landels, J.G., and J.G.
Landels. Music in Ancient Greece and
Rome. Taylor & Francis,
2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NIJCJ1acjisC&pg=PA25
Greece4  
[1] Description figurines of a flutist
(playing a flute of the en:aulos type)
and a harpplayer, bronze age, 2600
B.C., from the Greek island en:Keros in
the island group of the Cyclades. On
display at the en:National
Archaeological Museum of Athens. Date
see metadata Source Own work (my
camera) Author sailko GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/Cycladic_idol_03_2_re
touched.jpg

[2] Artist English: Euaion
Painter Français : Peintre
d'Euaion Description English: Youth
playing the aulos, detail of a banquet
scene. Tondo of an Attic red-figure
cup, ca. 460 BC–450 BC. Français :
Jeune garçon jouant de l'aulos,
détail d'une scène de banquet. Tondo
d'une coupe attique à figures rouges,
v. 460–450 av. J.-C. Dimensions D.
31.1 cm (12 in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, first
floor, room 43, case 24 Accession
number G 467 Credit line Campana
Collection, 1861 References ARV²
792,47; Add² 290 Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2008) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Banquet_Euaion_Louvre
_G467_n2.jpg
4,750 YBN
[2750 BC] 8 		320) The earliest metal saw.5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
2. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
3. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
{Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
4. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
5. ^ Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
6. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
7. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
8. ^ Wells, H. Bartlett, "The Position
of the Large Bronze Saws of Minoan
Crete in the History of Tool Making",
Expedition, 16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l {2750 BC}
Mesopotamia7  
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml

[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris, 1960
4,700 YBN
[2700 BC] 6 		1052) The earliest arch.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
2. ^"Ancient Mesopotamia:Architecture".
The Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/M
ESO/architecture.html
3. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4. ^"Ancient Mesopotamia:Architecture".
The Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago.
http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/M
ESO/architecture.html
5. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
6. ^ Handcock, P.S.P. Mesopotamian
Archaeology: An Introduction to the
Archaeology of Babylonia and Assyria.
Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
Nippur, Mesopotamia5  
[1] One of the most ancient arches as
yet discovered is that which was brough
to light during the course of the
excavations carried on ... at the
ancient city of Nuippur (cf. Fig. 15).
It was found at a great depth below the
surface of the mound, being more than
22 1/2 feet below the pavement of
Ur-Engur (c2400BC), and 14 feet below
that of Naram-Sin (c2700 BC) Handcock,
P.S.P. Mesopotamian Archaeology: An
Introduction to the Archaeology of
Babylonia and Assyria. Putnam,
1912. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ErcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 		635) Iron is smelted and casted.14 15
16

The start of the Iron Age in Turkey.17

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
2. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
3. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
4. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
5. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
6. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
7. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early
Iron Metallurgy in Anatolia.”
Anatolian Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
8. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
9. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
10. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal.
“Early Iron Metallurgy in
Anatolia.” Anatolian Studies 49
(1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
11. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
12. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
13. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
14. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
15. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
16. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
17. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
18. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
19. ^ Wertime, Theodore A. “The
Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New
Look.” Science 182.4115 (1973):
875–887.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1737722
20. ^ Arik, Remzi O. Les Fouilles
D'alaca Höyük Entreprises Par La
Société D'histoire Turque: Rapport
Préliminaire Sur Les Travaux En 1935.
Ankara, 1937.
21. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar.
British School of Archaeology in Egypt,
1928. Egyptian Research Account.
22. ^ Rickard,
T. A. “The Primitive Smelting of
Iron.” American Journal of
Archaeology 43.1 (1939): 85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
23. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/
24. ^ Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline
van der Steen, "Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley", Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714
25. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191
26. ^ Yalçın, Ünsal. “Early Iron
Metallurgy in Anatolia.” Anatolian
Studies 49 (1999): 177–187.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643073
27. ^ Petrie, W.M.F. Gerar. British
School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1928.
Egyptian Research Account, p14-16,
Plate 25-32. {Petrie_Gerar_1928.pdf}
28. ^ Rickard, T. A. “The
Primitive Smelting of Iron.” American
Journal of Archaeology 43.1 (1939):
85–101.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/499136
29. ^ Veldhuijzen, HA and Rehren, T ,
"Iron Smelting Slag Formation at Tell
Hammeh (Al-Zarqa), Jordan". (2006),
(Proceedings) 34th International
Symposium on Archaeometry, Zaragoza,
3-7 May 2004. (pp. 245 - 250).
Institucion 'Fernando el Catolico'
(CSIC) Excma. Diputacion de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/11
494/ {930/910 BCE}
30. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (3500 YBN)
31. ^
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptabl
e/fe.htm (3000 YBN) (3000)
32. ^ "Iron (3500
YBN)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron (3500
YBN) (3500)
33. ^ "Iron Age". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 08 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/294368/Iron-Age>.
34. ^ Richardson, Harry Craig. “Iron,
Prehistoric and Ancient.” American
Journal of Archaeology 38.4 (1934):
555–583.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/498191

MORE INFO
[1] "Iron age". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_age
Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia
(modern Turkey)18 19 20 |Palestine21 22
|Tell Hammeh (az-Zarqa), Jordan23 24
|Central Europe and north Assyria25
 
[1] Description Dagger with iron blade
and golden hilt from Alaca Höyük.
Early evidence for the use of iron in
Anatolia. Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Stipich Béla GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Alaca_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk
_dagger.jpg

[2] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 6 7 		637) Scribes change from writing right
to left in columns to writing left to
right in rows.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
2. ^ Fischer,
S.R. A History of Writing. Reaktion,
2001. Globalities Series. p49-50.
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p49-50.
5. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A
History of Writing. Reaktion, 2001.
Globalities Series. p49-50.
7. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).
Sumer5  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p47-48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47-48.

[2] Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping, 1993,
p22. COPYRIGHTED AND List of gods in
order of seniority: Enlil, Ninlil,
Enki, Nergal, Hendursanga,
Inanna-Zabalam, Ninebgal, Inanna, Utu,
Nanna. Sumerian cuneiform script
clay tablet, Sumer, 2400-2200 BC, 1
tablet, 4,7x4,4x1,7 cm, single column,
5+5 lines. Binding: Barking, Essex,
1998, blue cloth gilt folding case by
Aquarius. PD
source: Nissen, Archaic Bookkeeping,
1993,
p22.http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
a/commons/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jp
g
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 2 		691) Skis are used in Skandinavia.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Norway has a long tradition of
skiing. Skis have been used as a means
of transportation in Norway for several
thousand years. The Stone Age rock
carving, presently called'' the Rødøy
man'' found at Alstahaug in Nordland,
shows the use of skis about 4000 years
ago. The word ''ski'' originates from
the old Norwegian word ski which means
a split and flat piece of
wood. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vest-telemark.museum.
no/vest-telemark/bilder/Altamannen.JPG

[2] Skiing is actually much older than
Viking. There are ancient images carved
in stone by the people of skiing and
archery. Red Eye Man from Nordland is
over 4,000 years old. In Alta there are
a whole bunch skiers who hunt wild
animals. They are over 3,000 years old.
You might see them in here if you look
closely. The world's second oldest ski,
Drevja from Skien Norway is more than
5000 years old. But in Russia it
certainly found a ski that is about
8,000 years old! UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ofAN_C
hFQts/TM2M6_X9y7I/AAAAAAAACMg/Qu9tZMLJNJ
A/s1600/ski+pikt+ol+94.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 7 		6230) The earliest dice and boardgame.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
2. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
3. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
4. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
5. ^ C.L. Woolley and others, Ur
Excavations, vol. II: The Royal
Cemetery (London, The British Museum
Press, 1934), p. 276, plate 95.
6. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx
7. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_royal
_game_of_ur.aspx {2400-2600 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Leonard Woolley, "Ur
Excavations. Vol. II. The Royal
Cemetery.", 1934
Ur, Mesopotamia5 6  
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg

[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
4,500 YBN
[2500 BC] 3 4 		6462) The Babylonians describe
constellations.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
2. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
3. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
4. ^ "astronomical map". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/40018/astronomical-map/52790/The
-constellations-and-other-sky-divisions>
.
(Elamite capital) Susa, Iran2  
[1] Rogers, J. H., ''Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions'', Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
98JBAA..108....9R

[2] Seal of Adda From about 5,000
BC, stamp seals, cut with simple
designs, were used to mark ownership on
clay sealings on storeroom doors. They
were also found on the bags, baskets
etc in which goods were traded up and
down the Tigris and Euphrates. Around
3,500 BC, the cylinder seal was
invented; it provided room for
elaborately carved designs, and could
be rolled over clay. The Akkadian
greenstone seal (height 3.9cm) shown
here, dating to about 2,300 BC, is
shown alongside its modern impression.
Gods and goddesses are depicted,
identified by their horned head-dresses
and attributes as a hunting god, the
goddess Ishtar, the sun god Shamash and
the water god Enki followed by his
vizier. 'Adda, scribe' is written in
cuneiform above a lion, identifying the
owner as a high official, who could
also have sealed letters and
administrative documents on
clay. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/anc
ient/cultures/images/mesopotamia_seal.jp
g
4,450 YBN
[2450 BC] 4 5 		708) Animal skin (leather) is used for
writing (the earliest parchment).2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
2. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
3. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
4. ^ "history of publishing".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482597/history-of-publishing/286
07/Vellum-and-parchment>.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).

MORE INFO
[1] "vellum." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 24 May.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/v
ellum>
Egypt3  
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
4,400 YBN
[2400 BC] 6 		1277) The earliest recorded written
history.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp37-38.
2. ^ Nies, James
Buchanan, Clarence Elwood Keiser, and
Albert Tobias Clay. "Historical,
religious and economic texts and
antiquities."
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), pp37-38.
4. ^ Nies, James
Buchanan, Clarence Elwood Keiser, and
Albert Tobias Clay. "Historical,
religious and economic texts and
antiquities."
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12
5. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981,
p43.
6. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition 1981,
p38.
Lagash5  
[1] Nies, James Buchanan, Clarence
Elwood Keiser, and Albert Tobias Clay.
''Historical, religious and economic
texts and antiquities.''
(1920). http://digital.library.stonybro
ok.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiar
cheology/id/25/rec/12 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://digital.library.stonybroo
k.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/iraqiarc
heology/id/25/rec/12
4,345 YBN
[2345 BC] 6 7 8 9 		800) Writing on papyrus.3 Papyrus
sheets are made from the fibrous layers
within the stem of the papyrus plant.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
2. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
3. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
4. ^ "papyrus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 24 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442267/papyrus>.
5. ^ Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards,
"Egypt and its monuments: pharaohs,
fellahs and explorers", 1891,
p195. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QIwWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195
6. ^ "papyrus." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/papyrus
7. ^
http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egert
on/BellSkeat2.html
8. ^
http://www.travellersinegypt.org/archive
s/2005/07/prisse_davennes.html (=3300)
9. ^
"Djedkare Isesi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djedkare_Is
esi (=2407 or 2419)
Egypt5  
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 8 9 		629) The Akkadian language, the
earliest known semitic language. The
earliest verb tense, and noun gender.4
5 The first dictionary.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akkadian language".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/11690/Akkadian-language>.
2. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p117.
3. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 5.
4. ^ "Akkadian language".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/11690/Akkadian-language>.
5. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p117.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), 5.
7. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), 5.
8. ^ Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p5.
9. ^ "Akkad".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/11671/Akkad>.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series
Agade, Mesopotamia7  
[1] Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124. COPYRIGHTED

source: Nissen, H.J. et al. Archaic
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and
Techniques of Economic Administration
in the Ancient Near East. University of
Chicago Press, 1994, p124.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p50.
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 7 8 9 10 11 12 		667) The earliest evidence of glass
making, glass beads; in Mesopotamia.5
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
2. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
3. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
4. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
5. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
6. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
7. ^ J. Henderson, J. Evans and K.
Nikita, "ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE
PRIMARY PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND
TRADE OF LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN", Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf {4300 YBN}
8. ^
P. R. S. Moorey, "Ancient Mesopotamian
Materials and Industries. The
Archaeological Evidence", Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1994,
p190. {Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus
tries_Moorey_1994.pdf}
AND {Moorey-Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materi
als_and_Industries-1994.pdf} {c4000YBN}
9. ^ James
Owen, "Ancient Egyptian City Yields
World's Oldest Glassworks", National
Geographic News June 16,
2005 http://news.nationalgeographic.com
/news/2005/06/0616_050616_egyptglass.htm
l {35000 YBN}
10. ^ Thilo Rehren and Edgar
B. Pusch, "Late Bronze Age Glass
Production at Qantir-Piramesses,
Egypt", Science New Series, Vol. 308,
No. 5729 (Jun. 17, 2005), pp.
1756-1758 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3841666
{35000 YBN}
11. ^
http://glassonline.com/infoserv/history.
html {5500YBN}
12. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {5000YBN}
Mesopotamia6  
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf

[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
4,300 YBN
[2300 BC] 18 19 20 21 22 		1271) The earliest written stories.
These consist of epics and myths, hymns
and laments, proverbs and wisdom.9

These writings record a belief in Gods,
Goddesses, a Heaven, and an Under
World.10

There are clear similarities between
the Sumerian and the later Greek
stories, for example stories about the
creation of the universe, good and bad
deeds of the gods, and of a flood.11

The Sumerians believe in a variety of
Gods and Goddesses12 . People of other
regions have similar Gods and
Goddesses, but with different names,
for example, the Sumerian Goddess of
love and war, Inanna is analogous to
the Babylonian Ishtar, the Greek
Aphrodite, and the Roman Venus.
Similarly the Sumerian sky-god An {oN13
}, is analogous to the Babylonian "Anu"
{o-nU14 }, the Greek "Zeus", and Roman
"Jupiter".15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology:
A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
2. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
3. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
4. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
5. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
6. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
7. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
8. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
9. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A
Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
10. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
11. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
12. ^
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/godsm
yth/g/sumeriandeities.htm
13. ^ "an." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 05 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
n>.
14. ^ "ANu." Dictionary.com Unabridged.
Random House, Inc. 05 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
Nu>.
15. ^ King, K.C. Ancient Epic. John
Wiley & Sons, 2012. Blackwell
Introductions to the Classical World,
p189-190. http://books.google.com/books
?id=9dxRQbFV_jAC&pg=PA189
16. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270.
17. ^ Kramer,
S.N. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of
Spiritual and Literary Achievement in
the Third Millennium, B.C. c by. ^ S.
N. Kramer ... American Philosophical
Society, 1944. Memoirs of the American
Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
18. ^ Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian
grammar and texts, 1990, p270. (there
is also a 2000 edition
{Hayes_Sumerian_2000.pdf})
19. ^ Kramer, S.N. Sumerian Mythology:
A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium,
B.C. c by. ^ S. N. Kramer ... American
Philosophical Society, 1944. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical
Society. http://books.google.com/books?
id=77aDgCLAZS8C
20. ^ Kramer, Samuel N. Sumerian
Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and
Literary Achievement in the Third
Millennium B.c. New York: Harper, 1961.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/986108
21. ^ Thomson, G.A. First Writers-The
Sumerians: They Wrote on Clay.
iUniverse, 2011, p xi.
22. ^ Alexander,
T.D., and D.W. Baker. Dictionary of the
Old Testament: Pentateuch: A Compendium
of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship.
InterVarsity Press, 2002. The IVP Bible
Dictionary Series, p608.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ancient literature".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_lit
erature
[2] Arno Poebel, "Historical and
grammatical texts", vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
[3] Jeffrey H. Tigay, "The evolution of
the Gilgamesh epic",
http://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuH
TH6I2sC
[4] Kramer, S. N. "Sumerian Literature;
A Preliminary Survey of the Oldest
Literature in the World." Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society
85.3 (1942): 293�323.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/985008
Lagash16 |Nippur17  
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ

[2] Photo of Creation and deluge
tablet - I did verify that this is the
earliest tablet of the earliest written
story with Kramer's Sumerian
Mythology[t] Arno Poebel, ''Historical
and grammatical texts'', vols 1-5,
1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 7 		6446) Egyptian writing becomes
completely phonetic.3 The first
alphabet.4

Egyptian scribes reduce Egyptian
writing to only 26 signs with no
vowels.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p39.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p39.
5. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p39,84.
6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.
7. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p84.

MORE INFO
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p47
Egypt6  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.
4,200 YBN
[2200 BC] 5 		6539) Citrus trees are grown in China.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p146-147. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ H. John Webber (1967). History and
Development of the Citrus Industry.
University of California Division of
Agricultural
Sciences. http://lib.ucr.edu/agnic/webb
er/ http://websites.lib.ucr.edu/agnic/w
ebber/Vol1/Chapter1.htm#origin
3. ^ H. John Webber (1967). History and
Development of the Citrus Industry.
University of California Division of
Agricultural
Sciences. http://lib.ucr.edu/agnic/webb
er/ http://websites.lib.ucr.edu/agnic/w
ebber/Vol1/Chapter1.htm#origin
4. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p146-147. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
5. ^ H. John Webber (1967). History and
Development of the Citrus Industry.
University of California Division of
Agricultural
Sciences. http://lib.ucr.edu/agnic/webb
er/ http://websites.lib.ucr.edu/agnic/w
ebber/Vol1/Chapter1.htm#origin
China3 4  
[1] Closeup of mandarin tree Photo
taken December 16, 2004 by Allen
Timothy Chang in the Berkeley Botanical
Garden GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Mandarin_tree_closeup
.JPG

[2] Description English: Ambersweet
oranges, a new cold-resistant orange
variety. Français : Oranges de la
variété Ambersweet, une variété
tolérante au froid. Date 22 March
2005 This image was released by the
Agricultural Research Service, the
research agency of the United States
Department of Agriculture, with the ID
k3644-12 (next). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ambersweet_oran
ges.jpg/908px-Ambersweet_oranges.jpg
4,130 YBN
[2130 BC] 6 		6234) The earliest musical horn.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
2. ^ Curt
Sachs, "The History of Musical
Instruments", 1940, p73.
3. ^ Curt Sachs,
"The History of Musical Instruments",
1940, p73.
4. ^ Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p73.
5. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx
6. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/article_index/g/gudea,_king_of_l
agash.aspx {around) 2130 BCE}
Lagash, Mesopotamia5  
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 6 7 		1279) The earliest Health science (or
medical) text; which lists 10
remedies.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), pp60-62.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p60.
6. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p60. (=toward the end of
the 3rd millenium) (=toward the end of
the 3rd millenium)
7. ^
http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/
11_1OldestPrescription.htm (The tablet
was inscribed toward the end of the
dynasty founded by Sargon the Great,
some time during the last quarter of
Third Millennium B.C)
Nippur5  
[1] Cuneiform medical
recipes Picture from a reproduction
of the original clay tablet dug in
Nippur, Sumer, dated from the III
millennium before Christ, and kept in
the Museum of the University of
Philadelphia (USA). This is
considered to be the earliest medical
recipes manual known. Thew original
picture at 7 Mpixel resolution is
available from the author. CC
source: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/33
27/3524713203_7d0a64d7aa_b.jpg

[2] Figure 2:The oldest medical text
“handbook” Clay Tablet with
pharmacological inscription from Nuppur
late 3rd Millennium B.C. University
museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia USA . UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ispub.com/journal/the
-internet-journal-of-health/volume-5-num
ber-1/surgical-medical-and-anesthesia-in
-the-middle-east-notes-on-ancient-and-me
dieval-practice-with-reference-to-islami
c-arabic-medicine.article-g05.fs.jpg
4,100 YBN
[2100 BC] 6 		6376) The first place value number
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.3 This base
60 number system is still in use to
measure time and angles.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
2. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
3. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp5,142-143.
4. ^ "sexagesimal." A Dictionary
of Weights, Measures, and Units. Oxford
University Press, 2002, 2004.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sexagesimal

5. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp5,142-143.
6. ^ Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp5,142-143.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jstor.org/view/00030279/ap020
117/02a00010/0 (sexagesimal.pdf)
[2] Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993)
[3] Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000)
[4] "sigillography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 20
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543584/sigillography>
[5]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals.html
[6] "Numeral system#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_sys
tem#History
[7]
http://www.earth-history.com/Clay-tablet
s.htm
[8] "writing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/649670/writing>
[9] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000)
Babylonia5  
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.

[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
4,050 YBN
[2050 BC] 5 		1278) The earliest recorded laws.3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p52.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p52.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
5. ^
Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p52.
Ur4  
[1] Tablet 3191 20 x 10 cm sun-baked
tablet. Kramer, ''History Begins At
Sumer'', 1956, p53.
source: Kramer, "History Begins At
Sumer", 1956, p53.

[2] [t Note - this doesn't look like
JKramer's image''] The Code of
Ur-Namma, the world's first known
codified list of laws. See the laws of
Ur-Namma.
source: http://sumerianshakespeare.com/m
ediac/450_0/media/fa2c170b2842c984ffff80
05ffffe415.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 6 		706) Humans ride horses.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
2. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
3. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
4. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
5. ^ Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
Kazakhstan4  
[1] Tell-tale signs of 'bit damage'
found by researchers in Kazakhstan are
evidence that horses were harnessed and
may have been ridden as early as 5,500
years ago. Researchers found traces of
the use of thong bridles, which are
simply leather thongs draped over the
gap between the teeth of a horse's
lower jaw and knotted under the chin,
with the trailing ends acting as the
reins. This is a depiction of the use
of a rawhide thong bridle on a
primitive domesticated horse. The thong
loops over the bar, or diastema,
between the anterior and cheek teeth,
and is knotted below the
chin. Credit: Illustration by Sandra
Olsen, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History Evidence of thong bridle use
suggests horses may have been ridden as
early as 5,500 years ago. Illustration
by Sandra Olsen, Carnegie Museum of
Natural History PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/horse1_f.jpg

[2] Outram, Alan K. et al. “The
Earliest Horse Harnessing and
Milking.” Science 323.5919 (2009):
1332 –1335.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2547163
9
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/323/5919/1332.short
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 		711) The earliest spoked wheel.3
Spokes make the wheel lighter in
weight.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Ghosh, A. (1989). An Encyclopedia
of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
p.337. http://books.google.com/books?id
=Wba-EZhZcfgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it#
v=onepage&q=wheel&f=false
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
 
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg

[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 13 14 		733) The earliest lock and key.9 10
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
2. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
3. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
4. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
5. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
6. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
7. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
8. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
9. ^ "article 4263". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-426
3
10. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
11. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh)
12. ^ "Nineveh." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nineveh
13. ^
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/science/inventions/chpt8.htm
(=4000ybn/nineveh) {4000 YBN(nineveh}
14. ^ Trevor
I. Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
(=1200bce/egypt) {1200 BCE (egypt}
Nineveh,11 Assyria on the Tigris
River12  
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 7 8 		1283) The earliest library catalog.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p217.
2. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
3. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p217.
4. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
5. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm
6. ^ "Nippur." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nippur
7. ^
http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum0
5.htm (2000BCE)
8. ^ Ted Huntington. (find more
exact if possible)
Nippur5 an ancient city of Babylonia
on the Euphrates River southeast of
Babylon6  
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 5 		6236) Metal is traded as money; in
Babylonia.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {older than) 2000 BCE}
Babylonia4  
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
4,000 YBN
[2000 BC] 4 		6542) The vegetables leek, garlic and
onion are grown around the fertile
crescent.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E.
Weiss. Domestication of Plants in the
Old World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
4. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p155-157. http://books.google.com/books
?id=tc6vr0qzk_4C
Mesopotamia3  
[1] Description English: Leek field
in Italy Date 19 January 2008,
10:07 Source Flickr: Porri, Lauch,
Leek Author Peter Forster CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Leek_field_in_I
taly_3.jpg/640px-Leek_field_in_Italy_3.j
pg
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 3 4 		1181) The earliest brass (a copper and
zinc alloy).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thornton, C.P and Ehlers, C.B.
(2003) "Early Brass in the ancient Near
East" in IAMS Newsletter 23 pp.
27–36 http://www.ucl.ac.uk/iams/newsl
etter/accordion/journals/iams_23/iams_23
_2003_thornton_ehlers {iams_23_2003_tho
rnton_ehlers_2003.pdf}
2. ^ "calamine brass". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 16 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/88760/calamine-brass>.
3. ^ Thornton, C.P and Ehlers, C.B.
(2003) "Early Brass in the ancient Near
East" in IAMS Newsletter 23 pp.
27–36 http://www.ucl.ac.uk/iams/newsl
etter/accordion/journals/iams_23/iams_23
_2003_thornton_ehlers {iams_23_2003_tho
rnton_ehlers_2003.pdf}
4. ^ "calamine brass". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 16 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/88760/calamine-brass>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Calamine brass". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_br
ass (estimate millenium)
[2] Thornton, Christopher
P. et al. “On Pins and Needles:
Tracing the Evolution of Copper-base
Alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran, via
ICP-MS Analysis of Common-place
Items.” Journal of Archaeological
Science 29.12 (2002):
1451–1460. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/S0305440302908095

[3] "Calamine brass". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_br
ass
Tepe Yahya (modern Iran)|Asia Minor2
 
[1] Thornton, Christopher P. et al.
“On Pins and Needles: Tracing the
Evolution of Copper-base Alloying at
Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS Analysis
of Common-place Items.” Journal of
Archaeological Science 29.12 (2002):
1451–1460. http://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/S0305440302908095
{Thornton_Brass_2002CE.pdf} PD
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440302908095
3,700 YBN
[1700 BC] 4 		1280) The earliest agricultural science
text.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samual Kramer, "History Begins at
Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), p65.
2. ^ Samual
Kramer, "History Begins at Sumer",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor
Books, 1959), p65.
3. ^ Samual Kramer,
"History Begins at Sumer", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books,
1959), p65.
4. ^ Samual Kramer, "History
Begins at Sumer", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd
edition, 1981, p66.
Nippur3  
[1] Samual Kramer, ''History Begins at
Sumer'', (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66. copyrighted
source: Samual Kramer, "History Begins
at Sumer", (Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), 3rd edition, 1981,
p66.
3,650 YBN
[1650 BC] 4 		716) The earliest mathematical text.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/hig
hlights/highlight_objects/aes/r/rhind_ma
thematical_papyrus.aspx
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Egypt3  
[1] Description Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus Thebes, End of the Second
Intermediate Period (c.1550
BC) Acquired by the Scottish lawyer
A.H. Rhind during his sojourn in Thebes
in the 1850s. Overall length 319 cm,
width: 34.3 cm Frame length: 216 cm,
width: 43 cm British Museum EA
10057 Department of Ancient Egypt and
Sudan Date 21 May 2006 Source
http://www.archaeowiki.org/Image:Rhind_
Mathematical_Papyrus.jpg Author Paul
James Cowie (Pjamescowie)
source: http://kak.ru/vimg/article/f304a
d8044c45bfa5b9a21fd400ae5b2.gif

[2] Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoft
heworld/images/emp/00017_02.jpg
3,600 YBN
[1600 BC] 3 4 		6460) The "Pythagorean Theorem" is
known in Babylonia: that the sum of the
squares of the two legs of a right
triangle is equal to the square of the
hypotenuse.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Hist
Topics/Babylonian_Pythagoras.html
2. ^ "Pythagorean theorem".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 10 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485209/Pythagorean-theorem>.
3. ^ "Pythagorean theorem".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 10 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485209/Pythagorean-theorem>.
4. ^
http://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/before-p
ythagoras/items/ybc-7289/
Babylonia 
[1] YBC 7289 (obverse). Image by West
Semitic Research. All rights reserved.
AND YBC 7289 (reverse). Image by
West Semitic Research. All rights
reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/
before-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/images/
YBC7289obv.pnghttp://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibi
tions/before-pythagoras/items/ybc-7289/i
mages/YBC7289rev.png

[2] Summary A black and white
rendition of my own photograph of the
Yale Babylonian Collection's Tablet YBC
7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE), showing a
Babylonian approximation to the square
root of 2 in the context of Pythagoras'
Theorem for an isosceles
triangle. All use should attribute
both me (mentioning
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/
ybc.html) and the Yale Babylonian
Collection as the original holder of
the tablet. Author: Bill Casselman
(mailto:cass@math.ubc.ca) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ybc7289-bw.jpg
3,531 YBN
[1531 BC] 12 13 		639) The first planet, Venus, is
recognized in Babylon.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
2. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
3. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
4. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
5. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
6. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
7. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
8. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
9. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
10. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
11. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
12. ^ Russell Hobson, THE EXACT
TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST
MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD
Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical
and Jewish Studies. University of
Sydney, 2009,
p6. http://www.caeno.org/_Eponym/pdf/Ga
sche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf
13. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History
and Practice of Ancient Astronomy.
Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7.
ISBN 9780195095395.
http://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_
7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=babylon+gree
k+astronomy&hl=en#v=onepage&q=babylon%20
greek%20astronomy&f=false
Babylon11  
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 8 		624) The earliest oven-baked mud brick
(also called "burned brick").5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
2. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
3. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
4. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
5. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
6. ^ "burnt brick." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/burnt-brick
-1
7. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>.
8. ^ "brick and tile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2011. Web. 26 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79195/brick>. {1500 BC}
Ur, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)7  
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 7 8 		723) The earliest pulley.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ Sir Austen Henry Layard, "Nineveh
and its remains: with an account of a
visit to the Chaldean ...", 1850,
p219. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-J5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). {1500 BC}
8. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p21. {before 260 BC}
Nimroud, Assyria5 6  
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of Nimroud. PD

source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg

[2] Description Ilustración de una
polea simple fija. Date 7 agugust
2004 Source Own work Author César
Rincón GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Polea-simple-fija.jpg

3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 5 		1516) The "Vedas", four ancient Indian
collections of poems or hymns,
originate as an oral tradition2 before
being written down 1200 years later.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.
2. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.
3. ^ "Rigveda". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/503627/Rigveda>.
4. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.
5. ^ "Veda". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 09 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/624383/Veda>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Veda". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4939/Veda (1500-1200BCE)
[2] "Vedas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
(1500-1200BCE)
[3] Salomon, Richard. “On the Origin
of the Early Indian Scripts.” Journal
of the American Oriental Society 115.2
(1995): 271–279.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/604670
India4  
[1] Geographic horizon of the Rigveda,
with river names. Also indicated are
the extent of the contemporary Swat and
Cemetary H cultures, and the location
of Harappa. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jp
g
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 9 10 		6228) The water clock (or Clepsydra
{KlePSi-Dru5 }).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quaternary." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 17
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
3. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
5. ^
"quaternary." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Jun.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quaternary
6. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
7. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27.
8. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
9. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p27. {1500
BC}
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p17.
{1450-1401 BC}
Egypt7 8  
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg

[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
3,500 YBN
[1500 BC] 7 8 		6456) The earliest American city, an
Olmec city in Veracruz, Mexico.3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
2. ^ "Olmec." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec
3. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
4. ^ "Olmec." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec Re
ad more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2BngsyQSh
5. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
6. ^ "Olmec." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2012. Answers.com 10 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olmec Re
ad more:
http://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_an
swer.jsp#ixzz2BngsyQSh
7. ^ Richard A Diehl, 2004, The Olmecs
- America's First Civilization London:
Thames & Hudson, pp.25,27.
8. ^ Christopher A.
Pool, "Olmec Archeology And Early
Mesamerica", 2007, p I.
(El Manati shrine, near modern) San
Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico5 6  
[1] Edited CabezaColosal1
MuseoXalapa.jpg file already in Commons
by adding a white line to visually
separate the two photos/views. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/CabezaColosal1_MuseoX
alapa_v1.1.jpg
3,450 YBN
[1450 BC] 4 		6449) The first letters that represent
vowel sounds.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p56,87.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p56,87.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p87.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p87.
Ugarit (modern Ra's Shamra on Syria's
north coast)3  
[1] 14th century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://www.websters-online-dictionary.
org/images/wiki/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/U
garitic_alphabet.png

[2] Ugarit tablet datation 14th
century
BC provenance Ugarit area Syria per
iod 2000-1000 BC size 1.3 cm x 5.1
cm materials Clay
. themes Commerce. Communication.
Daily Life. and alphabet UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unesco.org/culture/mu
seum-for-dialogue/images/items/650/021.j
pghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/d/dd/Ugaritic-alphabet-cha
rt.svg/1000px-Ugaritic-alphabet-chart.sv
g.png http://www.oocities.org/encyclope
dia_damascena/ancientsyria/images/mus013
.jpg
3,400 YBN
[1400 BC] 4 		6454) The earliest Chinese writing.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p166-171.

MORE INFO
[1] Chang, P.K.C. et al. The
Formation of Chinese Civilization: An
Archaeological Perspective. Yale
University Press, 2005. The Culture and
Civilization of China Series.
p124-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=sP-PN2StH2cC
near Anyang, north-central China3
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p171. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p171.

[2] Description English: Ox scapula
with a divination inscription from the
Shang Dynasty, dating to the reign of
King Wu Ding. Unearthed at Anyang,
Henan Province. Held at the National
Museum of China in Beijing. Date 2
August 2011 Source Own work Author
BabelStone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_i
nscribed_scapula.jpg/684px-Shang_dynasty
_inscribed_scapula.jpg
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 2 3 		6559) The earliest evidence of human
kissing.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Kiss", Bromiley, G.W. The
International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia. Wilkliam Eerdmans, 1980,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
kla5Gl_66oC&pg=PA44
2. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
3. ^ "Kiss", Bromiley, G.W. The
International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia. Wilkliam Eerdmans, 1980,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
kla5Gl_66oC&pg=PA44
 
[1] Descripció A ''house altar''
depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and
three of their Daughters. New Kingdom,
Amarna period, 18th dynasty. Image
taken at the Altes Museum,
Berlin. Data 8 novembre 2006 Origen
Own Work (photo) Autor Keith
Schengili-Roberts Permís (Com
reutilitzar aquest fitxer) I, the
author of this photo, hereby release it
under copyleft/GFDL/CC Altres versions
another photograph of this object:
Image:House_Altar_Akhenaten_Nefertiti_Be
rlin.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HouseAltar-Akhe
natenNefertitiAndThreeOfTheirDaughters.p
ng/1280px-HouseAltar-AkhenatenNefertitiA
ndThreeOfTheirDaughters.png
3,350 YBN
[1350 BC] 4 		6561) Welding of metals using heat and
hammering.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
2. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
3. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}
4. ^ Herbert Maryon, "Metal Working in
the Ancient World", American Journal of
Archaeology , Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr. -
Jun., 1949), pp. 93-125;
p103. http://www.jstor.org/stable/50049
8 {Maryon_Metal_Working_1949.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "welding". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 02 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/639223/welding>
Egypt3  
[1] Items from inside King
Tutankhamen's tomb UNKNOWN
source: http://castle.pri.ee/wp-content/
uploads/2010/08/210403_3.jpg
3,348 YBN
[1348 BC] 6 7 		2727) Monotheism, the theory that only
one God exists;2 by Amenhotep IV,
Pharaoh of Egypt.3 All monotheistic
religions may originate from the
influence of this earliest recorded
monotheism.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
2. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
3. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Akhenaton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton
6. ^ "Akhenaten". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Akhenaten%20
(5th year in reign 1365bce)
7. ^ "Akhenaton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5276/Akhenaton (reign: BCE
1353�1336)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great Hymn to the Aten".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hymn_
to_the_Aten
[2] "Amen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen
[3] "Psalm 104". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm_104
[4] "amen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
6072/amen
Amarna, Egypt5  
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG

[2] English: Amun and Mut Nederlands:
Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 4 		736) Two piece mold metal casting.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p74.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
3. ^ Trevor I.
Williams, "A history of invention :
from stone axes to silicon chips ",
(New York: Checkmark Books, 2000), p74.
4. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000), p74.
Mesopotamia3  
[1] Half of a two-piece limestone mould
for casting a flat-bladed tool,
1650-1050 BC
(1899,1229.91). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/col
lectionimages/AN00854/AN00854035_001_l.j
pg
3,300 YBN
[1300 BC] 5 6 		5862) The earliest written musical
notation and musical composition.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
2. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
3. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
4. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
5. ^ David Wulstan, "The Earliest
Musical Notation", Music & Letters ,
Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp.
365-382. http://www.jstor.org/stable/73
4711
6. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 30 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {800 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] West, M. L., 'The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian
Melodic Texts', Music & Letters, Vol.
75, No. 2. (May, 1994), pp. 161–179
[2] A. D.
Kilmer and M. Civil, "Old Babylonian
Musical Instructions Relating to
Hymnody", Journal of Cuneiform Studies,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
94-98 http://www.jstor.org/stable/13599
53
Ur, Babylonia3 |Mesopotamia4  
[1] Tablet U.3011 (handcopy of O. R.
Gurney, 1974) Volume 32 of the Old
Babylonian Encyclopaedia Nabnitu
(Creature) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.kingmixers.com/images
/tablet.jpg
3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 5 6 		3134) Shellac is used as plastic.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "lac." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 14 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/327085/lac>.
2. ^ "lac." Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 14 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/327085/lac>.
3. ^ Painting & Decorating Contractors
of America. National Painters Magazine.
Schnell Publishing Company, 1921,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
scfAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA34
4. ^ Painting & Decorating Contractors
of America. National Painters Magazine.
Schnell Publishing Company, 1921,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
scfAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA34
5. ^ Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. Vol
1, ISBN 0486404404.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WfIDAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Original+Tr
eatises+on+the+Art+of+Painting&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=NFFCUZHJMaqoyAGr34H4Ag&ved=0CFEQ6AE
wBA#v=onepage&q=1220&f=false
6. ^ Painting & Decorating Contractors
of America. National Painters Magazine.
Schnell Publishing Company, 1921,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
scfAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA34

MORE INFO
[1] "Shellac". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellac
[2] Merrifield, Mary (1849). Original
Treatises on the Art of Painting. ISBN
0486404404
India3 |(from India to Spain and the
South of France)4  
[1] Blond shellac sample PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Schellak.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Kerria lacca
from book Indian Insect Life: a Manual
of the Insects of the Plains by Harold
Maxwell-Lefroy. 1. Healthy
insects on stick 2. Unhealthy
insects on stick 3. First instar,
active stage. 40x 4. Female, 4
weeks after inoculation. 35x. 5.
Female, 13 weeks after inoculation.
15x. 6. Dead female cell, with
young emerging. 4x. 7. Male cell,
13 weeks after inoculation. 15x.
8. Wingless male. 12x. 9. Wingled
male. 40x. Date 1909 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibr
ary/6280048728/in/set-72157627975114672
Author Harold Maxwell-Lefroy CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02-Indian-Insec
t-Life_-_Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-
Lacca.jpg/611px-02-Indian-Insect-Life_-_
Harold_Maxwell-Lefroy_-_Kerria-Lacca.jpg

3,200 YBN
[1200 BC] 5 6 7 8 		6605) The first steel; in Egypt. Steel
is an alloy of iron and carbon with
carbon content up to 2 percent.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "steel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 06 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564627/steel>.
2. ^ "steel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 06 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564627/steel>.
3. ^ Saggs, H.W. Civilization Before
Greece and Rome. YALE University Press,
1989,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?id=
R28oab-7jLcC&pg=PA210
4. ^ Potts, D.T. A Companion to the
Archaeology of the Ancient Near East.
Wiley, 2012. Blackwell Companions to
the Ancient World,
p312. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zqQofdcZAGoC&pg=PA312
5. ^ Carpenter, H. C H., and J. M.
Robinson. 1930. "The metallography of
some ancient Egyptian implements.",
Iron and Steel Inst. 121:430
32. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v125/n3162/abs/125859a0.html
6. ^ "steel." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 06 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564627/steel>.
7. ^ Saggs, H.W. Civilization Before
Greece and Rome. YALE University Press,
1989,
p210. http://books.google.com/books?id=
R28oab-7jLcC&pg=PA210
8. ^ Potts, D.T. A Companion to the
Archaeology of the Ancient Near East.
Wiley, 2012. Blackwell Companions to
the Ancient World,
p312. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zqQofdcZAGoC&pg=PA312

MORE INFO
[1] "Ironware piece unearthed
from Turkey found to be oldest steel".
The Hindu (Chennai, India). 2009-03-26.
Retrieved 2009-03-27
[2] Flinders Petrie, "The
Metals in Egypt", Ancient Egypt, 1915,
p21-22. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22
Egypt2 |Cypress, Syria, and eastern
Greece3 |Cypress and Israel4  
[1] {ULSF: Note that these may not be
the knives from the Nature article with
carburized iron (steel): Carpenter, H.
C H., and J. M. Robinson. 1930. ''The
metallography of some ancient Egyptian
implements.'', Iron and Steel Inst.
121:430
32. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v125/n3162/abs/125859a0.html } sourc
e: Flinders Petrie, ''The Metals in
Egypt'', Ancient Egypt, 1915,
p21-22. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22

[2] {ULSF: Note that these may not be
the knives from the Nature article with
carburized iron (steel): Carpenter, H.
C H., and J. M. Robinson. 1930. ''The
metallography of some ancient Egyptian
implements.'', Iron and Steel Inst.
121:430
32. http://www.nature.com/nature/journa
l/v125/n3162/abs/125859a0.html } sourc
e: Flinders Petrie, ''The Metals in
Egypt'', Ancient Egypt, 1915,
p21-22. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=WJwYAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA22
3,150 YBN
[1150 BC] 4 		6447) The Phoenician alphabet, the
ancestor of the Greek alphabet.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p88-90.
(coastal centers) Byblos, Tyre, Sidon,
Beurut, and Ashkelon3  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p48. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p48.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 4 		746) Complex pulleys.2 The lifting
power of a pulley is multiplied by the
number of ropes pulling the load.3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {1000 BC}
 
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p41.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 8 		6237) The earliest lens.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
2. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
3. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
4. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
5. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
6. ^ D. Brewster (1852). "On an account
of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed
glass found in Niniveh" (in German).
Die Fortschritte der Physik (Deutsche
Physikalische
Gesellschaft). http://books.google.com/
books?id=bHwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA355&dq=ni
niveh+lens&hl=en#v=onepage&q=niniveh%20l
ens&f=false
7. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm
8. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
"World's oldest telescope?". BBC News.
Retrieved
2008-05-10. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
science/nature/380186.stm {3000YBN}
Nimrud, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)7
 
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 4 		6448) The Aramaic alphabet, the
ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, and
probably the alphabets of India.2
Consonant letters are used to mark
vowel sounds.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
 
[1] Summary Pergamonmuseum,
Eck-Orthostat des Fürsten Kilamuwa,
Samal (heute Zincirli, Türkei), selbst
fotografiert. Memorial stone of
Kilamuwa King of Sam'al (Zincirli), c.
850 B.C., written in aramean. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Pergamonmuseum_
-_Vorderasiatisches_Museum_046.JPG/768px
-Pergamonmuseum_-_Vorderasiatisches_Muse
um_046.JPG

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p54.
3,000 YBN
[1000 BC] 6 7 8 		6450) The earliest Hebrew writing.3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
"Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In
Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2008/11/081103091035.htm
2. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
3. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
"Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In
Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2008/11/081103091035.htm
4. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
5. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
6. ^ Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
"Earliest Known Hebrew Text In
Proto-Canaanite Script Discovered In
Area Where 'David Slew Goliath'."
ScienceDaily, 3 Nov. 2008. Web. 8 Nov.
2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/relea
ses/2008/11/081103091035.htm
7. ^
http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=2043
8. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p95.
Khirbet Qeiyafa near the Elah valley,
Israel5  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p96. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p96.

[2] The deciphered text: Hebrew
transliteration: English
translation: {.......................
.....................................}
1′ you shall not do {it}, but worship
the {Lord}. 2′ Judge the sla{ve} and
the wid{ow} / Judge the orph{an} 3′
{and} the stranger. {Pl}ead for the
infant / plead for the po{or and} 4′
the widow. Rehabilitate {the poor} at
the hands of the king. 5′ Protect
the po{or and} the slave / {supp}ort
the stranger. UNKNOWN
source: http://wordpress.haifa.ac.il/wp-
content/uploads/2010/01/d797d7a8d7a1-2.j
pg
2,922 YBN
[922 BC] 4 		753) The monotheistic religion: Judaism
is founded.1 The story of Moses.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
Israel3  
[1] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem,, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/b67acf4eda9e77d153ebac3bf1
99744b1.jpg

[2] Oldest Hebrew Writing Found in the
Elah Fortress 18 miles west of
Jerusalem, Deciphered January 7,
2010 Image source: University of
Haifa UNKNOWN
source: http://www.redorbit.com/media/up
loads/2010/01/1b8fb494e2a99c79e89b2e72e5
41f7e61.jpg
2,850 YBN
[850 BC] 4 5 		751) The Greek alphabet; each vowel is
given its own sign.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
3. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993).
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p122-123.
5. ^ Barbara Watterson,
"Introducing Egyptian hieroglyphs",
(Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press,
1993). {2850 YBN}

MORE INFO
[1] Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and
Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts
to Write. Putnam, 1969, p452
Greece3  
[1] National Archaeological Museum of
Greece Discovered in 1871 near
Athens’s Dipylon Gate, this jug,
dating to around 740 B.C., bears one of
the earliest Greek alphabetic
inscriptions: “Whoever of all the
dancers now dances most friskily.”
The vase was probably awarded to the
winner of a dance competition, like the
one described by Homer in Book VIII of
the Odyssey. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSAO/01/01/BSAO010104800L.jpg

[2] Description English: One of the
four oldest known samples of the use of
the Greek alphabet. It has been dated
to ca. 740 BCE. ...(h)ος νῦν
ὀρχεστôν πάντον
ἀταλό(τατα)... Date 20
March 2010 Source Durutomo Author
Durutomo The text of the
inscription runs:
ΗΟΣΝΥΝΟΡΧΕΣΤΟΝΠΑΝΤΟΝ
ΑΤΑΛΟΤΑΤΑΠΑΙΖΕΙΤΟΤΟΔ
ΕΚΛΜΙΝ In modern scholarly
editions this is transcribed as:
hος νῦν ὀρχεστôν
πάντον ἀταλότατα
παίζει, τô τόδε
κλ[.]μιν[...] This corresponds
to the following in the later classical
orthography in Greek (using the Ionian
form of the Greek alphabet), with the
metric feet of the hexameter
indicated: ὃς νῦν
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Dipylon_Inscrip
tion.JPG/1280px-Dipylon_Inscription.JPG
2,800 YBN
[800 BC] 6 7 		6452) The Indian alphabets of India and
South-East Asia.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p105-120.
2. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol,
and Script: An Account of Man’s
Efforts to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
3. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p105-120.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p105-120.
5. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol,
and Script: An Account of Man’s
Efforts to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
6. ^
Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p105-120.
7. ^ Jensen, H. Sign, Symbol, and
Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts
to Write. Putnam, 1969, p361.
India4 5  
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p107. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p107.

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p109.
2,785 YBN
[785 BC] 5 		771) Eclipses are predicted by
Babylonian astronomers.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
2. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
3. ^ Richard
Elliott Friedman, "Who wrote the
Bible?", (San Francisco: Summit Books,
1987).
4. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
5. ^ Richard Elliott
Friedman, "Who wrote the Bible?", (San
Francisco: Summit Books, 1987).
 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
2,753 YBN
[753 BC] 3 		6457) Rome is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p141.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p141.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p141.

MORE INFO
[1] Holloway, R.R. The
Archaeology of Early Rome and Latium.
Routledge, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?id=sU
RWQJ1OUJYC
Rome, Italy2  
[1] Reconstruction of the Iron Age huts
on the Palatine, dating back to the 8th
century B.C. Rome, Palatine
Museum. Description: During the
excavations in 1948 the remains of
three huts, forum and orifices for
roof-supporting poles were found; the
walls apparently were made of clay and
straw mixture. The tombs dating from
10th—8th centuries B.C. were found
near the huts. Credits: © Photo,
text: GIOVANNI D’ANNA “LEGGENDE E
TRADIZIONI DELL’ANTICA ROMA”,
ARCHEO, N. 31, p. 58. Photo: Archivio
IGDA © Istituto Geografico De
Agostini S.p.A. — Novara COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ancientrome.ru/art/artwor
k/arch/rom/rome/palatinus/pal004.jpg

[2] Artist's impression of an early
settlement on the Palatine
Hill UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Palatine_Hill_settlement.jpg
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 8 9 		1066) The earliest aquaduct, a channel
to move water from one place to
another5 near Nineveh.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
queduct>.
2. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
3. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
queduct>.
4. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
5. ^ "aqueduct." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 01 Jul.
2012.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
queduct>.
6. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
7. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
8. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
9. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)
Jerwan, Nineveh7  
[1] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Ruined corbelled arch of an
aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Credit:
Spectrum Colour Library /
Heritage-Images Additional
information Ruined corbelled arch of
an aqueduct, Jerwan, Iraq, 1977. Built
in around 700 BC by the Assyrian King
Sennacherib to supply water to his
capital city, Nineveh, this is thought
to be the oldest aqueduct in the
world. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://watermarked.heritage-imag
es.com/2332294.jpg
2,690 YBN
[690 BC] 8 9 		6378) The earliest concrete (lime
cement mixed with limestone); used in
an aqueduct.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton
Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at
Jerwan, Oriental Institute Publication
24, University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
2. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331 {Moorey
_plaster_1999.pdf}
3. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
4. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331
{Moorey_plaster_1999.pdf}
5. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
6. ^ Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p331. http://books.google.com/books?id=
P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA331&lpg=PA331
{Moorey_plaster_1999.pdf}
7. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
8. ^ Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df
9. ^ "Aquaduct". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaduct
(7th cent)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sennacherib". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 01 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534613/Sennacherib/6562/Building
-and-technological-achievements>
[2] "cement". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 12 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/101833/cement>
Jerwan, Nineveh7  
[1] Plate 14 image B from: Thorkild
Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd, Sennacherib's
Aqueduct at Jerwan, Oriental Institute
Publication 24, University of Chicago
Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf

[2] Thorkild Jacobsen and Seton Lloyd,
Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,
Oriental Institute Publication 24,
University of Chicago Press,
1935 http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.p
df UNKNOWN
source: http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24
.pdf
2,651 YBN
[651 BC] 9 10 		6337) All planets visible to the naked
eye (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) are clearly distinguished from
stars in Babylonia.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

2. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
3. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
5. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

6. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
7. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
9. ^ A. Sachs, "Babylonian
Observational Astronomy", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences , Vol. 276, No. 1257,
The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient
World (May 2, 1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273

10. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p55-56.
Babylonia7 8  
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
2,650 YBN
[650 BC] 5 6 		6458) The Etruscan {iTruSKeN3 }
alphabet. Letter names are changed to
/A/, /BA/, /KA/, etc.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Etruscan." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/etruscan-ci
vilization
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p137-141.
3. ^ "Etruscan." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 13
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/etruscan-ci
vilization
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p137-141.
5. ^
http://www.scalarchives.com/web/dettagli
o_immagine.asp?idImmagine=0080832&posizi
one=27&numImmagini=332&SC_Luogo=Archaeol
ogical+Museum%2C+Florence%2C+Italy&prmse
t=on&SC_PROV=RA&SC_Lang=eng&Sort=9&luce=

6. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p137-141.
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p104. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p104.

[2] The Marsiliana Tablet (Ivory, 650
B.C.) and Etruscan alphabets (click
image to enlarge): UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4163/
slides3/alphabet.gif
2,622 YBN
[622 BC] 6 7 8 		826) The Old Testament (The Torah, The
Hebrew Bible, The Ten Commandments, and
The Story of Genesis).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
2. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
3. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
4. ^ "biblical literature".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
5. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
6. ^ "biblical
literature". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/64496/biblical-literature/73158/
The-history-of-canonization>.
7. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who
wrote the Bible?", (San Francisco:
Summit Books, 1987).
8. ^ "Hebrew Bible".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/259039/Hebrew-Bible>.
Judah4 |(Israel5 ) 
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 5 		630) Metal coin money is traded.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {7th Century BC}
Lydia, Anatolia4  
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg

[2] Description English: Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC Date
2009-04-22 17:00 (UTC) Source

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg Author

Asia_Minor_Political_500BC.svg:
*Mysia.svg: Emok derivative
work:
Mysia_map_ancient_community.jpg:
User:Roke derivative work:
MinisterForBadTimes (talk)
derivative work: MinisterForBadTimes
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Lycia locator map.svg Political
map of Asia Minor in 500 BC in
Masry.PNG GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatolia_Ancien
t_Regions_base.svg/1000px-Anatolia_Ancie
nt_Regions_base.svg.png
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 17 		762) The Universe is explained without
using the theory of Gods by Thales of
Miletus.7 8 9
Thales claims the
universe originated as water,10 11 12
that moon light is reflected sun
light,13 and measures a pyramid by
comparing the pyramid shadow with the
shadow from a stick.14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Thales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
3. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
6. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
9. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
12. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
13. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
15. ^ "Thales".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales
16. ^ "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
17. ^ estimate on
guess of 30 years old when realizes to
remove Marduct

MORE INFO
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History
of Philosophy: From Thales to the
Present Time. C. Scribner’s
sons, 1891. A History of Philosophy:
From Thales to the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32
Miletus, Greece16  
[1] Ueberweg, F. et al. A History of
Philosophy: From Thales to the Present
Time. C. Scribner’s sons, 1891. A
History of Philosophy: From Thales to
the Present Time,
p32. http://books.google.com/books?id=A
h_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Ah_7Od24BXsC&pg=PA32

[2] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://ujszo.com/sites/default/f
iles/old/ujszo_1221803126_14.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 6 7 		2619) The concept of a Devil is created
and is first recorded in the book of
Job, written around this time.1 2 3 4 5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Satan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5840/Satan
2. ^ "The Book of Job". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3696/The-Book-of-Job
3. ^ "job new 2". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/job-new-2
4. ^ The Origin of Satan, Pagels, 1995,
p39.
5. ^ Job
1:11 http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%
20Job&verse=1:11&src=!
6. ^ "job new 2". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/job-new-2
(between 600BCE-400BCE)
7. ^ "The Book of Job".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3696/The-Book-of-Job (before 6th
century BCE)
 
[1] Book of
Job http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%2
0Job&verse=1:11&src=! Hebrew-English -
paraellel MT and JPS 1917 (Mechon
Mamre) http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt
/pt2701.htm#11 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt
/pt2701.htm#11

[2] Description Illustration of
the Devil in the Codex Gigas, folio 270
recto Date Early 13th century Source
http://www.kb.se/codex-gigas/eng/Browse
-the-Manuscript/Djavulen/?=&mode=1&page=
577# Author Herman the Recluse of the
Benedictine monastery of Podlažice PD

source: Codex_Gigas_devil.jpg
2,600 YBN
[600 BC] 4 		6455) The earliest Native American
writing.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p211-236.
San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico3  
[1] Stelae 12 and 13 from Monte Alban,
provisionally dated to 500-400 BCE,
showing what is thought to be one of
the earliest calendric representations
in Mesoamerica Stelae 12 and 13 from
Monte Alban. These two stelae contain
what is thought to be one of the oldest
calendar signs (calendrics) from
Mesoamerica. Taken from the Japanese
Wikipedia: Thanks to
Siyajkak! GNU AND AND The oldest
writing in all of Meso-America. These
Zapotec hieroglyphs, carved on stone
stelae found in the Palacio de
Danzantes, are among the oldest
examples Zapotec writing. The Zapotecs
possessed the oldest fully-developed
writing system of ancient Meso-America.
The building is named for the relief
carvings of danzantes, or dancers,
which were found by Guillaume Dupaix, a
Belgian traveler who visited in 1806.
The carvings were found on the sides of
a palace which had been covered over by
a building constructed in a later
period, a common practice throughout
Meso-America. The glyphs on the stelae
above appear to be dates of great
events in the city's early history. On
both stones you can see horizontal rows
of dots, sometimes accompanied by a
solid bar underneath. These symbols
represent numbers. Zapotec writing is
made up of both phonetic symbols and
symbols representing ideas. It is still
mostly undeciphered because even the
Zapotec language the Spanish recorded
in the 1520s had undergone more than
1000 years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Monte_Alban_Stela_12_
%26_13.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDM
PKN0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYds
gQg/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg

[2] The oldest writing in all of
Meso-America. These Zapotec
hieroglyphs, carved on stone stelae
found in the Palacio de Danzantes, are
among the oldest examples Zapotec
writing. The Zapotecs possessed the
oldest fully-developed writing system
of ancient Meso-America. The building
is named for the relief carvings of
danzantes, or dancers, which were found
by Guillaume Dupaix, a Belgian traveler
who visited in 1806. The carvings were
found on the sides of a palace which
had been covered over by a building
constructed in a later period, a common
practice throughout Meso-America. The
glyphs on the stelae above appear to be
dates of great events in the city's
early history. On both stones you can
see horizontal rows of dots, sometimes
accompanied by a solid bar underneath.
These symbols represent numbers.
Zapotec writing is made up of both
phonetic symbols and symbols
representing ideas. It is still mostly
undeciphered because even the Zapotec
language the Spanish recorded in the
1520s had undergone more than 1000
years of evolution since the above
texts were written somewhere between
400 - 200 BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_uXDMPK
N0Bjo/TIBLPDXtTeI/AAAAAAAAFcw/5sMjcYdsgQ
g/s1600/MA+Danzante+hieroglyphs.jpg
2,588 YBN
[588 BC] 3 		6434) The monotheistic religion:
Zoroasterism is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Zoroaster". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/658060/Zoroaster>.
2. ^ "Zoroaster". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/658060/Zoroaster>.
3. ^ "Zoroaster". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/658060/Zoroaster>.
(Chorasmia south of the Aral Sea,
modern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan)
Central Asia and/or (born in Rhages,
now Rayy, a suburb of Tehrān, a town
in Media)Tehrān, Iran2  
[1] Portrait of Zarathustra as depicted
in a Mithraic Temple in Dura Europus
(in modern Syria) in the 3rd Century
AD. PD
source: http://www.kavehfarrokh.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2008/10/Pic2-Zoroaster.jp
g

[2] Ptolemy viewed from the back
holding an earth sphere. He is facing
Zoroaster who holds a celestial sphere.
Western Astrology is based on Ptolemy's
Tetrabiblos. It is significant that the
two are part of a conversation and that
Zoroaster holds the celestial
sphere. PD
source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-pZn4a1
CwgVI/TcNDKrEPBwI/AAAAAAAAAUY/wN7Lp4wDVB
0/s1600/The+School+of+Athens+by+Raphael+
1509-+Zoroaster+left%252C+with+star-stud
ded+globe.jpg
2,580 YBN
[580 BC] 7 		764) The Earth-centered Universe
theory, and the theory that humans
evolved from fish.4

The Earth-centered theory will dominate
until the 1500s.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The
Library of Alexandria Centre of
Learning in the Ancient World", (New
York: I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2000).
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ estimate on guess of 30
years old when makes science
contributions

MORE INFO
[1] "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Miletus6  
[1] A map of Anaximander's
Earth-centered theory UNKNOWN
source: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep-
wp/wp-content/media/anaxfig1.gif

[2] Detail of Raphael's painting The
School of Athens, 1510–1511. This
could be a representation of
Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras
on his left.[1] Born c. 610 BCE c.
546 BCE (aged around 64) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Anaximander.jpg
2,550 YBN
[550 BC] 4 5 		1036) The Latin alphabet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.
5. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p151-152.

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the Latin
language". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Latin_language
[2]
http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyo
gh/thorn.html
[3] "Latin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin (9th
or 8th century)
Rome3  
[1] The Lapis Niger Archaic
Latin When Giacomo Boni was
excavating the Forum in 1899 he found a
spot paved with black stone among the
Imperial era travertine – the Lapis
Niger. Further excavation revealed an
ancient shrine complex that had been
filled in and later constructed over.
The location was thought by the ancient
Romans to be where Romulus was killed
by the Senate, or perhaps the grave of
Hostilius. A second excavation in 1955
found no evidence of a grave but the
site was clearly considered a sacred
place by the Romans. The shrine
consists of the remnants of a U-shaped
alter, a monolithic column (a tufa
cone) and an inscribed stone
cippus. The black stone cippus,
ca.550–500 BC, carved out of Grotta
Oscura tufa from Veii, contains an
early boustrophon inscription on all
four sides (actually five, as one
corner is truncated). About a third to
a half of each line is missing so a
complete translation is not possible,
but it appears to be a warning against
those who would defile the site. It is
one of only a handful of sixth century
BC Latin inscriptions. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.codex99.com/typograph
y/images/ancient/niger_1_lg.gif

[2] Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p138.
2,533 YBN
[533 BC] 4 		6436) The start of Buddhism.1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Buddha". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/83105/Buddha/230768/Birth-and-ea
rly-life>.
2. ^ "Buddhism". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/83184/Buddhism>.
3. ^ "Buddha". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/83105/Buddha/230768/Birth-and-ea
rly-life>.
4. ^ "Buddha." A Dictionary of World
Mythology. Oxford University Press,
1979, 1986, 2003. Answers.com 27 Oct.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/buddha
(modern) southern Nepal, India3  
[1] Summary Scene of the Buddha's
Great Departure from palatial life.
Gandahara 1-2nd century. Guimet Museum.
Personal photograph 2005. This scene
depicts the ''Great Departure''
predestined being, he appears here
surrounded by a halo, and accompanied
by numerous guards, mithuna loving
couples, and devata, come to pay
homage. source:
http://www.guimet.fr/The-Great-Departure
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Great_Departure
.JPG/1024px-Great_Departure.JPG

[2] Description Prince Siddharta
Gautama shaves the hair off his head as
the sign to decline his status as
ksatriya (warrior class) and become sn
ascetic hermit, his servants holds his
sword, crown, and princely jewelry
while his horse Kanthaka stood on
right. Bas-relief panel at Borobudur,
Java, Indonesia. Date Februaty
2007 Source Own work Author
Gunkarta GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Siddharta_Gauta
ma_Borobudur.jpg/1024px-Siddharta_Gautam
a_Borobudur.jpg
2,529 YBN
[529 BC] 12 		772) The Earth is described as a sphere
by Pythagoras.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Pythagoras."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 11 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pythagoras
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). {529 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Polycrates". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates
[2] "Pythagorean theorem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean
_theorem
Croton, Italy11  
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g

[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
2,521 YBN
[521 BC] 3 		6435) The Chinese philosopher Confucius
lives around this time.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Confucius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/132184/Confucius>.
2. ^ "Confucius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/132184/Confucius>.
3. ^ "Confucius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/132184/Confucius>.
(hometown, place of birth and death)
state of Lu, China2  
[1] English: The teaching Confucius.
Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758, Tang
Dynasty. 中文:
孔夫子（畫者：唐朝吳道子）
Bân-lâm-gú: Khóng-hu-tsú
(uē-tsiá:Tông-tiâu
Ngôo-tō-tsú). PD
source: http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/
images/stories/large/2011/03/16/Confuciu
s_Tang_Dynasty.jpg
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 4 		825) The crossbow is invented in
China.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
3. ^ "crossbow." The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, 2002, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crossbow
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cross-bow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-bow
(=500)
[2]
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_madein
china/2005-07/21/content_70877.htm
(=500)
[3] Wagner, D.B. Iron and Steel in
Ancient China. Brill Academic Pub,
1993. 4. Handbuch der Orientalistik
Part 9 of Handbook of Oriental Studies
Volume 9 of Handbook of Oriental
Studies. Section 4 China Series,
p153,157-158. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=mxZsguBzwZMC&pg=PR3
China2 3  
[1] Wagner, D.B. Iron and Steel in
Ancient China. Brill Academic Pub,
1993. 4. Handbuch der Orientalistik
Part 9 of Handbook of Oriental Studies
Volume 9 of Handbook of Oriental
Studies. Section 4 China Series,
p153,157-158. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=mxZsguBzwZMC&pg=PR3 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mxZsguBzwZMC&pg=PR3

[2] Late medieval crossbowman from ca.
1480 English: Crossbowman executing
Saint Sebastian. Detail of a figure
from the Upper Rhine, around 1480;
linden wood, Bayerisches
Nationalmuseum, München, inventory
number 79/355 Date 05.07.2009 Source
Own work Author Gun Powder Ma CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Martyrium_of_Saint_Se
bastian._Pic_03.jpg
2,500 YBN
[500 BC] 7 		6518) There are 100 million humans on
Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
6. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
7. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
2,475 YBN
[475 BC] 4 5 		6464) Babylonian astronomers divide the
sky into 12 parts which correspond to
constellations (also called the zodiac1
).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "zodiac." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 13 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/zodiac
2. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
3. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
4. ^ Rogers, J. H., "Origins of the
ancient constellations: I. The
Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of
the British Astronomical Association,
vol.108, no.1,
p.9-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
998JBAA..108....9R
5. ^ "astronomical map". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/40018/astronomical-map/52790/The
-constellations-and-other-sky-divisions>
.
Babylonia3  
[1] Further Information: WA 86378 [BM
86378] Mul.Apin tablet 1 [pictured] is
in the British Museum, London. [The
tablet is 8.4 centimetres high incised
with miniature cuneiform writing.] This
principal copy of Tablet 1 probably
dates circa 500 BC and is a late
Babylonian copy. The earliest copies
were recovered from the royal library
of the Assyrian King Assurbanipal
(667-629 BC) in Nineveh (and also from
Assur). The text of Tablet 1 was able
to be restored with the aid of five
copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library [hence written
before 612 BC when Nineveh was sacked],
and two from Assur. [The first part of
Mul.Apin to be published was this
almost complete copy of tablet 1 by
Leonard King in CT 33, Plates 1-8
(1912)].* The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BC. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.reocities.com/astrolo
gysources/images/mulapin.jpg

[2] WA 86378 [now BM 86378]. Mul.Apin
tablet 1 (obverse side and reverse
side) in the British Museum, London.
(The tablet, the most complete
surviving copy, is 8.4 cms high and is
considered to be a masterpiece of
miniature cuneiform writing.) The broad
astronomical content and significance
of the (two-tablet) Mul.Apin series had
been identified by the English
assyriologists Archibald Sayce and
Robert Bosanquet in a journal article
published in 1880. The first part of
the Mul.Apin series to be published
(transcribed but not translated) was BM
86378 in Cuneiform Texts from
Babylonian Tablets in the British
Museum: Part XXXIII (Plates 1-8) by
Leonard King (1912). This tablet is
almost complete copy of tablet 1. (No
complete text of Mul.Apin has
survived.) See also ''A Neo-Babylonian
Astronomical Treatise in the British
Museum and its Bearing on the Age of
Babylonian Astronomy.'' by Leonard King
(Proceedings of the Society for
Biblical Archaeology, Volume 35, 1913).
This article by the English
assyriologist Leonard King drew
attention to the importance of this
text for identifying the Babylonian
constellations. In the next two years
numerous articles and books appeared
that utilised its star list information
in the attempt to identify the
Babylonian constellations and the stars
that comprised such. This
principal copy of tablet 1 (WA 86378
[now BM 86378]) probably dates to circa
500 BCE and is a late Babylonian copy
of tablet 1 of the astronomical
compendium Mul.Apin. The earliest
copies were recovered from the royal
archives of the Assyrian King
Assurbanipal (667-626 BCE) in Nineveh
(and also from Assur). The Mul.Apin
series contains the most comprehensive
surviving star/constellation catalogue.
It is largely devoted to describing the
risings and settings of
constellations/stars in relation to the
schematic calendar of twelve 30-day
months. The text of tablet 1 was
able to be completely restored with the
aid of five copies - one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian Period, two from
Assurbanipal's library (hence written
before 612 BCE), and two from
Assur. The principal copy of the
second tablet is VAT 9412 from Assur,
dated 687 BCE. (This is the oldest of
the texts.) Multiple copies of tablet 2
are known: principally three from
Assur, three from Assurbanipal's
library, and one dated to the
Neo-Babylonian period. In its
standard form Mul.Apin is written on 2
clay tablets and is comprised of almost
400 lines of cuneiform text. Each
tablet contains 4 columns with about 50
lines of text per column. The text of
Mul.Apin is divided into a number of
sections and subsections, usually
marked by horizontal dividing lines by
the scribes. There are also texts of
Mul.Apin in which the two tablets are
combined in one large tablet. The
connection of a third tablet to the
Mul.Apin series, by some modern
commentators, was probably only an
occasionally added appendix to
Mul.Apin. Many copies of Mul.Apin
texts exist from across the entire
Neo-Assyrian Period, and it was still
being recopied as late as the Seleucid
Era. The Mul.Apin series (the name
being derived from its opening words)
is obviously a compilation of nearly
all astronomical knowledge of the
period before 700 BCE. Some statements
in the Mul.Apin text (i.e., stars in
the paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea appear
in other, much earlier, cuneiform
texts; the Astrolabes and in the omens
of Enuma, Anu, Enlil. Mul.Apin is the
first reasonably full exposition of the
knowledge developed within the almost
millennium-old written tradition of
cuneiform astronomical and astral omen
texts. Rita Watson and Wayne Horowitz
(Writing Science before the Greeks: A
Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian
Treatise MUL.APIN (2011)) state (Pages
?-175): ''The consolidation of the
MUL.APIN text marks the emergence of a
formal written astronomical science.
... MUL.APIN may not represent fully
developed science, but it does offer a
unique, even vital, window onto its
beginnings, and the dynamic, reflective
processes involved in the emergence of
a formal written science.'' Also (Page
174): ''The observational science of
MUL.APIN appears to occupy a pivotal
role in the development of the late,
more sophisticated
mathematical-astronomy of the ACT
[Astronomical Cuneiform Texts]
tradition.'' ... COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.westnet.com.au/ga
ry-david-thompson/mul_apin_tablet1.JPG
2,470 YBN
[470 BC] 6 7 8 		840) That the brain controls the body
is understood, and the first human
dissection.2 The optic nerve and
Eustachian {YU-STA-siN3 } tubes are
identified.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Eustachian>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "Eustachian." The
American Heritage® Stedman's Medical
Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company.
06 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
ustachian>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Alcmaeon".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/13331/Alcmaeon>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=500bce) {500 BCE}
7. ^
"Alcmaeon". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon
(=450bce) {450 BCE}
8. ^ "alcmaeon". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alcmae
on/ (=500-450bce) {500-450 BCE}
(academy at Croton, now:) Crotone,
southern Italy5  
[1] Erich Lessing / Art Resource,
NY UNKOWN
source: http://members.bib-arch.org/bswb
_graphics/BSAO/08/04/BSAO080402410L.jpg

[2] Alcmaeon UNKNOWN
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/Alcmaeon.jpg
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 14 15 		836) That stars are other Suns and made
of red-hot metal is recognized9 10 and
the theory that people live on the
Moon, and that the Universe is made of
tiny bodies by Anaxagoras.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
3. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
5. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
6. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
7. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
8. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
9. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
10. ^ Popkin, R.H., S.F. Brown, and D.
Carr. The Columbia History of Western
Philosophy. Columbia University Press,
1999,
p17. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
k4F_SawQaEC&pg=PA17
11. ^ Diogenes Laertius, tr: R. D.
Hicks, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Books I-V", 137-139. (similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
14. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p8-9.
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (450bc+30yrs
estimate for science contributions)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
(=490?-430?)
Clazomenae (75 miles/120 km north of
Miletus)|Athens12 |Did not move to
Athens until around 462 bce13  
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,467 YBN
[467 BC] 21 		1894) The earliest particle (or
wireless) communication. The optical
telegraph;15 16 17 using fire
signals.18 19
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
2. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
4. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
5. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
7. ^
Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
8. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
10.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
11. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
12. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
13.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
14. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
15. ^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an
English translation by Herbert Weir
Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes.
2.Agamemnon. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D.
Cambridge, MA. Harvard University
Press. 1926, lines 278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
16. ^ "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History
17. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p33.
18.
^ Aeschylus. Aeschylus, with an English
translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.
D. in two volumes. 2.Agamemnon. Herbert
Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, MA.
Harvard University Press. 1926, lines
278-316.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0004%3Ac
ard%3D258
19. ^
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Communicat
ion.htm
20. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
21. ^ "Aeschylus." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aeschylus
{467 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Hooke".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[3] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[5]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[6] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[7]
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[8]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[9] "Optical telegraph#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_tel
egraph#History (1684)
Argos, Greece20  
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif

[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 11 12 		841) The theory that all matter is made
of atoms.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Leucippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
12. ^ "Leucippus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucippus
(=500-450bce)
 
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
2,460 YBN
[460 BC] 3 4 		842) The theory that the universe is
made of only four elements: water, air,
fire and earth.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~490bce)
4. ^ "Empedocles".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles
(=500-450bce)
 
[1] The temple of Hera at Agrigentum,
built when Empedocles was a young man,
c. 470 BC. Tempio di Hera ad
Agrigento, Sicilia. From:
Giambattista Scivoletto -
http://www.studioscivoletto.it/ COPYRIG
HTED ANY USE AND Empedocles in the
Nuremberg Chronicle. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Agrigento_Tempio_di_H
era.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/thumb/9/95/Empedocles-2-siz
ed.jpg/1030px-Empedocles-2-sized.jpg

[2] Description English:
Empedocles, ancient Greek Presocratic
philosopher. From Thomas Stanley,
(1655), The history of philosophy:
containing the lives, opinions, actions
and Discourses of the Philosophers of
every Sect, illustrated with effigies
of divers of them. Date circa
1655 Source Thomas Stanley, 1655, The
history of philosophy Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Empedocles_in_Thomas_
Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg
2,451 YBN
[451 BC] 2 		906) Books of Protagoras are burned for
doubting the existence of Gods.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius "Lives of
Eminent Philosophers", 397-398.
(similar
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=JkYzAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ "Protagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quot
es/quote-s2.htm
 
[1] [t Get better image- perhaps of
text.] Picture of Protagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://i2.listal.com/image/59712
8/600full-protagoras.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 4 5 		838) The first recorded trial of a
person for atheism; Anaxagoras.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ A. E. Taylor "On the
date of the Trial of Anaxagoras"
in:Postgate, J.P. et al. Classical
Quarterly. Clarendon Press, 1917,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=_
4RJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA85
5. ^
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~dhutchin/s
26a.htm {430 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anaxagoras". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
Athens, Greece3  
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
2,450 YBN
[450 BC] 6 7 		843) The theory that the Earth moves
through space.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The lives and
opinions of eminent philosophers", H.
G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p11.
3. ^ Diogenes
Laertius, "The lives and opinions of
eminent philosophers", H. G. Bohn,
1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Diogenes Laertius, "The
lives and opinions of eminent
philosophers", H. G. Bohn, 1853,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9-YFAAAAQAAJ AND
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/te
xt?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Ab
ook%3D1%3Achapter%3Dprologue
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~480bce)
7. ^ "". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philolaus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/philolaus/ (=470-385bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.neo-tech.com/zero/part2.html
Croton, Italy5  
[1] Description Pythagoras and
Philolaus experimenting with musical
pipes. From Theorica musicae by
Franchino Gaffurio, 1492 (1480?) Date
2010-04-28 16:51 (UTC) Source
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png Author
Gaffurio_Pythagoras.png:
Franchino Gaffurio (publisher)
derivative work: Singinglemon
(talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Pythagoras_and_Philol
aus.png
2,432 YBN
[432 BC] 10 11 12 		849) The Metonic {miToNiK5 } calendar:
12 years of 12 months and 7 years of 13
months.6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Metonic cycle." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metonic-cyc
le
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
4. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
5. ^ "Metonic cycle." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/metonic-cyc
le
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ James Evans, "History
and practice of ancient astronomy",
1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
8. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ James Evans,
"History and practice of ancient
astronomy", 1998,
p16. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
S51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=
false
12. ^ David Brown, "Mesopotamian
planetary astronomy-astrology", 2000,
p245.

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)
[2] "Meton".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meton
Athens, Greece (presumably)9  
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg

[2] The Antikythera
mechanism UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.ne
t/imagenes_ciencia/antikythera06_02.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 11 12 13 14 		845) The Universe is explained as being
infinite in size3 4 , filled with many
other worlds, and the Milky Way as a
large group of stars.5 6 The motions
of atoms are described based on natural
laws, not on the wants of gods or
demons.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanf
ord/entries/democritus/
4. ^
5. ^ "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "democritus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ "democritus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"democritus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
11. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=~470-~380bce)
12. ^
"Democritus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritus
(=~450-~370bce)
13. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "democritus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanfor
d/entries/democritus/ (=~460-)
14. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/2/36.html
(=460-370)
Abdera, Thrace9 10  
[1] DEMOCRITO DE ABDERA UNKNOWN
source: http://tareaescolar.co/tareaesco
lar/filo/images/democrito.jpg
2,430 YBN
[430 BC] 3 4 		847) A school of health science is
founded by Hippocrates. Disease is
viewed as a physical phenomenon, not
the product of gods or demons.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=460-~370 BCE)
4. ^
"Hippocrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates
 (=460-377 BCE)
Cos2  
[1] Hippocrates, engraving by Peter
Paul Rubens, 1638. Courtesy of the
National Library of
Medicine[1]. http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
ihm/images/B/14/555.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jp
g
2,424 YBN
[424 BC] 7 8 		6533) Grafting of plants in Greece.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
2. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tc6vr0qzk_4C
3. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
4. ^ Zohary, D., M. Hopf, and E. Weiss.
Domestication of Plants in the Old
World: The Origin and Spread of
Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia,
Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.
OUP Oxford, 2012,
p115. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tc6vr0qzk_4C
5. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
6. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastu
s
7. ^ Mudge, Ken, et al. "A history of
grafting." Horticultural Reviews,
Volume 35 (2009):
437-493. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/new
crop/janick-papers/c09.pdf
8. ^ "Theophrastus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 12 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/theophrastu
s
Greece5 |(presumably for Theophrastus)
(The Lyceum) Athens, Greece6  
[1] Description a good example of
a whip graft that has ''taken'' Source
I (Chris Hibbard, acct:
chrishibbard7) created this work
entirely by myself. Date
4/27/2009 Author Chris
Hibbard Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c8/Good_graft.JPG

[2] Description English: Example of
a successful cleft graft after 4 years
of growth. Uploading specifically for
use in the Grafting article, where the
same graft is displayed after 2 years
of growth, for comparison. Date
3/23/2012 Source With a camera, of
course. Adjusted light levels with
Gimp Previously published:
http://pinterest.com/pin/527766268533219
03/ Author Chrishibbard7 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CleftGraft4thYr
.JPG/1194px-CleftGraft4thYr.JPG
2,399 YBN
[399 BC] 4 5 6 		846) Socrates is sentenced to death, in
part for disrespecting the Gods.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "socrates".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "socrates". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrat
es/
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=~470-399bce)
5. ^ "Socrates". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates
(=470-399bce)
6. ^ "". The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "socrates".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrat
es/ (=469-399)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.wsu.edu/~tcook/doc/Socrates2.
htm
[2] "Laconophile". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconophile

[3] "Critias". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias
[4] "Aristophanes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophane
s
Athens, Greece3  
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png

[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
2,387 YBN
[387 BC] 5 		851) The school "the Academy" is
founded by Plato in Athens. The word
"academy" will eventually be applied to
all schools.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=440-?? BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Plato". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
[2] "plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

Athens, Greece4  
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g

[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
2,378 YBN
[378 BC] 2 		854) The sky is divided into degrees of
latitude and longitude (a system that
is eventually applied to the Earth).1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=408-355 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "Eudoxus of Cnidus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudoxus_of_
Cnidus
 
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
2,358 YBN
[358 BC] 5 		856) The theory that the Earth rotates
around its own axis, and that some
planets rotate around the Sun.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p18.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p18.

MORE INFO
[1] "Heracleides". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleides
 (=387 - 312 BCE)
(Academy) Athens, Greece4
(presumably) 
[1] Ηράκλειτος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
2,335 YBN
[335 BC] 11 		859) The school called the Lyceum {LI
SEuM} is opened by Aristotle in
Athens.5 Aristotle also adds a fifth
element "aether", which the "heavens"
are made of,6 7 8 and puts forward the
first theory of gravity.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Aristotle, John Leofric
Stocks, �On the Heavens� (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1922), Book 1, Chapter
3. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aris
totle/heavens/index.html
3. ^ Wildberg, C. John Philoponus�
Criticism. De Gruyter, 1988. Peripatoi
(Berlin),
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
f3XzdAvB_cC&pg=PA12
4. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p302.
5. ^
"Aristotle". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
(384 - March 7, 322 BCE)
6. ^ Aristotle,
John Leofric Stocks, �On the
Heavens� (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1922), Book 1, Chapter
3. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aris
totle/heavens/index.html
7. ^ Wildberg, C. John Philoponus�
Criticism. De Gruyter, 1988. Peripatoi
(Berlin),
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
f3XzdAvB_cC&pg=PA12
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
9. ^ Lucio Russo, "The
Forgotten Revolution", (Berlin; New
York: Springer-Verlag, 2004), p302.
10. ^
"Lyceum." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.
11. ^ "Lyceum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/352514/Lyceum>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Faustus (I) Cornelius
Sulla". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustus_%28
I%29_Cornelius_Sulla
Athens, Greece10  
[1] Date 1511 Source Stitched
together from vatican.va Author
Raphael (1483–1520) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q5597 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Sanzio_01.jpg/1
280px-Sanzio_01.jpg

[2] English: The School of Athens -
fresco by Raffaello Sanzio
(w) Artist Copy of
Lysippus English: Bust of Aristotle.
Marble, Roman copy after a Greek bronze
original by Lysippos from 330 BC; the
alabaster mantle is a modern
addition. Current location
[show]National Museum_of Rome -
Palazzo AltempsLink back to Institution
infobox template Ground
floor Accession number Inv.
8575 Credit line Ludovisi
Collection Source/Photographer
Jastrow (2006) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altem
ps_Inv8575.jpg/765px-Aristotle_Altemps_I
nv8575.jpg
2,330 YBN
[06/28/330 BC] 5 		864) The calendar of Callipus, 76 years
of 940 months, which is more accurate
than that of Meton.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Smith, W. A Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology. J.
Murray, 1880. A Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology,
p575. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0DIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA575
2. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/Biographies/Callippus.html
3. ^ Smith, W. A Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology. J.
Murray, 1880. A Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology,
p575. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0DIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA575
4. ^ "Cyzicus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/C
yzicus>.
5. ^ Smith, W. A Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology. J.
Murray, 1880. A Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology,
p575. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0DIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA575

MORE INFO
[1] "Callippus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callippus
(probably) Cyzicus3 (an ancient city
in NW Asia Minor, in Mysia, on a
peninsula in the Sea of Marmara4
) 
[1] Description The relation of the
phases of the Moon with its revolution
around Earth. The sizes of Earth and
Moon, and their distance you see here
are far from real. On this image the
following are also depicted: the
synchronous rotation of the Moon, the
motion of the Earth around the common
center of mass, the difference between
the sidereal and synodical month (green
mark), the Earth's axial tilt. (NOTE:
the precise moment of a New Moon take
place in daylight when you can see only
the bright Sun.) Date
2010-08-19ddd Source Own
work Author Orion 8 Other versions
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.
jpg/1024px-Moon_phases_en.jpg
2,325 YBN
[325 BC] 4 5 6 7 		887) The theory that the Moon
influences the tides.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~300bce+30-??)
5. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(=~380-~310)
6. ^ "Πυθέας ο
Μασσαλιώτη
ς". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8
5%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%9C%
CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%8
E%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82 (=~380-~310)
7. ^ "Pytheas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytheas
(voyage 325BCE 320-330BCE)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/pytheas.ht
ml
[2] "Pytheas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/485262/Pytheas>
Massalia (now: Marseille France)3
 
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
2,311 YBN
[311 BC] 2 		885) The theory that pleasure is good
and pain is bad.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Epicurus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=306bce)

MORE INFO
[1]
"Επίκουρος".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%8
0%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CF
%82
 
[1] Description English: Hermes-type
bust (pillar with the top as a sculpted
head) of Epicurus leaned with his back
against his disciple Metrodorus of
Lampsacus (the younger) (note : the
legend at the bottom of the hermes is
mixed with the Metrodorus side).
Pentelic marble, Roman artwork,
Imperial Era (2nd-half of the 2nd
century ?). Found in Rome,
Italy. Français : Pilier hermaïque
représentant Épicure adossé à son
disciple Métrodore de Lampsaque (le
jeune). Marbre du Pentélique, œuvre
romaine d'époque impériale (deuxième
moitié du IIe siècle ?). Découvert
à Rome, Italie. Dimensions H. 62 cm
(24 ¼ in.) Current location
[show](Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink
back to Institution infobox template
wikidata:Q19675 Department of Greek,
Etruscan and Roman Antiquities, Sully
wing, ground floor, room 17 Accession
number Ma 88 (MR 478) Credit line
Collections of the Duke of
Penthièvre; seized during the French
Revolution: in the Louvre collections
since 1800 References notice sur le
site du Louvre Source/Photographer
Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg

[2] Description English: File
already in use by Wikipedia. Generally
enhanced viewability. English:
Marble bust of Epicurus. Roman copy of
Greek original, 3rd century BC/2nd
century BC. On display in the British
Museum, London. Source
Self-created Date 18 June
2006 Author ChrisO Permission I,
the copyright holder of this work,
hereby release it into the public
domain. This applies worldwide. In
case this is not legally possible: I
grant anyone the right to use this work
for any purpose, without any
conditions, unless such conditions are
required by law. Date 19 August 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Jayantanth using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Interstate295revisited at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Epicurus_bust2.jpg
2,305 YBN
[305 BC] 6 		884) Nerves are distinguished from
blood vessels.1 2 The liver, ovaries,
Fallopian tubes, and retina are
identified.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Herophilus." Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica
Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263634/Herophilus>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Herophilus."
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia
Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 12 Mar.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263634/Herophilus>.
4. ^ "Herophilus." Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica
Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263634/Herophilus>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Herophilus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herophilus
(+30)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:Lxv_
AigSQQkJ:www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/medi
cine/anatomy/AnatHis.pdf+herophilus+tert
ullian&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=16
[2] "Heart". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart
[3] "Herophilus." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263634/Herophilus>
Alexandria, Egypt4 5  
[1] Herophilus of Chalcedon (c. 330-260
BCE) Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small

[2] Description English: Scheme of
digestive tract, with duodenum
marked. Polski: Schemat przewodu
pokarmowego, z zaznaczoną dwunastnicą
. Inkscape Logo.svg This vector
image was created with Inkscape. Date
18:05, 21 August 2007 (UTC) (upload on
commons) Source Own work Author
Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons:
Orem) Permission (Reusing this file)
CC-BY-SA ver. 2.5, 2.0, 1.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Tractus_intesti
nalis_duodenum.svg/1000px-Tractus_intest
inalis_duodenum.svg.png
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 3 		871) That falling bodies accelerate is
recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p24.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p24.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=340-270)

MORE INFO
[1]
"Ελληνικός
Στρατός".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B
B%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF
%82_%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C
%CF%82
[2] "Straton of Lampsacus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straton_of_
Lampsacus (=340-268bce)
(Lyceum) Athens, Greece2
(presumably) 
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato of
Lampsacus. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg Author
Aristotle_and_his_disciples_Lebiedzki_Ra
hl.jpg: Eduard Lebiedzki, after a
design by Karl Rahl derivative
work: Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Aristotle_Theophrastu
s_Strato_Lebiedzki_Rahl.jpg

[2] Description English: Ancient
Greek philosopher Strato of Lampsacus,
depicted in the Nuremberg
Chronicle Date 2009-04-26 20:14
(UTC) Source
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png Aut
hor
Nuremberg_chronicles_f_082v_4.png:
Hartmann Schedel derivative work:
Singinglemon (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/Strato_Nuremberg_Chro
nicle.jpg
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 4 		1166) A lathe is used in Egypt;1 a
workpiece is rotated against a cutting
tool.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm
2. ^ "lathe." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/331624/lathe>.
3. ^ www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm
4. ^
www.stuartking.co.uk/lathe.htm (300bce)
Egypt3  
[1] Two man Egyptian Lathe The
earliest picture of a lathe is one on
the wall of an Egyptian grave of the
third century B.C., shown here in a
line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-wdvm-N
qT5UA/T2hJOxBSe7I/AAAAAAAAAQw/FowRtQg4yS
U/s1600/Petosiris_lathe.jpghttp://homepa
ges.tig.com.au/~dispater/turning.htm

[2] A carved stone pictograph from the
tomb of an Egyptian Priest. 300
B.C UNKNOWN [1] find book this is
from The earliest picture of a lathe
is one on the wall of an Egyptian grave
of the third century B.C., shown here
in a line drawing. The man at left is
holding the cutting tool. The man at
the right is making the workpiece
rotate back and forth by pulling on a
cord or thong. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dis
pater/turning.htm
2,300 YBN
[300 BC] 6 		6482) The earliest known use of a
chain-drive; used in an automatic
repeating crossbow.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf}
2. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery,
Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6
XOUC&pg=PA8
3. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf}
4. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery,
Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6
XOUC&pg=PA8
5. ^ Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf}
6. ^ Alan Wilkins, Roman Artillery,
Shire,
p.8. books.google.com/books?id=VCkGVJG6
XOUC&pg=PA8
Rhodes, Greece5  
[1] Figure from: Werner Soedel,
Vernard Foley: ''Ancient Catapults'',
Scientific American, Vol. 240, No. 3
(March 1979), p. 124-125.
{Ancient_Catapults_Scientific_American
_197903xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Werner Soedel, Vernard Foley:
"Ancient Catapults", Scientific
American, Vol. 240, No. 3 (March 1979),
p. 124-125. COPYRIGHTED

[2] English: Arsenal of ancient
mechanical artillery in the Saalburg
Museum, Hesse, Germany Left:
Polybolos, a 3rd century BC repeating
catapult (reconstruction by the German
engineer Erwin Schramm (1856–1935))
Right: Catapult on Trajan's Column,
early 2nd century AD (reconstruction by
Schramm) Bottom center:
Chain-drive mechanism of the
Polybolos Bottom right: ?
Background, on wall: Gastraphetes, a
Greek crossbow Date 7 August 2007,
12:34:51 Source originally posted to
Flickr as Artilleria experimental
romana a Saalburg / Roman experimental
artillery in Saalburg Author
SBA73 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechani
cal_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/1280px-Ancient
_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg
2,297 YBN
[297 BC] 4 5 6 7 		902) The Museum and Library of
Alexandria is founded.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
3. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p79.
4. ^
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScienc
e/Students/Ellen/Museum.html (=297bce)
5. ^
"article 29287". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-292
87 (=late 200s by P1)
6. ^ "Museum of
Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/articl
e-9372871/Museum-of-Alexandria (=280 by
P2)
7. ^
http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/A
rticleView.cfm?AID=9 (= 283 BCE by P2
Soter)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009440".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9440
[2]
http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/lette
raristeas.html
[3]
http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepi
g/aristeas.htm (translated letter)
[4] "Letter
of Aristeas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_A
risteas
[5] http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm
has sources for LofA
[6] "Timon
(philosopher)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timon_%28ph
ilosopher%29
[7] "Herodas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodas
[8]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3707
641.stm
 
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg

[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
2,295 YBN
[295 BC] 4 		878) Euclid's "Elements" compiles all
known mathematics.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c325-c270bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Euclid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid
(=325-265bce)
(Mouseion) Alexandria, Egypt3  
[1] Description አማርኛ:
የዩክሊድን ኢለመንት
የተባለ መጽሐፍ
የሚያሳይ ከልጥ (ፓፒሪ)
የተጻፈ የጥንት
መዝገብ English: Oxyrhynchus
papyrus (P.Oxy. I 29) showing fragment
of Euclid's Elements Русский:
Папирус из Oxyrhynchus (P.Oxy.
I 29) с франментами
Начал Евклида Date 7
October 1994 Source
http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/pap
yrus/tha.jpg Author Euclid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jp
g/1280px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg

[2] Euclid elements UNKNOWN
source: http://zaccus.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2010/08/Euclid_large.jpg
2,285 YBN
[285 BC] 5 6 7 		1028) Compressed air is used for a
catapult and for the earliest musical
keyboard instrument, an organ, by
Ctesibius in Alexandria.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

2. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

3. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

4. ^ "Ctesibius Of Alexandria".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/145475/Ctesibius-Of-Alexandria>.

5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c300bce) (=c300bce)
6. ^
"Ctesibius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibius
(=(working 285 - 222 BCE)
7. ^
http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/31.html
(flourished285-222bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Water clock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock

[2] "Pipe organ". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ
Alexandria, Egpyt4  
[1] Musicians playing tuba (l.) ,
hydraulis (top) and cornua to accompany
gladiatorial combat (Roman mosaic of
1st-2nd century, from Libya)
Musicians playing during the games.
Instruments: cornua, tuba and water
organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg

[2] Musicians playing during the
games. Instruments: cornua, tuba and
water organ, Mosaic of the Gladiators,
Jamahiriya Museum, Tripoli, Libya. From
Dar Buc Ammera villa (Zliten). Mozaic
from: Libya / Tsarrbuus / Tripoli /
Bāb al ‘Azīzīyah Música antiga
- Ancient music • Jamahiriya
Museum - Museu de Trípoli UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uned.es/geo-1-histori
a-antigua-universal/NOTICIAS/Zliten%20Mo
saic.jpg
2,274 YBN
[274 BC] 4 5 		886) The cerebrum and cerebellum of the
brain are identified.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=~304bce+30-~250BCE)
5. ^
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/Erasistratus.html (~304bce-~250bce)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasistratus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratu
s (=330?-250?BCE)
Alexandria, Egpyt3  
[1] Detail of a 1532 woodcut showing
Herophilus (left) and
Erasistratus. Credits:Wellcome
Library, London PD
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
hommedia.ashx?id=91862&size=Small

[2] Artist Jacques-Louis David Title
Antiochus et Stratonice, Ecole
nationale supérieure des beaux-arts,
Paris, France. Date 1774 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/73/David-Antiochus_et_St
ratonice.jpg
2,265 YBN
[265 BC] 3 		6591) A paddle-wheel turned by oxen
propels a Roman water ship.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "On the Antiquity of the use of
Wheels for Oars, in the manner now
practised for prepelling Steam Boats.",
Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, Pa.).
Journal of the Franklin Institute.
1827,
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pLVIAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA206
2. ^ "On the Antiquity of the use of
Wheels for Oars, in the manner now
practised for prepelling Steam Boats.",
Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, Pa.).
Journal of the Franklin Institute.
1827,
p206. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pLVIAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA206
3. ^ "Mamertini". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 23 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/360778/Mamertini>.
Sicily2  

source:
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 11 		663) The earliest lever;7 8 a rigid
bar pivoted on a support point that can
be used to exert a force on an object.9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p16.
2. ^ Pappus, Collection,
Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD 340.
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
4. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p16.
6. ^ Pappus,
Collection, Synagogue, Book VIII, c. AD
340.
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
8. ^
Pappus, Collection, Synagogue, Book
VIII, c. AD 340.
9. ^ Publishing, DK.
Science: The Definitive Visual Guide.
DK Publishing, 2009, p40.
10. ^ Asimov, I.
Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology: The Lives and
Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists
from Ancient Times to the Present
Chronologically Arranged. 1982, p29
11. ^
Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p16.
{before) 260 BC}
Syracuse, Sicily10  
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg

[2] Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40. COPYRIGHTED
source: Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p40.
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 8 9 10 		822) The earliest screw; the Archimedes
screw, a device for raising water.4 5

The concept of density (mass divided by
volume) is understood.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
2. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
3. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
4. ^ "Archimedes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 12 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/32808/Archimedes>.
5. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
6. ^ "hand tool." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/254115/hand-tool>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p22. {260 BC}
9. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
10. ^
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
Syracuse, Sicily7  
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,260 YBN
[260 BC] 7 		882) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis once a day and around the
Sun once a year is understood by
Aristarchus.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). {c260 BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9009438".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9438
[2] "Cleanthes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanthes
(Mousion of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egpyt6  
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg

[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 7 8 		890) The earliest known escapement4 , a
device that controls the rotation of a
toothed gear to provide periodic
impulses5 6 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Freely, J. Flame of Miletus: The
Birth of Science in Ancient Greece (and
How It Changed the World). I. B.
Tauris, 2012,
p119. http://books.google.com/books?id=
e4ye9m3EflQC&pg=PA119
2. ^ "escapement." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
3. ^ "escapement." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
4. ^ Freely, J. Flame of Miletus: The
Birth of Science in Ancient Greece (and
How It Changed the World). I. B.
Tauris, 2012,
p119. http://books.google.com/books?id=
e4ye9m3EflQC&pg=PA119
5. ^ "escapement." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
6. ^ "escapement." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/escapement
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=Byzanteum 300 bce -
??)
8. ^
http://www.philonnet.gr/about/index.html
 (265-202 BCE)

MORE INFO
[1] "article 9025907".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
5907
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=bCA9AAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA73
 
[1] Description English:
Reconstruction of a washstand with
escapement mechanism, the earliest
known, as described by the Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd
century BC) Date 1903 Source Carra
de Vaux, B. (1903): ''Le livre des
appareils pneumatiques et des machines
hydrauliques de Philon de Byzance
d'après les versions arabes d'Oxford
et de Constantinople'', Academie des
inscriptions et des belles lettres:
Notices et extraits des mss. de la
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris 38,
27–235 (163), depicted in: Lewis,
Michael (2000), ''Theoretical
Hydraulics, Automata, and Water
Clocks'', in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook
of Ancient Water Technology, Technology
and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp.
343–369 (356, fig. 5), ISBN
90-04-11123-9 Author Carra de Vaux,
B. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Washstand_by_Philo_of
_Byzantium.png
2,250 YBN
[250 BC] 4 5 		894) The ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola are described in Alexandria.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
3. ^
"Apollonius of Perga." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/30058/Apollonius-of-Perga>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (261 BCE Perga {south
coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?)
5. ^
"Apollonius of Perga". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_
of_Perga (270 BC? - unknown, after 245
BC)
Alexandria, Egypt2 3  
[1] Conic sections of
Apollonius AND Apollonius of Perga,
262 BC–ca. 190 BC UNKNOWN
source: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/
apollonius_of_perga/portrait.jpghttp://w
ww.storyofmathematics.com/images2/apollo
nius_conics.gif

[2] Apollonius of Perga, 262 BC–ca.
190 BC UNKNOWN
source: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/
apollonius_of_perga/portrait.jpg
2,246 YBN
[246 BC] 19 20 21 		898) The size of Earth is correctly
calculated14 15 16 by using the angle
of the Sun's shadow and the distance
between two cities.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
2. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
3. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
5. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
6. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
7. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
8. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
9. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
10. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
11. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
12. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
13. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
15. ^ "Eratosthenes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthene
s
16. ^ Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980).
17. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
18. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
19. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(276-196,240BCE 246bce?)
20. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990). (c276-194BCE)
21. ^ Dutka, Jacques.
“‘Eratosthenes’ Measurement of
the Earth Reconsidered’.” Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 46.1
(1993): 55–66. Web. 25 May
2012. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/km185753675743p8/fulltext.pdf
(c230BCE {275-194BCE})
Alexandria, Egypt18  
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg

[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
2,240 YBN
[240 BC] 14 		1325) The earliest observation of a
comet.9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
2. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
3. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
4. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
5. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
6. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
7. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
8. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
9. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
10. ^
http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.htm
l
11. ^
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_as
tro/answers/971112e.html
12. ^ Graham and Hintz, "An Ancient
Greek Sighting of Halley's Comet? ",
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9,
2130-2136.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientA
stronomy106.html
13. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
14. ^ "Halley's comet 'was spotted by
the ancient Greeks"'. BBC.
2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science
-environment-11255168
China13  
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Date image
taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Source NSSDC's
Photo Gallery (NASA):
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Autho
r NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this file) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

2,231 YBN
[231 BC] 7 		833) The earliest evidence of gears:
the spur and worm gears.4

A gear is a toothed machine part, such
as a wheel or cylinder, that meshes
with another toothed part to transmit
motion or to change speed or
direction.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And
Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan
Page Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
4. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
5. ^ "gear." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 May.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/gear
6. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And
Practice Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan
Page Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7
7. ^ Dudás, I. The Theory And Practice
Of Worm Gear Drives. Kogan Page
Science, 2004. Kogan Page Science,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=I2
NnbsyJsvAC&pg=PA7

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/enc1/ha
nging_gardens_of_babylon
[2] "screw." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 14 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/529876/screw>
[3] Technology and Culture Volume 44,
Number 1, January 2003 (PDF) Dalley,
Stephanie. Oleson, John Peter.
"Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water
Screw: The Context of Invention in the
Ancient
World" http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tec
hnology_and_culture/toc/tech44.1.html
[4] "Archimedes screw." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/32831/Archimedes-screw>
[5] Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p22
[6]
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (=500)
[7]
http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nin
eveh (=600)
Syracuse, Sicily6  
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG

[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/a/a1/Archimedes-screw_one
-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animate
d.gif
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 5 		1029) The distance to the Moon is
measured using parallax; by measuring
how much an object appears to move
compared to a more distant object when
the observer changes positions.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.
3. ^ American Council of Learned
Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner’s,
2000, p425-426.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account
of the Origin and Progress of
Astronomy: With Plates Illustrating,
Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin
and Cradock, 1833,
p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-
1
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)3 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece4  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] Hipparchus compared observations
of a solar eclipse in Syene and in
Alexandria to determine the distance
from the Earth to the
Moon. Hipparchus measured the
distance from the Earth to the Moon
during a solar eclipse that was a total
eclipse at Syene and a partial eclipse
at Alexandria. At the same time that an
observer at Syene saw the entire Sun
blocked by the Moon, one at Alexandria
saw 1/5th of the Sun's disk, that is
1/5th of 30 arcminutes of the Sun's
disk was visible (The Sun's angular
diameter is 30 arcminutes or 1/2
degree). The angular size of the
visible Sun seen at Alexandria
therefore is 1/10th of a degree (0.1
degree) and this angle, expressed in
radians and applying the small angle
approximation gives the ratio of the
Syene-Alexandria distance to the
Earth-Moon distance. UNKNOWN
source: http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.e
du/academics/courses//astro201/hipparchu
s.htm
2,160 YBN
[160 BC] 19 		6477) The law of inertia (that a body
preserves its motion13 ) is
understood.14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
2. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
3. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
4. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
5. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
6. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
7. ^ "John Philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
8. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
9. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
10. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
11. ^ "John Philoponus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
12. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
13. ^ "inertia." The Oxford Dictionary
of Sports Science & Medicine. Oxford
University Press, 1998, 2006, 2007.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia ht
tp://www.answers.com/main/cite_this_answ
er.jsp#ixzz2DN5kNYiR
14. ^ Sambursky, S. The Physical World
of Late Antiquity. Routledge and K.
Paul, 1962, p74?.
15. ^ "John Philoponus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/#2.2
16. ^ Dimarogonas, A.D. Vibration for
Engineers. Prentice Hall, 1996,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?ei=eW
yyUITrL8f-2QXAroGQCQ
17. ^ American Council of Learned
Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner's, 2000,
p425-426.
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
19. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
p33-34.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/p
eople/ancient_epoch/hipparchus.html
[2] Narrien, J. An Historical Account
of the Origin and Progress of
Astronomy: With Plates Illustrating,
Chiefly, the Ancient Systems. Baldwin
and Cradock, 1833,
p206. books.google.com/books?id=gYYoAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA206
[3] "Hipparchus." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hipparchus-
1
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p32
[5] Lucio
Russo, "The Forgotten Revolution",
(Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag,
2004), p88 Pliny, Naturalis historia,
II 95
[6] Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004), p89
[7] "inertia."
The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science
. Oxford University Press, 1998, 2006,
2007. Answers.com 11 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/inertia
[8] Edward Grant, "Motion in the Void
and the Principle of Inertia in the
Middle Ages", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 3
(Sep., 1964), pp. 265-292 Published
by: The University of Chicago Press on
behalf of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/228
571
[9] "Simplicius of Cilicia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicius_
of_Cilicia
(before 141 BC) Bithynia (presumably
Nicaea)17 |(observatory on) Island of
Rhodes, Greece18  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,140 YBN
[140 BC] 14 15 16 		1070) The invention of paper in China.9
10 Paper is made by putting a mixture
of fibers and water on a fine screen;
when the water drains away the
remaining mat of fibers is removed and
dried.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
2. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
3. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
4. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
5. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
6. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
7. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
8. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
9. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
10. ^
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-0
8/08/content_4937457.htm
11. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p35. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
12. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper
and Printing. Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5 part 1.
Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
13. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
14. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985).
Paper and Printing. Joseph Needham,
Science and Civilisation in China,
Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol.
5 part 1. Cambridge University Press,
p38. {Needham_Vol5_Part1_1954CE.pdf}
15. ^ www.apio.org/chinese05.htm
(=140-87BCE)
16. ^
http://www.amateras.com/trip/china/xian-
e.htm {140-87BCE}

MORE INFO
[1] David Buisseret (1998),
Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
Pa-chhiao near Sian in the Shensi
province of China12 |Xian, China13
 
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg

[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87
BC) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
2,134 YBN
[134 BC] 6 7 		1041) A nova is observed. The first
star catalog that uses celestial
coordinates of latitude and longitude,
and that divides stars by brightness3 .
The "precession of the equinoxes" is
recognized; that the position of the
stars at equinox changes slightly each
year.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bostock, J., and H.T. Riley. The
Natural History of Pliny. H. G. Bohn,
1893. Bohn’s Classical Library.
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
VMMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA59
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
3. ^ Bostock, J., and
H.T. Riley. The Natural History of
Pliny. H. G. Bohn, 1893. Bohn’s
Classical Library.
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=a
VMMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA59
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p33-34.
7. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/16707/Almagest>.

MORE INFO
[1] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy.
Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(observatory on) Island of Rhodes,
Greece5  
[1] Hipparchus (196 BC – 120 BC) was
born in Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey), and
probably died on the island of Rhodes.
He is known to have been a working
astronomer at least from 147 BC to 127
BC. UNKNOWN
source: http://web.jccc.edu/gallery/astr
otext/Bills%20Files/Astronomy%20Textbook
/Chapter%203_files/img12qwe.jpg

[2] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
2,100 YBN
[100 BC] 6 		870) The earliest known metal spur gear
and mechanical computer.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
2. ^ "Decoding the ancient Greek
astronomical calculator known as the
Antikythera Mechanism". Nature 444
Supplement. 30 November
2006. http://www.antikythera-mechanism.
gr/system/files/0608_Nature.pdf
3. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
4. ^ "Decoding the ancient Greek
astronomical calculator known as the
Antikythera Mechanism". Nature 444
Supplement. 30 November
2006. http://www.antikythera-mechanism.
gr/system/files/0608_Nature.pdf
5. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.
6. ^ "Antikythera mechanism".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 12 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1334586/Antikythera-mechanism>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Discovering How Greeks
Computed in 100 BC". The New York
Times. 31 July
2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31
/science/31computer.html?hp&_r=0
near the island of Antikythera,
Mediterranean Sea5  
[1] English: Main w:en:Antikythera
mechanism fragment (fragment A). The
mechanism consists of a complex system
of 30 wheels and plates with
inscriptions relating to signs of the
zodiac, months, eclipses and
pan-Hellenic games. The study of the
fragments suggests that this was a kind
of astrolabe. The interpretation now
generally accepted dates back to
studies by Professor w:en:Derek de
Solla Price, who was the first to
suggest that the mechanism is a machine
to calculate the solar and lunar
calendar, that is to say, an ingenious
machine to determine the time based on
the movements of the sun and moon,
their relationship (eclipses) and the
movements of other stars and planets
known at that time. Later research by
the Antikythera Mechanism Research
Project and scholar Michael Wright has
added to and improved upon Price's
work. The mechanism was probably built
by an mechanic engineer of the school
of Posidonius in Rhodes. Cicero, who
visited the island in 79/78 B.C.
reported that such devices were indeed
designed by the Stoic philosopher
Posidonius of Apamea. The design of the
Antikythera mechanism appears to follow
the tradition of Archimedes'
planetarium, and may be related to
sundials. His modus operandi is based
on the use of gears. The machine is
dated around 89 B.C. and comes from the
wreck found off the island of
Antikythera. National Archaeological
Museum, Athens, No. 15987. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg

[2] English: Fragment A (rear) of the
Antikythera mechanism. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a4/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anti
cyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg
2,075 YBN
[75 BC] 5 		1116) Negative numbers are used in
China.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

2. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

3. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

4. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.

5. ^ "East Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238455/East-Asian-mathematics>.


MORE INFO
[1] Christopher Cullen, The Suàn
shù shū , “Writings on
reckoning”: Rewriting the history of
early Chinese mathematics in the light
of an excavated manuscript, Historia
Mathematica, Volume 34, Issue 1,
February 2007, Pages 10-44, ISSN
0315-0860,
10.1016/j.hm.2005.11.006. (http://www.s
ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03
15086005001084)
[2] "Negative number". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_nu
mber (100bce-50bce)
[3] "Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Chapte
rs_on_the_Mathematical_Art
(200bce-100ce)
[4] "Suàn shù shū". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A0n_s
h%C3%B9_sh%C5%AB (100ce)
[5] Shepherd, W.
Outline History of Science. Ward Lock,
1965.
p43. http://books.google.com/books?ei=R
2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=Fu64AAAAIAAJ
[6] Shen, K. et al. The Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art: Companion and
Commentary. Oxford University Press,
1999.
p405. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
R2ypUKnUAsrY2QWvsYCQDg&id=0DlGAQAAIAAJ
China4  
[1] [t Image of how Chinese counting
rods are used to represent positive and
negative numbers] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
nting_rods

[2] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
2,056 YBN
[56 BC] 17 		1045) The theory that light is made of
atoms that move very fast.13 14 15
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
3. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
4. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
6. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
7. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex, Volume
1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T. Lucreti
Cari De rerum natura libri sex", J.
Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
9. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
10. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
11. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
12. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
13. ^ Titus Carus Lucretius, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri sex,
Volume 1", 1866, lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ
14. ^ Titus Lucretius Carus, "T.
Lucreti Cari De rerum natura libri
sex", J. Allyn, 1884,
p105. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LCmRGMJBoYUC
15. ^ William Ellery Leonard, "De Rerum
Natura: The Latin Text of Lucretius",
Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2008,
p439. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mUsQtrxbfxIC
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p36-37.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp36-37.

MORE INFO
[1] "Lucretius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius
(=(ca. 94 BC- ca. 49 BC)
[2] "Light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light
[3] "didactic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Aug.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/didactic
[4] "hexameter." The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 07 Aug. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hexameter
Rome, Italy16  
[1] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ

[2] Text copied from: Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
2,050 YBN
[50 BC] 9 10 11 		1050) The first glass blowing; in
Jerusalem.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Glass blowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowi
ng
3. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
5. ^ "Glass blowing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_blowi
ng
6. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
7. ^ Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman
Empire. In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand
Years of Glass. pp.62–97. British
Museum Press: London ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Fiv
e-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
8. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
9. ^ AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355
10. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on this source estimate
of 1st century BCE) (based on this
source estimate of 1st century BCE)
11. ^
Tatton-Brown, V. 1991. The Roman
Empire. In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand
Years of Glass. pp.62–97. British
Museum Press: London ISBN
0-8122-1888-4 http://www.amazon.com/Fiv
e-Thousand-Years-Glass-Hugh/dp/081221888
4#reader_0812218884
(origin of glass blowing probably in
the Syro-Palestine area, but earliest
artifact is from) Jerusalem7 8  
[1] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355

[2] AVIGAD, N. “Excavations in the
Jewish Quarter of the Old City of
Jerusalem, 1971 (Third Preliminary
Report).” Israel Exploration Journal
22.4 (1972):
193–200. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
27925355 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2792
5355
2,045 YBN
[01/01/45 BC] 3 		1056) The Julian calendar: 365 days
with an extra day every 4 years.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Sosigenes of Alexandria."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
2. ^ "Sosigenes of Alexandria."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
3. ^ Ball, W.W.R. Mathematical
Recreations and Essays. Macmillan,
1917,
p444. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Zy87AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA44
Rome (presumably) 
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg


[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
2,040 YBN
[40 BC] 11 12 13 		1058) The earliest waterwheel.7 8 The
earliest elevator (or vertical lift)9 .
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
4. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
7. ^ "waterwheel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637559/waterwheel>.
8. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
9. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
10. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>.
11. ^ "Vitruvius." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/631310/Vitruvius>. {after 27BCE}
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c70-c25) (c70-c25)
13. ^
"Vitruvius". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius
(=c80/70-c25)

MORE INFO
[1] "Waterwheel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel
Rome10  
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg

[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
2,037 YBN
[37 BC] 4 5 		6549) The germ theory of disease; that
disease can be caused by tiny living
organisms.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58
2. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58
3. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58
4. ^ Cato, M.P., F. Harrison, and M.T.
Varro. Roman Farm Management: The
Treatises of Cato and Varro Done into
English, with Notes of Modern
Instances. Macmillan, 1918,
p94. http://books.google.com/books?id=d
TJPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA94
5. ^ Diamond, J., and N. Geographic.
1000 Events That Shaped the World.
National Geographic Society, 2008.
History Series., p58.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8AceA
d-41awC&pg=PA58

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcus Terentius Varro".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcus_T
erentius_Varro
Rome (presumably)3  
[1] Varro, M.T., and H. Keil. Rerum
Rusticarum Libri Tres. In aedibus B.G.
Teubneri, 1889. Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Graecorum Et Romanorum Teubneriana,
p28. http://books.google.com/books?id=C
OffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=COffAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA28

[2] Marcus Varro PD
source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcr
op/history/lecture19/fig_19-03.jpg
2,008 YBN
[8 BC] 3 4 		1049) Silk from China is traded as far
west as Rome.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McLaughlin, R. Rome and the
Distant East: Trade Routes to the
Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and
China. Bloomsbury, 2010,
p148-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gzJf1KgqrWQC&pg=PA148
2. ^ McLaughlin, R. Rome and the
Distant East: Trade Routes to the
Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and
China. Bloomsbury, 2010,
p148-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gzJf1KgqrWQC&pg=PA148
3. ^ McLaughlin, R. Rome and the
Distant East: Trade Routes to the
Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and
China. Bloomsbury, 2010,
p148-149. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gzJf1KgqrWQC&pg=PA148
4. ^ "Horace." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271624/Horace>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Silk Road". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road
(estimate based on Seneca+40)
Rome2  
[1] Fresco depicting the reading of the
rituals of the bridal mysteries
English: Roman Painting - Villa dei
Misteri - Pompeii - Italia.
Italiano: Rituale di iniziazione ai
Misteri. Dettaglio dell'affresco della
Villa dei Misteri a Pompei, dipinto nel
''secondo stile'' pompeiano, del 60
a.C. circa. Date 60/50 BC Source
fresco Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Roman_Painting_1.jpg
1,980 YBN
[20 AD] 3 		1390) The monotheistic religion:
Christianity is founded, branching from
Judaism.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jesus Christ". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6456/Jesus-Christ
2. ^ Who Wrote The New Testament?,
Burton L. Mack, 1995
3. ^ "Jesus Christ".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6456/Jesus-Christ

MORE INFO
[1] "Jesus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus
[2] "Calvary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvary
[3] "Christianity". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/115240/Christianity>
Galilee2  
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg

[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 15 16 		1078) The steam engine is invented in
Alexandria.9 10 A hollow metal sphere
rotates from the power of steam jets
that escape through open tubes on each
side of the sphere.11 12
The steam
engine will not be used for practical
purposes until the 1600s.13

The earliest syphon, syringe, and
chariot odometer.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
2. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
4. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
6. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
8. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
10. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
11. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria
12. ^ Ted Huntington
13. ^ "steam engine."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/564472/steam-engine>.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p40.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(=c20-?)
16. ^ "Hero of Alexandria". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Name of Image: Hero's Engine MIX
#: 9513982 NIX #: MSFC-9513982 Date
of Image: 2004-04-15 Category: Early
Rockets Full Description:
Legendary characters used the power of
mythology to fly through the heavens.
About 200 BC, a Greek inventor known as
Hero of Alexandria came up with a new
invention that depended on the
mechanical interaction of heat and
water. He invented a rocket-like device
called an aeolipile. It used steam for
propulsion. Hero mounted a sphere on
top of a water kettle. A fire below the
kettle turned the water into steam, and
the gas traveled through the pipes to
the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed
the gas to escape, and in doing so gave
a thrust to the sphere that caused it
to rotate. (MRPO) MRD/SPD
Discipline(s): n/a (MRPO) Subject
Type: n/a Keywords: Hero's Engine,
Aeolipile MSFC Negative Number:
9513982 Reference Number:
MSFC-75-SA-4105-2C n/a
n/a from: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/ab
stracts.php?p=1867 PD
source: http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/
HIGH/9513982.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,950 YBN
[50 AD] 5 6 		6566) A wind-wheel powered machine.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der
östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle",
Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77,
Issue 1 (1995), pp.1–30 (10f.)
2. ^ A.G.
Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill",
Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145–151
3. ^ Dietrich
Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur
westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für
Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1
(1995), pp.1–30 (10f.)
4. ^ A.G. Drachmann,
"Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7
(1961), pp. 145–151
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c20-?)
6. ^ "Hero
of Alexandria". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Ale
xandria (=c.10-c.70(+40)

MORE INFO
[1] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl
Sagan Productions, KCET Los Angeles,
(1980)
[2] John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971)
[3]
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Pappus.html
[4]
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Print
only/Heron.html
[5] "Heron's formula". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron%27s_f
ormula
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Deutsch:
Neuzeitliche Rekonstruktion von
Windorgel und Windrad des Heron von
Alexandria (1. Jh. n. Chr.) nach W.
Schmidt: Herons von Alexandria
Druckwerke und Automatentheater,
griechisch und deutsch hg., 1899
(Heronis Alexandrini opera I, Neudruck
1971), S. 205, Abb. 44; vgl. ebenda
Einleitung S. XXXIX English: Modern
reconstruction of wind organ and wind
wheel of Heron of Alexandria (1st
century AD) according to W. Schmidt:
Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, Greek and German,
1899 (Heronis Alexandrini opera I,
Reprint 1971), p. 205, fig. 44; cf.
introduction p. XXXIX Date
1899 Source W. Schmidt: Herons von
Alexandria Druckwerke und
Automatentheater, gr-dt, 1899 Author
W. Schmidt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Heron%27s_Windw
heel.jpg/1026px-Heron%27s_Windwheel.jpg

[2] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
1,935 YBN
[65 AD] 8 		6432) The glass prism.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge.
Works, Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
2. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
3. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge. Works,
Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
4. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
5. ^ Seneca, L.A., and T. Lodge. Works,
Both Moral and Natural. 1620,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
FElCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA886&lpg=PA886
6. ^ The Development of Newton's Theory
of Color Richard S. Westfall Isis ,
Vol. 53, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp.
339-358 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/227786
7. ^ "Lucius Annaeus Seneca".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/534392/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca>.
8. ^ McBeath, A. & Gheorghe, A. D.,
"Meteor Beliefs Project: Classical
beliefs connecting meteors with life
and death", WGN, Journal of the
International Meteor Organization, vol.
34, no. 5, p.
148-150. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/2006JIMO...34..148M
Rome7  
[1] Description Seneca, part of
double-herm in Antikensammlung
Berlin Date 21 May 2004 Source Own
work Author Calidius GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9b/Seneca-berlinantikens
ammlung-1.jpg
1,925 YBN
[75 AD] 10 11 		1270) The last cuneiform texts.4 5 6
This ends 3000 years of cuneiform
writing.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p56-57.
3. ^ Sachs, Abraham. "The
latest datable cuneiform tablets."
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient
und Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98.
ALSO IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al.,
eds. Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol.
25. Butzon & Bercker, 1976.
4. ^ J. T.
Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient
Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
5. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p56-57.
6. ^ Sachs, Abraham. "The
latest datable cuneiform tablets."
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient
und Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98.
ALSO IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al.,
eds. Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol.
25. Butzon & Bercker, 1976.
7. ^ J. T.
Hooker, "Reading the Past, Ancient
Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
8. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p29.
9. ^
http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dccmt
10. ^ J. T. Hooker, "Reading the Past,
Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
Alphabet", (Berkeley: University of
California Press/British Museum, 1990),
p30.
11. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series, p56-57.

MORE INFO
[1] Walker, C.B.F. Cuneiform.
University of California Press, 1987.
Reading the Past, p19
Sumer/Babylon8 (Southern Iraq)9  
[1] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate
19. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, Plate 19.

[2] Sachs, Abraham. ''The latest
datable cuneiform tablets.'' Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976,
p398. COPYRIGHTED
source: Sachs, Abraham. "The latest
datable cuneiform tablets." Kramer
Anniversary Volume. Alter Orient und
Altes Testament 25 (1976): 379-98. ALSO
IN Kramer, Samuel Noah, et al., eds.
Kramer Anniversary Volume. Vol. 25.
Butzon & Bercker, 1976, p398.
1,923 YBN
[77 AD] 4 		1083) The earliest Encyclopedia.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
2. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
3. ^ "encyclopedia." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/encyclopedi
a
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
Spain? 
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG

[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
1,917 YBN
[83 AD] 6 7 8 9 		766) The earliest magnetic compass; in
China.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
2. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
3. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
4. ^ Needham, Joseph
and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5
5. ^ Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin
A. (1986) The shorter Science and
civilisation in China : an abridgement
of Joseph Needham's original text, Vol.
3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and
Electricity", Cambridge University
Press, p252. ISBN 0-521-25272-5
6. ^ Joseph Needham,
"Science and Civilization in China",
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} {83 CE}
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p24. {83 CE}
8. ^ Needham, Joseph and
Ronan, Colin A. (1986) The shorter
Science and civilisation in China : an
abridgement of Joseph Needham's
original text, Vol. 3, Chapter 1:
"Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge
University Press, p252. ISBN
0-521-25272-5 {1040-1044}
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams,
"A history of invention : from stone
axes to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). {600 BC}
China5 (more specific) 
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962, p230-268.

[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 4 5 		5861) The earliest known complete
musical composition, including musical
notation.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
2. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
3. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p1-7.
{100CE}
5. ^ "Seikilos epitaph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_ep
itaph {200 BCE- 100 CE (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWyXPpf7V
jo
[2] MP3 recording of the Seikilos
song. http://www.biblicallanguagecenter
.com/assets/audio/SEIKILOU_WDH_2006.mp3
(now Aidin, Turkey)3 (verify) 
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg

[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
1,900 YBN
[100 AD] 4 		6638) The earliest distillation; in
Alexandria.1

Distillation is the process of
evaporating or boiling a liquid and
condensing its vapor.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Forbes, Robert James (1970). A
short history of the art of
distillation: from the beginnings up to
the death of Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL.
pp. 21. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1.
2. ^ "distillation."
Collins English Dictionary - Complete &
Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins
Publishers. 06 Apr. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
istillation>.
3. ^ Forbes, Robert James (1970). A
short history of the art of
distillation: from the beginnings up to
the death of Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL.
pp. 21. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1.
4. ^ Oakes, E.H.
Encyclopedia of World Scientists. Facts
On File, Incorporated, 2007. Facts on
File Science Library,
p485. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uPRB-OED1bcC&pg=PA485
Alexandria, Egypt3  
[1] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p21. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.

[2] Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948,
p20. COPYRIGHTED
source: Forbes, Robert James. A short
history of the art of distillation:
from the beginnings up to the death of
Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. 1948, p21.
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 		1087) Ptolomy's "Almagest"4 , an
Earth-centered model of the universe,
with the Earth a stationary sphere in
the center, surrounded by 7 larger
planetary spheres for the Moon, Sun,
planets, and fixed stars5 6 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
2. ^ "Ptolemy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 18
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ptolemy
3. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984, p38-39.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
4. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
5. ^ "Ptolemy." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 18
Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ptolemy
6. ^ Claudius Ptolemy, translated by:
G. J. Toomer, "Almagest", 1984, p38-39.
{Ptolemy_Almagest_Toomer_1984.pdf}
7. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
8. ^ "Ptolemy". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/482098/Ptolemy>.
9. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, 1986,
Berman, Evansc150) (almagest=)c150)
10. ^ "Almagest".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5845/Almagest (almagest=c150)
(almagest=)c150)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=75-?)
12. ^ "Ptolemy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy
(c90-c168)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hipparchus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 17 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/266559/Hipparchus/229469/Other-s
cientific-work>
[2] Thurston, H. Early Astronomy.
Springer New York, 1996. Springer Study
Edition Series
(in Mouseion?) Alexandria, Egypt7
 
[1] Peter Apian, Cosmographia, Antwerp,
1524 PD
source: http://heliophysics.files.wordpr
ess.com/2012/05/ptolemaic_system.jpg

[2] An early Baroque artist's
rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus
(Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαῖος Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c. 168),
known in English as Ptolemy , was a
Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy
was the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by
en:User:Tuckerresearch. It is under
public domain because it comes from an
old manuscript. PD
source: http://i296.photobucket.com/albu
ms/mm192/dog2010/Ptolemaeus.jpg
1,850 YBN
[150 AD] 2 		6177) A bellow-fed musical organ.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "organ". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 22 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/431866/organ>.
2. ^ "organ". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 22 Jul.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/431866/organ>.

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph Yasser, "The Magrepha
of the Herodian Temple: A Five-Fold
Hypothesis", Journal of the American
Musicological Society, Vol. 13, No.
1/3, A Musicological Offering to Otto
Kinkeldey upon the Occasion of His 80th
Anniversary (1960), pp.
24-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8302
44
[2] South Kensington Museum. A
Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington
Museum. Printed by G. E. Eyre and W.
Spottiswoode, 1874,
p31-32. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=vNk5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32
 
[1] South Kensington Museum. A
Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington
Museum. Printed by G. E. Eyre and W.
Spottiswoode, 1874,
p31-32. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=vNk5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vNk5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32

[2] Fig. 59 exhibits this most simple
piece of mechanism, and very possibly
shows what the ugab might have been at
some period of its existence. A pipe at
the side of the wind chest points out
the fact that the commonest bellows of
the period was considered capable of
supplying the required current of
air. The whole construction is in a
more advanced state in the instrument
depicted in Fig. 60. Not only are its
pipes more numerous, but it has bellows
specially adapted to its requirements.
While one bellows is being
replenished, the other is still able to
support the sounds, so there is no
awkward pause while the instrument is
taking breath. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.katapi.org.uk/images/
Music/MB/Fig60.jpg
1,838 YBN
[162 AD] 2 		971) The valves of the heart are
described, and that the brain controls
the voice is shown.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galen of Pergamum."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p42.
 
[1] Galen of Pergamon. Vasiliadis et
al. Scoliosis 2009 4:6
doi:10.1186/1748-7161-4-6 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scoliosisjournal.com/
content/figures/1748-7161-4-6-11-l.jpg

[2] Description English: Claude
Galien. Lithograph by Pierre Roche
Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et
Deneux, ca.
1865). Date Source http://www.nlm.nih
.gov/hmd/greek/popup/images/galen_detail
.jpg Author NLM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Galen_detail.jpg
1,825 YBN
[175 AD] 5 6 7 		1068) Crank-handles are used in China.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SeGyrCfYs2AC&
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ "crank." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/141829/crank>.
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on) (based on)
5. ^ Needham,
J., and L. Wang. Science and
Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SeGyrCfYs2AC&
6. ^ "crank." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/141829/crank>.
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (based on) (based on)

MORE INFO
[1] Needham, J., and L. Wang.
Science and Civilisation in China:
Physics and Physical Technology.
Mechanical Engineering. University
Press, 1965. Science and Civilisation
in China,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA114
China3 4  
[1] Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA114 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA114

[2] Needham, J., and L. Wang. Science
and Civilisation in China: Physics and
Physical Technology. Mechanical
Engineering. University Press, 1965.
Science and Civilisation in China,
p83. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
eGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA83 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SeGyrCfYs2AC&pg=PA83
1,800 YBN
[200 AD] 4 		1073) The earliest "press-on" printing
in China.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {By 200}

MORE INFO
[1] "Woodblock printing".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_p
rinting (704-751)
China3  
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
1,710 YBN
[290 AD] 3 		1092) An encyclopedia of alchemy.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p45.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (=c250CE-?)
(=c250CE-?)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (=c250CE-?)
(=c250CE-?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alchemy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
[2] Berthelot, M., and C.E. Ruelle.
Collection Des Anciens Alchimistes
Grecs. G. Steinheil, 1888. Collection
Des Anciens Alchimistes Grecs,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163
Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt2  
[1] Distillation apparatus of Zosimos,
from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des
anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol.,
Paris, 1887-1888). Read more:
http://www.answers.com/topic/zosimos-of-
panopolis#ixzz2NTz2SaHo Berthelot,
M., and C.E. Ruelle. Collection Des
Anciens Alchimistes Grecs. G.
Steinheil, 1888. Collection Des Anciens
Alchimistes Grecs,
p163. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lrRXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163
1,675 YBN
[05/??/325 AD] 7 8 9 		947) The Council of Nicaea {nI-SE-u1 }
condemns the claim of Arius {u-rI-uS or
AR-E-uS2 }, that Jesus was not divine,
as a heresy.3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicaea." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/N
icaea>.
2. ^ "arius." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 30 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rius>.
3. ^ "Council of Nicaea."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 06 May. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/413817/Council-of-Nicaea>.
4. ^ "First Council of Nicaea." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2013. Answers.com 06 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/first-counc
il-of-nicaea
5. ^ "Arius." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 06 May. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/34795/Arius>.
6. ^ "Council of Nicaea". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413817/Council-of-Nicaea>.
7. ^ "Council of Nicaea". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413817/Council-of-Nicaea>.
8. ^ John Marlowe, "The golden age of
Alexandria: from its foundation by
Alexander the Great in 331 BC to its
capture by the Arabs in 642 AD.",
(London: Gollancz, 1971).
9. ^ "Arius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/34795/Arius>.
Nicaea, Bithynia(now İznik, Turkey)6
 
[1] Description English: Emperor
Constantine and the Council of Nicaea.
The burning of Arian books is
illustrated below. Drawing on vellum.
From MS CLXV, Biblioteca Capitolare,
Vercelli, a compendium of canon law
produced in northern Italy ca.
825. Text: ''Sinodus Niceni u[bi?]
[f?]ui[t?] numerus / s[an]c[t]o[rum]
patr[um] . CCCXVIII . et omnes /
subscrip/seru/n/t.'' ''Constantinus
imp(erator)''. ''Heretici / Arriani /
damnati'' Translation: ''[of?] the
synod of Nicaea [where the] number / of
holy fathers [was] 318 [.] and all /
subscribed.'' ''Constantine the
emperor.'' ''Arian heretics
condemned.'' Date circa 825 Source
Jean Hubert et al., Europe in the Dark
Ages (London: Thames & Hudson, 1969),
p. 143 Author file: James Steakley;
artwork: unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Constantine_bur
ning_Arian_books.jpg/744px-Constantine_b
urning_Arian_books.jpg

[2] Description Eastern Orthodox icon
depicting the First Council of Nicea
(325).PD
source: http://santosapostolesmiami.org/
wp-content/uploads/2013/03/nicaeacouncil
.jpg
1,672 YBN
[328 AD] 4 		6451) The Arabic alphabet.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
2. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
3. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
4. ^ Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p100-103.
(early inscription) Namara, Syria3
 
[1] Fischer, S.R. A History of Writing.
Reaktion, 2001. Globalities Series.
p101. COPYRIGHTED
source: Fischer, S.R. A History of
Writing. Reaktion, 2001. Globalities
Series. p101.

[2] Artist Unknown Description
Arabic epitaph of “Imru-l-Qays, son
of 'Amr, king of all the Arabs”,
inscribed in Nabataean script. Basalt,
dated in 7 Kislul, 223, viz. December,
7 328 AD. Found at Nemara in the Hauran
(Southern Syria). Dimensions H. 45 cm
(17 ½ in.), W. 1.73 m (5 ft. 8 in.),
D. 15 cm (5 ¾ in.) Current location
(Inventory)Louvre MuseumLink back to
Institution infobox
template Department of Oriental
Antiquities, Sully wing, ground floor,
room 19 Accession number AO
4083 Credit line Purchase,
1903 Source/Photographer Jastrow
(2007) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-
Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/1280px-Epitaph_Im
ru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpghttp://upload
.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Du
ssad_Namara.jpg
1,669 YBN
[331 AD] 4 		1375) Roman emperor Constantine I
abolishes all pagan (polytheistic)
hospitals.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "Constantine I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
633>
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Constantine I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine
_I
Constantanople3  
[1] Description
Rome-Capitole-StatueConstantin.jpg S
tatue de Constantin Ier, Musée du
Capitole, Rome Date 3 August
2007(2007-08-03) Source Oeuvre
personnelle Author
Jean-Christophe BENOIST GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ce/Rome-Capitole-StatueC
onstantin.jpg
1,609 YBN
[02/24/391 AD] 6 7 		1002) Roman Emperor Theodosius I
prohibits the visiting of non-Christian
temples.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
2. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php
/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp
(Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/
theod/tituli.htm
3. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
4. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php
/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp
(Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/
theod/tituli.htm
5. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
6. ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.10
http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php
/imperial-laws-chart-395 http://www.for
dham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.asp
(Latin)
http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/
theod/tituli.htm
7. ^ "Theodosius I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/590747/Theodosius-I/7210/The-mid
dle-years>.
(presumably) Rome, Italy5  
[1] Theodosius I UNKNOWN
source: http://finds.org.uk/images/ruler
s/Theodosius%20I.jpg

[2] Description Français :
Théodose Ier Date 2005-03-07
(original upload date) Source
Transfered from fr.wikipedia Transfer
was stated to be made by User:Alter
Mandarine. Author Original uploader
was Erine at
fr.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Theodosius-1-.jpg
1,609 YBN
[391 AD] 6 		1003) The library in the Temple to
Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
Christian church.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
2. ^
Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate
of the Ancient Library of Alexandria",
(Paris: UNESCO, 1990), p160.
3. ^ Mostafa
El-Abbadi, "The Life and Fate of the
Ancient Library of Alexandria", (Paris:
UNESCO, 1990).
4. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The
Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p160.
5. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990).
6. ^
"Theodosius I". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I (391/392)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/classics/rhetoric
/prog-aph.htm
Alexandria, Egypt 
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg

[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
1,606 YBN
[08/24/394 AD] 3 		1095) The last recorded hieroglyph
inscription in Egypt.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993), p36.
2. ^
Barbara Watterson, "Introducing
Egyptian hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh:
Scottish Academic Press, 1993).
3. ^ Barbara
Watterson, "Introducing Egyptian
hieroglyphs", (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press, 1993).

MORE INFO
[1] "Theodosius I". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_
I
island of Philae, near Aswan2  
[1] The Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, ca.
396 CE. The successive encroachment on
Egyptian culture and writing by the
Greeks, Romans, and Christians slowly
eliminated scribes capable of producing
hieroglyphic texts. An inscription
containing mention of the “Birthday
of Osiris, year 110'' is believed to
refer to the reign of Diocletion and
calculated as August 24, 396 CE
(Griffith 1937). [Fig. 22] This last
known example of Egyptian hieroglyphic
writing was found at the temple complex
of Philae, a sacred island near the
First Cataract of the river Nile. The
Emperor Justinian conducted a zealous
program against paganism and Philae was
captured and Christianized in 535 CE
(passim Harl 1990). Pagan priests were
killed, idols were broken and Egyptian
religious texts were burned. This was,
of course, not the first time that one
religion had destroyed the writings of
another religion, nor would it be the
last. It does, however, encapsulate the
problems encountered when literature
and knowledge are preserved in a
perishable medium. The Library of
Alexandria and its various destructions
would be a straightforward example of
such. also
from: http://www.memphis.edu/egypt/phil
ae2.php Aswan - Last Hieroglyphic
Text Relief of a Ptolemaic or Roman
period pharaoh from the temple of Isis
at Philae. The last known hieroglyphic
inscription in Egypt dates from 394
C.E. (late Roman period) and is seen
here in this image from Philae Temple.
Vertical lines border and divide the
two columns of hieroglyphs which relate
a royal decree. The hieroglyphs are
crude in execution but are clear enough
to read. On the left is a badly damaged
figure of a king wearing an elaborate
crown. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.flavinscorner.com/Las
tPhilae.JPG
1,585 YBN
[03/??/415 AD] 4 		1009) The murder of Greek philosopher
Hypatia by Christian people.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Maria Dzielska, F. Lyra
(Translator), "Hypatia of Alexandria
(Revealing Antiquity , No 8)",
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
2. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
3. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).
4. ^ Maria Dzielska, F.
Lyra (Translator), "Hypatia of
Alexandria (Revealing Antiquity , No
8)", (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, USA, 1996).

MORE INFO
[1] "Socrates Scholasticus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_Sc
holasticus
[2] from Damascius (in Suida):
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-suda.html "From Damascius's
Life of Isidore, reproduced in The Suda
Translated by Jeremiah Reedy, from
"Alexandria 2"
[3]
http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hyp
atia-bio-john.html
(steps of a church called The Caesarium
) Alexandria, Egypt3  
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg

[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
1,552 YBN
[448 AD] 		1043) Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius
II orders all non-Christian books
burned.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lucio Russo, "The Forgotten
Revolution", (Berlin; New York:
Springer-Verlag, 2004).
 
[1] Description English: Bust of
Byzantine Empreror Theodosius II
(reigned 408–450 AD). Marble, 5th
century AD. Français : Buste de
l'empereur byzantin Théodose II
(règne 408-450 ap. J.-C.). Marbre, Ve
siècle ap.
J.-C. Date Dimensions H. 29 cm (11
¼ in.) Current
location [show](Inventory)Louvre
Museum Département des Antiquités
grecques, étrusques et romaines,
Denon, ground floor, room 29 Accession
number Ma 1036 (OA 9056) Credit
line In the royal collections since
the 16th
century Source/Photographer Marie-Lan
Nguyen (User:Jastrow),
2009 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other
versions P1080088 Louvre tête
empereur Téodose II Ma1036 rwk.JPG CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Theodosius_II_L
ouvre_Ma1036.jpg/768px-Theodosius_II_Lou
vre_Ma1036.jpg

[2] THEODOSIUS II, 402-450, (son of
Arcadius) 10616. THEODOSIUS II.
AD 402-450. AV Solidus (20mm, 4.42 g,
12h). Ravenna mint. Struck AD 423-425.
Pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed
bust right / Emperor standing right,
holding labarum and Victory on globe,
placing foot on captive on the ground
below; R-V//COMOB. RIC X 1801; Depeyrot
7/3. Good VF. Ex Peus 369 (31 October
2001), lot 899. UNKNOWN
source: http://edgarlowen.com/theodosius
-10616.jpg
1,501 YBN
[499 AD] 3 		1309) The Earth rotation around its own
axis is described by Indian astronomer
Aryabhata.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
2. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.
3. ^ "Aryabhata I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/37461/Aryabhata-I>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Aryabhatiya". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatiya

[2] "Bhāskara II". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81ska
ra_II (date of book)
Kusumapura (modern Patna), India2
 
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
1,472 YBN
[528 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1426) That the medium is actually an
impediment to a projectile's motion is
recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "philoponus".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phil
oponus/
2. ^ "John Philoponus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9725/John-Philoponus
3. ^ "John Philoponus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/456703/John-Philoponus>.
4. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

5. ^ "John Philoponus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9725/John-Philoponus (500s)
6. ^ "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/ (c490 to c570) (c490 to c570)
7. ^
"John Philoponus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/456703/John-Philoponus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "John Philoponus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Philop
onus (c490 to c570)
[2] "philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
[3] "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phil
oponus/
Alexandria, Egypt2 3  
[1] The Iconoclast theologian John the
Grammarian and an Iconoclast bishop
whitewash an image of Christ, from a
9th century Psalter PD
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_CijcaA
9yq58/SrTp9neBmfI/AAAAAAAADiI/YW-8LcUktW
4/s1600/Iconoclasm+scan.jpg

[2] [t Note that this is not
contemporary with
Grammarian] Description English:
The embassy of John the Grammarian in
829, between the Byzantine emperor
Theophilos (right) and the Abbasid
caliph Al-Ma'mun, from the Madrid
Skylitzes, fol. 47r, detail. Date
12th/13th century Source Chronicle
of John Skylitzes, cod. Vitr. 26-2,
Madrid National Library Author
Unknown, 12th/13th century author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_a
s_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun
.jpg
1,471 YBN
[529 AD] 8 		1014) Byzantine {BiZeNTEN5 } Emperor
Justinian closes the schools of
Alexandria and Athens (including
Plato's Academy).6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

2. ^ Mostafa El-Abbadi, "The Life and
Fate of the Ancient Library of
Alexandria", (Paris: UNESCO, 1990),
p188.
3. ^ "Byzantine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
yzantine>.
4. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

5. ^ "Byzantine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/B
yzantine>.
6. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

7. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5

8. ^ "Justinian." The Concise Oxford
Companion to Classical Literature.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/justinian-5


MORE INFO
[1] "Damascius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius
[2] "Justinian I." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/308858/Justinian-I>
[3] "Justinian I". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/308858/Justinian-I>
Athens, Greece (and Alexandria,Egypt)7
 
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg

[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
1,458 YBN
[542 AD] 5 6 		1381) The Hôtel-Dieu in Lyon {lE-ON2 }
is founded: the earliest hospital in
France.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
2. ^ "Lyon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jun.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/lyon
3. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
4. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
5. ^ "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital (542)
6. ^
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/
showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+HT
ML&doi=10.1046%2Fj.1445-2197.2002.02492.
x (hotel_dieu_lyon.html) (542) (542)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hospital#History".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[2] "Hôtel-Dieu de Paris". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-
Dieu_de_Paris
Lyon, France4  
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
1,411 YBN
[589 AD] 3 		1328) Toilet paper is used in China.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper
and Printing, Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology, Vol. 5 part 1,
Cambridge University Press,
p123 http://books.google.com/books?id=L
x-9mS6Aa4wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Scien
ce+and+Civilisation+in+China:+Volume+5,&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=zf-qULP1NMaCqgHT1YHYCA&ved
=0CDkQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=dare&f=false
2. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper
and Printing, Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology, Vol. 5 part 1,
Cambridge University Press,
p123 http://books.google.com/books?id=L
x-9mS6Aa4wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Scien
ce+and+Civilisation+in+China:+Volume+5,&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=zf-qULP1NMaCqgHT1YHYCA&ved
=0CDkQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=dare&f=false
3. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper
and Printing, Joseph Needham, Science
and Civilisation in China, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology, Vol. 5 part 1,
Cambridge University Press,
p123 http://books.google.com/books?id=L
x-9mS6Aa4wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Scien
ce+and+Civilisation+in+China:+Volume+5,&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=zf-qULP1NMaCqgHT1YHYCA&ved
=0CDkQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=dare&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Paper#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper#Histo
ry (589CE)
China2  
[1] The Explanatory Notes to the Five
Classics (五经正义) was an official
book issued in the Tang Dynasty. The
five classics refer to the five
Confucius books, namely, the Classic of
Poetry, the Classic of History, the
Classic of Rites, the Classic of
Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals.
In the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han
Dynasty, the five books were reputed as
classics, thus having their name as
Five Classics. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/upload/upfiles/2008-12/24/expl
anatory_notes_to_the_five_classics502e1c
5858304ebb3671.jpg
1,400 YBN
[600 AD] 6 7 8 		1111) The earliest windmill, in Persia.
This windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
2. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
3. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
4. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
5. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63.
6. ^
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second edition,
Simon and Schuster, 1991, p63. {600}
7. ^
Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (6th century) (6th century)
8. ^ "Wind
mill". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_mill
(6th century)

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p25
Persia (Iran)5  
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
1,387 YBN
[613 AD] 4 		1391) The monotheistic religion: Islam
is founded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5853/Muhammad
2. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
3. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5853/Muhammad
4. ^ "Muhammad". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi Arabia)2 3
 
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
1,360 YBN
[640 AD] 3 		1120) The first flame throwing weapon:
"Greek fire".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Riddick Partington (1998).
A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder.
The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0801859549.
2. ^ "Greek fire". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_fire
3. ^ "Brahmagupta". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta

Constantinople2  
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
1,300 YBN
[700 AD] 8 9 		1118) The numerals (0 through 9), and
decimal notation are used in Pakistan.5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
2. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
3. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
4. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
5. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
6. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.
7. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
8. ^ "South Asian mathematics".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 18 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1238473/South-Asian-mathematics/
253515/Classical-mathematical-literature
>.
9. ^ "Hindu-Arabic numerals".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 13 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/31743/Hindu-Arabic-numerals>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Bakhshali Manuscript".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_M
anuscript
[2] "Indian mathematics#Bakhshali
Manuscript .28200 BC - 400 CE.29".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_math
ematics#Bakhshali_Manuscript_.28200_BC_-
_400_CE.29 (200 BCE - 400 CE)
[3] Ho, P.Y.
Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to
Science and Civilization in China.
Dover, 2000. Dover Science
Books. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA58
Bakhshali (near modern Peshawar,
Pakistan)7  
[1] Combination of image 2 and
3 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpghttp://upload.wikimed
ia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bakhshali_
numerals_1.jpg

[2] 3rd or 4th century The Bakhshali
Manuscript – is an early mathematical
manuscript discovered in 1881 near the
village Bakhshali (or Bakhshalai) in
the modern Peshawar district of
Pakistan. It is the only known document
on mathematics from this early period
of its culture and was written on birch
bark. 70 leaves, a few of which were
only scraps, survived to the time of
its discovery. It is a handbook of
rules and illustrative examples
together with their solutions. It is
devoted mainly to arithmetic and
algebra, with just a few problems on
geometry and mensuration. Only parts
have been restored, so we cannot be
certain about the balance between
different topics UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thecultureconcept.com
/circle/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Bakhs
hali-Manuscript.jpg
1,249 YBN
[751 AD] 6 7 		1253) Jabir prepares and identifies
acids.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Geber". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (+30) (+30)
7. ^ "Geber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber
(+30)
Kufa, (now Iraq)4 5  
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg

[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
1,230 YBN
[770 AD] 6 		1060) Wood-cut printing; in Japan.3 A
paper with text is attached with rice
paste to a block of wood, the uninked
parts are cut away, the block is inked,
and a paper pressed on it.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
6. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {868}
Japan5  
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif

[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
1,219 YBN
[781 AD] 6 7 		1254) Lower case letters.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c732-05/19/804+30)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
5. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).
(c732-05/19/804+30)
7. ^ "804, 781=accepts Charlemagne
invitation)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin
(c735-05/19/804, 781=accepts
Charlemagne invitation)

MORE INFO
[1] "Great vowel shift".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_vowel
_shift
[2] "Phonological history of the
English language". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologica
l_history_of_the_English_language
[3] "Carolingian minuscule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian
_minuscule
Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York,
England4 5  
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg

[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
1,211 YBN
[789 AD] 4 		1256) Charlemagne {soRlemAN}
establishes schools where math and
grammar are taught.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (789) (789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charlesmagne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlesmagn
e
Aachen, in north-west Germany3  
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg

[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
1,200 YBN
[800 AD] 5 		6221) String instruments are played
with a bow.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p47.
4. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p47.
5. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p47. {no
later than 9th century) 800 CE}
River Oxus (modern) Turkmenistan
(Central Asia)4  
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg

[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
1,185 YBN
[815 AD] 5 6 		1021) The "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of
Wisdom) school is founded, where many
scientific works are translated into
Arabic.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
2. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
3. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987), p69.
4. ^
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
5. ^ Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, "Science and Civilization
in Islam", (Cambridge: The Islamic
Texts Society, 1987). (c815) (c815)
6. ^
Delacy O`Leary, "How Greek Science
Passed to the Arabs", (London; New
York: Kegan Paul, 2001). (before
828/829) (before 828/829)

MORE INFO
[1] "House of Wisdom)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayt_al-Hik
ma
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_W
isdom)
[2] "Harun Al-Rashid". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_Al-Ra
shid
Baghdad4  
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg

[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
1,150 YBN
[850 AD] 14 15 		1144) Gunpowder is invented; in China9
10

The earliest gunpowder, black powder,
is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium
nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal.11
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
2. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
3. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
5. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
7. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
8. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
9. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
10. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
11. ^ "gunpowder." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 26 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gunpowder
12. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006),
"Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A
Technological History", Aldershot:
Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
13. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7.
14. ^ Buchanan, Brenda J., ed.
(2006), "Gunpowder, Explosives and the
State: A Technological History",
Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN 0754652599,
p3. {Gunpowder_Buchanan_2006.pdf}
{850}
15. ^ Joseph Needham, et al, "Science
and Civilization in China", vol 5, part
7, "Military Technology: The Gunpowder
Epic", Cambridge University Press,
1986, p7. {850}
China12 13  
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 4 5 6 		1379) A health science school is
founded in Salerno, Italy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor
A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery
From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997):
1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/cont
ent/abstract/64/6/1855
2. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor
A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery
From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997):
1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/cont
ent/abstract/64/6/1855
3. ^ Ferraris, Zoe Alaina, and Victor
A. Ferraris. “The Women of Salerno:
Contribution to the Origins of Surgery
From Medieval Italy.” The Annals of
Thoracic Surgery 64.6 (1997):
1855–1857.
http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/cont
ent/abstract/64/6/1855
4. ^
http://www.galter.northwestern.edu/libra
ry_notes/40/salerno.cfm (900)
5. ^
"university". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4363/university (800s)
6. ^ "University of
Salerno". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
5054/University-of-Salerno (notes for
physicians at 900)

MORE INFO
[1] "hospital". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0316/hospital
[2] "Hospital#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital#Hi
story
[3] "Salerno#Salerno and the revival of
medical learning in Western Europe".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salerno#Sal
erno_and_the_revival_of_medical_learning
_in_Western_Europe
[4] "Schola Medica Salernitana".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schola_Medi
ca_Salernitana (monestary founded in
800s)
Salerno (near Naples), Italy3  
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg

[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
1,100 YBN
[900 AD] 5 6 		5865) The first polyphonic
(many-voiced) music (Organum), and
distinct pitches.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
2. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>.
3. ^ "Musica enchiriadis." The Concise
Grove Dictionary of Music. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 1994.
Answers.com 31 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/musica-ench
iriadis
4. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003,
p50-52.
5. ^ "organum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/432228/organum>. {c900}
6. ^ Mark Evan
Bonds, "A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p50-52. {c850-900}
northern part of the West Frankish
empire3 |Possibly written in what is
now Eastern France4  
[1] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png

[2] Skildring Deutsch: Früheste
Darstellung eines Organums in einer
theoretischen Schrift, der ''Musica
enchiriades'' aus dem späten 9.
Jahrhundert Dato late 9th
century Kjelda Musica
enchiriadis, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek,
Var. 1, fol 57r Opphavsperson
Unknown writer Løyve (Gjenbruk
av denne fila) Sjå under. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Musica_enchiriadis_Re
x_celi.png
1,095 YBN
[905 AD] 4 5 6 		1303) Gypsum1 plaster is used to hold
broken bones in place2 by Al-Razi
{oL-rAZE}, who also openly rejects
Islam and other religions.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "plaster of Paris." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclop�dia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/plaster-1
2. ^ "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/al-razi
3. ^ "Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad
Ibn Zakariyyā." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 323-326.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Feb. 2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830903599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c845 - c930) (c845 -
c930)
5. ^ "Rhazes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes
(865-925)
6. ^ "ar Razi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2842/ar-Razi (c865-923/932)
Rayy (near Tehran, Iran)  
[1] Description English: Muhammad ibn
Zakariya ar-Razi Date before
1970 Source Iranian 2nd year of
Rahnamai textbook Author Unknown PD
source: http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/ju
ne2002/biography/BIO3.HTM

[2] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
1,080 YBN
[920 AD] 11 		6183) Norwegian explorers reach North
America.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
2. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
3. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
4. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
5. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
6. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
7. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
8. ^ Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
9. ^ Einar
Haugen Reviewed work(s): The Discovery
of a Norse Settlement in America:
Excavations at L'Anse aux Meadows,
Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by Anne Stine
Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
10. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. “L’Anse
Aux Meadows, Leif Eriksson’s Home in
Vinland.” Journal of the North
Atlantic 2.sp2 (2011) :
114-125. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/
10.3721/037.002.s212
11. ^ Einar Haugen Reviewed work(s):
The Discovery of a Norse Settlement in
America: Excavations at L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland, 1961-1968 by
Anne Stine Ingstad The Journal of
Interdisciplinary History Vol. 10, No.
1 (Summer, 1979), pp.
176-178 Published by: The MIT
Press Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/203319
{920}
L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland9 10
 
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.

[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
1,040 YBN
[960 AD] 8 9 		6186) The earliest rocket, in China;
gun-powder rockets probably in hollow
bamboo tubes.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
2. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
3. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
4. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
5. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
6. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10.
7. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt
8. ^ David Baker, "The rocket: the
history and development of rocket &
missile technology", 1978, p10. {960
CE}
9. ^
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rock
et-history.txt {1045} {1045 CE}

MORE INFO
[1] "military technology".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/382397/military-technology/57612
/The-gunpowder-revolution-c-1300-1650>
China6 7  
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif

[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
1,036 YBN
[964 AD] 5 6 		1502) A star catalog that includes
Arabic star names which, in corrupted
form, are still in use today.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 23 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abd-al-rahm
an-al-sufi
2. ^ Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae",
1975 {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_
1975.pdf}
3. ^
http://messier.seds.org/xtra/Bios/alsufi
.html
4. ^ https://maps.google.com/
5. ^ "Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi."
Dictionary of Astronomy, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 23 Nov. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abd-al-rahm
an-al-sufi
6. ^ "Andromeda Galaxy". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 22 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/24105/Andromeda-Galaxy>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Isfahan (city)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_%28
city%29
[2] "Al Sufi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sufi
(964)
(court of the Emire Adud ad-Daula in)
Isfahan, Persia3 (modern Iran)4  
[1] [t Note that Sahabi means friends
of Muhammad- possibly to imply life
around other stars?] Jones, ''The
Search For The Nebulae'', 1975,
p7. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_1
975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975, p7.

[2] [t Note that this is the reverse
orientation (horizontally) of the
Andromeda constellation, and that
Bullialdus writes that the author is
anonymous, but is similar to the one
from the earlier St. Petersburg
manuscruot if Al-Sufi's Book of the
Fixed Stars.] Jones, ''The Search For
The Nebulae'', 1975,
p15. {Jones_The_Search_For_The_Nebulae_
1975.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Jones, "The Search For The
Nebulae", 1975, p15.
1,024 YBN
[976 AD] 2 		1307) The earliest Arabic numerals in
Europe.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "History of the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system
2. ^ "History of the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system

MORE INFO
[1] "Codex Vigilanus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Vigil
anus
 
[1] The first Arabic numerals in a
Western manuscript, AD 976. From Codex
Vigilanus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1st_Arabic_numerals_in_West.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 7 8 9 10 		1022) The Encyclopedia the "Suda".4 5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et
Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX
(in Greek and
Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7OFCgP0UCy4C
2. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
3. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
4. ^ Suidae lexicon: Graecè et
Latinè, Volume 1, Part 1, page XXXIX
(in Greek and
Latin) http://books.google.com/books?id
=7OFCgP0UCy4C
5. ^ Roy MacLeod, "The Library of
Alexandria Centre of Learning in the
Ancient World", (New York: I.B.Tauris &
Co Ltd, 2000), p70.
6. ^
http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
7. ^ Suda On Line: Byzantine
Lexicography http://www.stoa.org/sol/
8. ^ "Suidas." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2012. Answers.com 26
Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/suidas
9. ^ http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Suda
10. ^ "encyclopaedia."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/186603/encyclopaedia>.
 
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
1,000 YBN
[1000 AD] 5 		1054) Paper money is used; in China.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "money." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
2. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
3. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
4. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>.
5. ^ "money." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/389170/money>. {before) 1000 YBN}
China4  
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg

[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
975 YBN
[1025 AD] 4 		5868) Musical staff notation.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>.
2. ^ "solmization." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/553469/solmization>.
3. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>.
4. ^ "Guido d’Arezzo." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 31 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/248582/Guido-dArezzo>. {c1025}
(Cathedral school) Arezzo, Italy3
 
[1] The 11th century Benedictine monk
Guido d’Arezzo invented a mnemonic
system using parts of the hand to
indicate pitches for singers. The note
names ut, re, mi, fa, sol and la were
also placed on horizontal lines to
notate pitch. These inventions evolved
into solfeggio (do re mi fa sol la ti
do) and staff notation as used today.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.designwritingresearch
.org/music/images/3.jpg

[2] Statue of Guido of Arezzo, Arezzo,
Italy (photo taken by Wilson Delgado,
March 30, 2003) Author:
en:User:Wilson Delgado Source:
en:Image:Guido of arezzo.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Statue_of_Guido_of_Ar
ezzo.jpg
962 YBN
[1038 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1308) The pin-hole camera.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
"Science and Civilization in Islam",
(Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society,
1987), p50.
5. ^ "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū
ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 189-210. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Feb.
2012. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=
GALE%7CCX2830901904&v=2.1&u=univca20&it=
r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c965-1039)
(c965-1039)
7. ^ "Ibn al Haytham". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5710/Ibn-al-Haytham (c965-c.1040)
8. ^ "Alhazen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen
(965-1039)
9. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987).
(c965-1039) (c965-1039)

MORE INFO
[1] "Camera obscura". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obsc
ura
[2] "Heliocentrism". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
sm
[3] "Catoptrics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catoptrics
Cairo, Egypt4  
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g

[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
959 YBN
[1041 AD] 6 		1124) Movable type printing, where
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text, is invented in China.3


Baked clay types are placed side by
side on an iron plate coated with a
mixture of resin, wax, and paper ash.
Gently heating this plate and then
letting the plate cool solidifies the
type.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
6. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>. {1041-48}
China5  
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.

[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD

source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
912 YBN
[1088 AD] 5 		1339) The University of Bologna is
founded.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
2. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
3. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
4. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm
5. ^
http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+no
stra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

[2] "University of Bologna". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Bologna (1088)
[3]
http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/Univer
sity/Our+History/default.htm
Bologna, Italy4  
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg

[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
900 YBN
[1100 AD] 3 		5883) Non-religious (secular) music
evolves in France.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
2. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>.
3. ^ "Western music." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Jun. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/398976/Western-music>. {early 1100s}

MORE INFO
[1] Mark Evan Bonds, "A History
of Music in Western Culture", 3rd
edition, 2010, p90
Provence, France (Southern France)2
 
[1] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg

[2] [t Image of troubador] PD
source: http://heathergoodman.us/files/i
mages/F_002_13thcTroubadour.jpg
894 YBN
[1106 AD] 5 6 7 8 9 		1411) Al-Ghazzali's {oL-Go-Zo-lE1 }
book "The Incoherence of the
Philosophers" slows the influence of
ancient Greek philosophy in2 Arab and
Persian nations3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ghazali, al-." The Columbia
Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2013.
Encyclopedia.com. 26 May. 2013
<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
2. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987),
p27,51-54.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "al-Ghazali".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/232533/al-Ghazali>.
5. ^ "al-Ghazali". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 23 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/232533/al-Ghazali>.
6. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Science and
Civilization in Islam", (Cambridge: The
Islamic Texts Society, 1987). (CE
1058-1111) (CE 1058-1111)
7. ^ "al Ghazali".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6672/al-Ghazali (CE 1058-1111)
8. ^
http://www.amazon.com/Incoherence-Philos
ophers-Islamic-Translation/dp/0842523510
 (written after more than a decade of
ascetic contemplation)
9. ^
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Incohe
rence_of_The_Incoherence/intro (thought
to be during period of doubts)

MORE INFO
[1] "The Incoherence of the
Philosophers". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incoher
ence_of_the_Philosophers
[2] "Nishapur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishapur
(Niẓāmīyah college) Nishapur, Iran4
 
[1] Hardcover: 267 pages Publisher:
Pakistan Philosophical Congress; 2nd
pr. edition (1963) Language:
English ASIN:
B0007IW3EG UNKNOWN AND Portrait of
Ghazali in his late years by an Iraqi
artist Name: Al-Ghazali
(Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE (450
AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/81kKsAI3QAL._SL1500_.jpghttp://www
.amazon.com/Tahafut-al-Falasifah-Incoher
ence-philosophers-Philosophical/dp/B0007
IW3EGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Ghazali.gif

[2] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif
868 YBN
[1132 AD] 13 14 		1146) The first cannon and gun; in
China.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
2. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
3. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
4. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
5. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
6. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
7. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
8. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
9. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe, "Ancient
Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
10. ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
11. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
12. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
13. ^ Peter James, Nick Thorpe,
"Ancient Inventions", 1994, p236-237.
14. ^
Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham, and Phan
Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest Representation
of a Bombard.” Technology and Culture
29.3 (1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "gunpowder". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8534/gunpowder
[2] Needham, Joseph (1986), Science &
Civilisation in China, V:7: The
Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 0521303583
[3] "Gunpowder". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder
Ta-tsu, Szechuan Province, China11 12
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275

[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275
850 YBN
[1150 AD] 4 		6239) The first stringed instrument to
use a keyboard.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p77.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p77.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p77.
4. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p77. {well
established by) 1150}
Europe3  
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
833 YBN
[1167 AD] 5 		1340) The University of Oxford is
founded.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
2. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
3. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html
4. ^ "University of Oxford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Feb.
2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/436492/University-of-Oxford>.
5. ^ "A brief history of the
University" http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_t
he_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief
_history_of_the_university/index.html

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ox.ac.uk/aboutoxford/history.
shtml (1167 but teaching starts 1096)
Oxford, England (now: United Kingdom)4
 
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg

[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
830 YBN
[1170 AD] 5 		1319) The University of Paris is
founded.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
2. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
3. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
4. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)
5. ^ "Universities of Paris I XIII".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8484/Universities-of-Paris-I-XIII
(c1170)

MORE INFO
[1] "Peter Abelard". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3315/Peter-Abelard
Paris, France4  
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
816 YBN
[11/??/1184 AD] 11 		1153) The start of the Inquisition.
Pope Lucius III makes burning the
official punishment for heresy {HAReSE6
}.7 8

The Inquisition will last until the
1800s.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
2. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
3. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
4. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
5. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
6. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
7. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
8. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
9. ^ "inquisition." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/288915/inquisition>.
10. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.
11. ^ "Lucius III." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/350632/Lucius-III>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Saint Dominic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Domin
ic
[2] "Inquisition". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition

[3] "Pope Lucius III". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Lucius
_III (11/1184)
Verona, Italy10  
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg

[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
772 YBN
[1228 AD] 17 18 19 20 21 		1392) The theory that all matter is
made of light.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
3. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
4. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
6. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
7. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
8. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
9. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
10. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
11. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
12. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
13. ^ Robert Grosseteste, tr: Clare C.
Riedl, "On Light {De Luce}", 1942.
http://web.mit.edu/jwk/www/docs/Riedel
%201942%20Grosseteste%20On%20Light.pdf
{Grosseteste_OnLight.pdf}
14. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/cgi-bin/textd
isplay.cgi?text=de-luce.xml
15. ^
http://www.colorado.edu/StudentGroups/lc
m/lunch/deluce.html
16. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
17. ^ Trevor Henry Aston, J. I. Catto,
The Early Oxford Schools, Volume 1,
1984,
p442. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AkJO3TAxMtwC&pg=PA442
18. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1168-1253)
(c1168-1253)
19. ^ "Robert Grosseteste".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8191/Robert-Grosseteste (c1175-1253)
20. ^ "Robert
Grosseteste". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gros
seteste (c1175-1253)
21. ^
http://www.grosseteste.com/bio.htm
(c1170-1253)
Oxford, England16  
[1] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2

[2] Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).
Scientist, Philosopher, Bishop of
Lincoln. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Grosseteste-color.png
766 YBN
[1234 AD] 6 7 		1125) The movable metal block printing
press is invented; in Korea.3 4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
2. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
3. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
4. ^ "printing." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/477017/printing>.
5. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/
6. ^
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communicati
on-and-information/flagship-project-acti
vities/memory-of-the-world/register/full
-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-
heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-bu
ljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second
-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-p
riests-zen-teachings/ {July 1377}
7. ^
"Movable type". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_typ
e {1234}
Korea5  
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
758 YBN
[1242 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1403) Instructions for making gunpowder
are introduced to Europe.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
3. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1247) (1247)
5. ^ "Roger
Bacon". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (how to make gunpowder
1242)
6. ^ "Gunpowder#History and
development". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder#H
istory_and_development (gunpowder 1267)
7. ^
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 17 (1982)
3385--3400, A short history of
gunpowder and the role of charcoal in
its manufacture, gunpowder.pdf (1267
cipher written) (1267 cipher written)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

Oxford, England3  
[1] English philosopher and Franciscan
friar. Possible ancestor of Sir Francis
Bacon, who authored The New
Atlantis. UNKNOWN
source: http://i393.photobucket.com/albu
ms/pp14/Inverted_Heptagram_Star/RogerBac
on1214-1294.jpg

[2] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
733 YBN
[1267 AD] 4 		1401) Mechanically propelled ships and
carriages1 , and that the Earth can be
circumnavigated are proposed by Roger
Bacon2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
4. ^ Roger Bacon, "Opus Majus", 1897, p
xx. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=6F0
XAQAAMAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (how to make gunpowder
1242)
[2] "Opus Majus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_Majus
(Opus Magnus 1267)
[3] "Gunpowder#History and
development". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder#H
istory_and_development (gunpowder 1267)
Oxford, England3  
[1] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford
University Museum of Natural History.
2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg

[2] English Franciscan philosopher and
educational reformer Roger Bacon shown
in his observatory at the Franciscan
monastery, Oxford, England (engraving
c. 1867). Credit: ©
Photos.com/Thinkstock COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/06/147406-004-CEEDC2D2.jpg
723 YBN
[1277 AD] 3 4 		1404) Roger Bacon is imprisoned and his
works are ordered suppressed.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p58-59.
2. ^ "Roger Bacon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon
3. ^ Roger Bacon, "Opus Majus", 1897, p
xx. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=6F0
XAQAAMAAJ
4. ^ "Roger Bacon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1664/Roger-Bacon (1277-1279)

MORE INFO
[1] "Roger Bacon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

[2] "Condemnations of 1277". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condemnatio
ns_of_1277
Oxford, England2  
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon

[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 5 		5873) Musical notes are defined in
terms of time ("long", "breve" {BrEV1 }
and "semibreve" {SeME-BrEV2 }).3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "breve." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 05 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
reve>.
2. ^ "semibreve." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/semibreve
3. ^ Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of
Music in Western Culture", 2003, p63.
4. ^
Mark Evan Bonds, "A History of Music in
Western Culture", 2003, p63.
5. ^ Mark Evan
Bonds, "A History of Music in Western
Culture", 2003, p63. {c1280}
Cologne, Germany4  
[1] 1.1.6. Deutschland 12. u. 13./14.
Jh. – Antiphonar, benediktinisch,
Herkunft unsicher
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.3_01.jpg

[2] 1.1.4. Frankreich 12. Jh.:
Kantatorium aus der Benediktinerabtei
Saint-Evroult de'Ouche PD
source: http://www.musicademy.de/uploads
/pics/27.1_01.jpg
720 YBN
[1280 AD] 4 		6238) The first eyeglasses.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
2. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
3. ^ "eyeglasses." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/199370/eyeglasses>.
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p31.
{1280}
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
700 YBN
[1300 AD] 6 		1121) The first mechanical clocks in
Europe;3 driven by a falling weight
that that turns a clock hour hand.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
4. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987).
6. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
1987). {around 1300}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clock#Early mechanical
clocks". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Early
_mechanical_clocks
[2] Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000). (8th century) (8th century)
Europe5  
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg

[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
690 YBN
[1310 AD] 4 5 		1424) Sulfuric and other strong acids
are described. Before this vinegar was
the strongest acid known.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982). (c1300)
5. ^
"Pseudo-Geber". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Gebe
r (c1310)

MORE INFO
[1] "alchemy". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-359
60/alchemy
Spain3  
[1] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg

[2] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
684 YBN
[1316 AD] 4 		1428) The first book devoted entirely
to anatomy.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). }
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). }
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). } (1316 writes
book) (1316 writes book)
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] An Early Renaissance Anatomy
Scene This illustration of a medical
school dissection scene is from the
Fasciculo di medicina (1493), a
compendium of medieval anatomical works
edited by Johannes Ketham. Included in
this edition was a new translation of
Mondino de' Luzzi's Anathomia, a work
that is generally considered to be the
best medieval work on anatomy. This
scene has often been read as supporting
Vesalius's description of the anatomy
professors who read from their
classical texts ''like jackdaws aloft
in their high chairs, with egregious
arrogance croaking things they have
never investigated,'' while ignorant
dissectors cut up the cadaver without
any knowledge of the anatomy of the
body. Yet in this scene the dissector
works under the watchful eye of the
physician, who stand behind him with
his hand on the dissector's
shoulder. Mondino de' Luzzi, a
professor of anatomy at Bologna, was
considered by contemporaries to be the
leading authority on anatomy until
Vesalius. His work was the standard
text on anatomy, one that Vesalius
himself used. PD
source: http://honors.nmsu.edu/weamon/ke
tham2.jpg

[2] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
665 YBN
[1335 AD] 6 7 8 		1425) The law of inertia is revived.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
"philoponus". The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "philoponus". The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). "philoponus". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philop
onus/
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Jean Buridan".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1295-c1358)
(c1295-c1358)
7. ^ "Jean Buridan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8165/Jean-Buridan (1300-1358)
8. ^ "Inertia".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
(1300-1358)
Paris, France5  
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg

[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humana”. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
652 YBN
[04/07/1348 AD] 4 		1357) The Charles University in Prague
is founded,1 the first university in
central Europe.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.cuni.cz/UKENG-181.html
2. ^ "Charles University".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/107459/Charles-University>.
3. ^ "Charles University of Prague".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Uni
versity_of_Prague
4. ^ http://www.cuni.cz/UKENG-181.html

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Prague, Czech Republic (EU)3  
[1] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: http://2010fall.blog.ntu.edu.tw/
files/2010/10/Charles-University.jpg

[2] Charles University UNKNOWN
source: https://studyabroad.asu.edu/_cus
tomtags/ct_Image.cfm?Image_ID=92902
640 YBN
[1360 AD] 6 		1977) Uniformly accelerated motion is
described,1 2 and rectangular
coordinates (latitude and longitude)
are used to draw geometric figures.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
2. ^ The Mechanical Universe, episode
2, The Law of Falling Bodies, :30.
3. ^
"Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
4. ^ Oresme, N., and M. Clagett. Nicole
Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of
Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science.
{Oresme_Clagett_1968.pdf}
5. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
6. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html (1350-1360)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Oresme, N., and M. Clagett. Nicole
Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of
Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oresme, N., and M. Clagett.
Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry
of Qualities and Motions: a Treatise on
the Uniformity and Difformity of
Intensities Known as Tractatus De
Configurationibus Qualitatum Et Motuum.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
University of Wisconsin Publications in
Medieval Science.

[2] Figures copied from: Nicolaus
Oresmius: Nicole Oresme and the
medieval geometry of qualities and
motions: a treatise on the uniformity
and difformity of intensities known as
Tr actatus de
configurationibus qualitatum et
motuum/ edited with an introduction,
English translation, and commentary by
Marshall Clagett. - Madison, Wis.:
Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1968 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.uni-due.de/imperia/md
/content/didmath/ag_jahnke/oresme.pdf
635 YBN
[03/12/1365 AD] 4 		1360) The University of Vienna is
founded; the oldest university in the
German speaking world.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "University of Vienna".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/628154/University-of-Vienna>.
2. ^ "University of Vienna".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/628154/University-of-Vienna>.
3. ^
http://www.univie.ac.at/en/university/
4. ^
http://www.univie.ac.at/archiv/tour/12.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Vienna, Austria3  
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg

[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
623 YBN
[1377 AD] 3 		1979) The theory that the Earth rotates
daily is revived in France.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme
2. ^
http://www.nicole-oresme.com/seiten/ores
me-biography.html
3. ^ "Nicholas Oresme". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7342/Nicholas-Oresme (1377)

MORE INFO
[1] The Mechanical Universe,
episode 2, The Law of Falling Bodies
[2]
"Nicole Oresme". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Ores
me
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Nicole%20oresme
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg

[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
603 YBN
[1397 AD] 3 		5897) The first harpsichords; in
Italy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p82.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p82.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p82. {1397}

MORE INFO
[1] "History of the harpsichord".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_harpsichord
Padua, Italy2  
[1] Description English: Harpsichord
in the Flemish style with the
inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(Latin ''without knowledge, skill is
nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png

[2] Description English:
Harpsichord in the Flemish style with
the inscription SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL
EST (Latin ''without knowledge, skill
is nothing'') and DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (Latin ''while I lived, I
was mute, dead, I sweetly
sing''). Deutsch: Cembalo im
flämischen Stil, mit der Inschrift
SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST (''Kunst
ist nichts ohne Wissen'') und DUM VIXI
TACUI MORTUA DULCE CANO (''Während ich
lebte, schwieg ich, tot, singe ich
süß''). Français : Clavecin de
style flamand Italiano: Clavicembalo
di stile fiammingo recante le
iscrizioni: SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(''Senza la conoscenza, l'arte è
nulla'') e DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA DULCE
CANO (''Ho vissuto tacendo, nella morte
canto dolcemente'') Íslenska :
Semball í flæmskum stíl. Á því
stendur SINE SCIENTIA ARS NIHIL EST
(latína „engin er færni án
þekkingar“) og DUM VIXI TACUI MORTUA
DULCE CANO (latína „er ég lifði
orðvana var, en liðinn sing ég
blítt“). Date 1 June
2004 Source Own work Author
Ratigan (instrument et
photo) Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Clavecin_flamand.png
602 YBN
[1398 AD] 4 		1364) Sungkyunkwan University in Korea
is founded.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp
2. ^
http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp
3. ^ "Songgyun'guan". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/554418/Songgyunguan>.
4. ^ http://www.skku.edu/index_pc.jsp

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Seoul, South Korea3  
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg

[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
570 YBN
[1430 AD] 6 7 8 		6584) The magic lantern, an early image
projector.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kusukawa, S., and I. MacLean.
Transmitting Knowledge: Words, Images,
And Instruments in Early Modern Europe.
Oxford University Press, 2006.
Oxford-Warburg Studies,
p20-21. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=uBpI5sdYrKQC&pg=PA21
2. ^ Ilardi, V. Renaissance Vision from
Spectacles to Telescopes. American
Philosophical Society, 2007. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical Society
Series,
p188. http://books.google.com/books?id=
peIL7hVQUmwC&pg=PA188
3. ^ Giovanni de Fontana, "Bellicorum
instrumentorum liber cum figuris", BSB
Cod.icon. 242 Venedig 1420 -
1430. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:d
e:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8 {Fontana_Bellico
rum_c1430.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.magiclantern.org.uk/history/h
istory3.html
5. ^ Ilardi, V. Renaissance Vision from
Spectacles to Telescopes. American
Philosophical Society, 2007. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical Society
Series,
p188. http://books.google.com/books?id=
peIL7hVQUmwC&pg=PA188
6. ^ Giovanni de Fontana, "Bellicorum
instrumentorum liber cum figuris", BSB
Cod.icon. 242 Venedig 1420 -
1430. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:d
e:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8 {Fontana_Bellico
rum_c1430.pdf}
7. ^ Kusukawa, S., and I. MacLean.
Transmitting Knowledge: Words, Images,
And Instruments in Early Modern Europe.
Oxford University Press, 2006.
Oxford-Warburg Studies,
p20-21. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=uBpI5sdYrKQC&pg=PA21
8. ^ Ilardi, V. Renaissance Vision from
Spectacles to Telescopes. American
Philosophical Society, 2007. Memoirs of
the American Philosophical Society
Series,
p188. http://books.google.com/books?id=
peIL7hVQUmwC&pg=PA188
Venice, Italy5  
[1] Giovanni de Fontana, ''Bellicorum
instrumentorum liber cum figuris'', BSB
Cod.icon. 242 Venedig 1420 -
1430. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:d
e:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8 {Fontana_Bellico
rum_c1430.pdf} NON COMMERCIAL
source: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:
de:bvb:12-bsb00013084-8
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 7 8 9 10 		1435) The movable type printing press
is introduced into Europe.3 4

Printing in Europe will spread quickly,
and results in low cost books. This
increase in books leads to more
educated and literate people and faster
communication.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (c1398-c1468)
(c1398-c1468)
8. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (14th c.-1468)
9. ^
"Johann Gutenberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg (c1400-1468)
10. ^ "Johannes Gutenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1438 law suit)
Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France)6
 
[1] An artist's visualization of
Johannes Gutenberg in his workshop,
showing his first proof
sheet. Bettmann/Corbis PD
source: http://www.jaars.org/museum/alph
abet/galleries/gutenberg.htm

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
565 YBN
[1435 AD] 4 5 6 7 		1440) The laws of perspective (how to
draw a three-dimensional scene on a
two-dimensional plane1 ).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Leon Battista
Alberti". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1434) (1434)
5. ^ "Leon
Battista Alberti". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5446/Leon-Battista-Alberti (1435)
6. ^ "Leone
Battista Alberti". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti (1435)
7. ^
http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/
 (1435)
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura
and Elementa picture 1518 Paper
codex; ff. 62 (4n.n. + 54 + 4n.n.),
ill.; 21,5x15,5 cm Lucca, Biblioteca
Governativa, Ms. 1448, ff.
23r-v Facsimile The codex contains
the principles of linear perspective
conceived by Alberti in Florence in
1435. The figure illustrates the ''best
way'' devised by the author for drawing
in correct perspective by means of the
intersection of the visual
pyramid. PD
source: http://vitruvio.imss.fi.it/foto/
mediciscienze/70019_450.jpg

[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
560 YBN
[02/12/1440 AD] 10 11 12 13 		1437) Space is described as infinite in
size, and stars are described as other
suns with inhabited planets.5 6 7
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
4. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^
http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
7. ^ http://cla.umn.edu/sites/jhopkins/
(cusa_DeDoctaIgnorantia_DI-Intro12-2000.
pdf)
8. ^ "De Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia
9. ^ "Bernkastel-Kues". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-
Kues
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1401-1464)
(1401-1464)
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1440 book) (1440
book)
12. ^ "Nicholas Of Cusa". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5730/Nicholas-Of-Cusa (1440 book)
13. ^ "De
Docta Ignorantia". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Docta_Ig
norantia (02/12/1440)
Cusa, Germany8 9  
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg

[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
550 YBN
[1450 AD] 9 		1171) The earliest wound spiral spring
and spring driven clocks.5 6 Replacing
a falling weight with a spring to drive
the wheel-train allows smaller
time-keeping devices to be made.7
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
2. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
3. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
4. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
5. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
6. ^ Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35
7. ^ "Watch", Colby, F.M., T. Williams,
and H.T. Wade. The New International
Encyclopaedia. Dodd, Mead and company,
1905. The New International
Encyclopaedia,
p329-330. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O4RRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA329
8. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.
9. ^ "clock". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/121951/clock>.

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000). (1400s century
estimate) (1400s century estimate)
[2] "Clock".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock
(early 1400s)
[3] "spring." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/spring
southern Germany or northern Italy8
 
[1] Britten, F.J. Former Clock &
Watchmakers and Their Work, Including
an Account of the Development of
Horological Instruments from the
Earliest Mechanism, with Portraits of
Masters of the Art: a Directory of over
Five Thousand Names and Some Examples
of Modern Construction. E. & F.N. Spon,
1894,
p35. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_U9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA35

[2] The earliest dated watch known,
from 1530 Artist Anonymous
(German artist) [show]Philipp
Melanchthon (1497–1560) Link back to
Creator infobox template Title
Spherical Table Watch (Melanchthon's
Watch) Description English: This is
the earliest dated watch known. It is
engraved on the bottom: ''PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530'' (Philip Melanchthon, to
God alone the glory, 1530). There are
very few watches existing today that
predate 1550; only two dated examples
are known--this one from 1530 and
another from 1548. There is no
watchmaker's mark, although Nuremberg
is considered the birthplace of
spherical watches (called ''Nuremberg
Eggs''). A single winding kept it
running for 12 to 16 hours, and it told
time to within the nearest half hour.
The perforations in the case permitted
one to see the time without opening the
watch. This watch was commissioned by
the great German reformer and humanist
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Date
1530 (Renaissance) Medium gilt on
brass case, gilt on brass dial, iron
movement Dimensions Height: 4.8 cm
(1.9 in). Width: 4.8 cm (1.9
in). Current location Walters Art
MuseumLink back to Institution infobox
template Accession number
58.17 Exhibition history Philip
Melanchthon's Watch. The Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore. 2000-2001. Credit
line Acquired by Henry Walters,
1910 Inscriptions {Transcription}
Engraved on the bottom: PHIL{IP}.
MELA{NCHTHON}. GOTT. ALEIN. DIE.
EHR{E}. 1530; {Translation} Engraved on
bottom: Philip Melanchthon, to God
alone the glory, 1530 Ownership
history Jacques Seligmann,
Paris, by purchase 1910: purchased
by Henry Walters, Baltimore 1931:
bequeathed to Walters Art Museum by
Henry Walters Place of origin
Augsburg, Germany
(?) Source/Photographer Walters Art
Museum: Nuvola filesystems folder
home.svg Home page Information icon.svg
Info about artwork PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/52/German_-_Spheri
cal_Table_Watch_%28Melanchthon%27s_Watch
%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_C.jpg/1280px-G
erman_-_Spherical_Table_Watch_%28Melanch
thon%27s_Watch%29_-_Walters_5817_-_View_
C.jpg
546 YBN
[1454 AD] 4 5 		1436) The first printed book in Europe
(copies of the Bible).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gutenberg Bible".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8593/Gutenberg-Bible
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1454) (1454)
5. ^ "Johannes
Gutenberg". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8592/Johannes-Gutenberg (1455 at the
latest)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Gutenberg".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gute
nberg
Mainz, Germany3  
[1] Gutenberg Bible, Library of
Congress, Washington D.C. Picture of a
copy of the en:Gutenberg Bible owned by
the US Library of Congress GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:915h_Johannes_Gutenberg_%28Gensfleisc
h%29_statue%2C_Mainz%2C_1_Ma.jpg

[2] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
533 YBN
[1467 AD] 5 		6478) The cipher wheel for encrypting
messages.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leon Battista Alberti".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/12870/Leon-Battista-Alberti/201/
Contribution-to-philosophy-science-and-t
he-arts>.
2. ^ De Leeuw, K.M.M., and J. Bergstra.
The History of Information Security: A
Comprehensive Handbook. Elsevier
Science, 2007,
p280-281. http://books.google.com/books
?id=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA280
3. ^ Alberti, L.B. et al. A Treatise on
Ciphers. Galimberti, 1997.
4. ^ "Leon
Battista Alberti". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/12870/Leon-Battista-Alberti/201/
Contribution-to-philosophy-science-and-t
he-arts>.
5. ^ De Leeuw, K.M.M., and J. Bergstra.
The History of Information Security: A
Comprehensive Handbook. Elsevier
Science, 2007,
p280-281. http://books.google.com/books
?id=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA280

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/

[2] "Leone Battista Alberti".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leone_Batti
sta_Alberti (1452)
Rome, Italy (presumably)4  
[1] [t Figure from Alberti's treatise
on ciphers] De Leeuw, K.M.M., and J.
Bergstra. The History of Information
Security: A Comprehensive Handbook.
Elsevier Science, 2007,
p280-281. http://books.google.com/books
?id=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA280 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pQBrsonDp6cC&pg=PA322

[2] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
517 YBN
[1483 AD] 6 		6481) A parachute is designed.3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442451/parachute>.
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci's parachute".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1704849/Leonardo-da-Vincis-parac
hute>.
3. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442451/parachute>.
4. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci's parachute".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/1704849/Leonardo-da-Vincis-parac
hute>.
5. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
6. ^ "parachute". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/442451/parachute>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
[7] "tank". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/582594/tank>
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1452-1519)1472 to
be before all other Da Vinci records
starting at id1462 in 1473 CE.) (CE
1452-1519)1472 to be before all other
Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in
1473 CE.)
[9]
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap11.html
Milan, Italy5  
[1] Design for a parachute by Leonardo
da Vinci, from the Codex Atlanticus, c.
1478–1518; in the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy. Credit:
Baldwin H. Ward and Kathryn C.
Ward/Corbis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/81/96681-004-4FCB9F08.jpg

[2] [t Da Vinci Tank or armored
vehicle - 1484] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.leonardodavincisecret
s.com/inventions/warmachines.jpg
514 YBN
[1486 AD] 4 		1467) Gliders, a helical air-screw, and
a flying machine with flapping wings
are designed.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of
Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press,
1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14
2. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of
Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press,
1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8470/Leonardo-da-Vinci
4. ^ Anderson, J.D. A History of
Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying
Machines. Cambridge University Press,
1997. Cambridge Aerospace, 8,
p14. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
OeCJFJY3ZYC&pg=PA14

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "Ornithopter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopter
 (1488)
[4]
http://www.wired.com/images/slideshow/20
07/11/gallery_helicopter/02_vite_aerea.j
pg
Milan, Italy3  
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m

[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
508 YBN
[10/12/1492 AD] 6 		1450) Humans from Europe reach America
by crossing the Atlantic Ocean in three
small ships.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Christopher Columbus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9621/Christopher-Columbus
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (10/12/1492)
(10/12/1492)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/christopher%20col
umbus
(probably) San Salvador5  
[1] Artist [show]Sebastiano del
Piombo (1485–1547) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q285423 Description
Christopher Columbus Date
1519 Medium painting Current
location [show]Metropolitan Museum
of ArtLink back to Institution infobox
template wikidata:Q160236 Inscriptions
Text top center Source/Photographer
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/c
ollection_database/european_paintings/po
rtrait_of_a_man_said_to_be_christopher_c
olumbus_sebastiano_del_piombo_sebastiano
_luciani/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&s
ortdir=asc&keyword=Piombo&fp=1&dd1=11&dd
2=0&vw=0&collID=11&OID=110002098&vT=1&hi
=0&ov=0 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Christopher_Columbus.
PNG

[2] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
500 YBN
[1500 AD] 3 		6480) A screw cutting machine is
designed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/336408/Leonardo-da-Vinci/59786/M
echanics-and-cosmology>.
2. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2012. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336408/Leonardo-da-Vinci/59097/Second-
Florentine-period-1500-08
3. ^ "Leonardo da Vinci". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 25 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/336408/Leonardo-da-Vinci/59786/M
echanics-and-cosmology>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonardo da Vinci".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da
_Vinci
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/leonardo-da
-vinci?cat=health
[3] "elevator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371/elevator
[4] "Elevator#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator#Hi
story
[5] "Submarines#History of submarines".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarines#
History_of_submarines
[6] "submarine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0183/submarine
[7]
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap11.html
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (CE 1452-1519)1472 to
be before all other Da Vinci records
starting at id1462 in 1473 CE.) (CE
1452-1519)1472 to be before all other
Da Vinci records starting at id1462 in
1473 CE.)
Florence, Italy2  
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: Screw-cutting machine by
Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1500; in the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris (MS B, folio 70
verso). Credit: Courtesy of the
Bibliothèque de l’Institut de
France, Paris; photograph, The Science
Museum, London PD

[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://media-3.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/39/60539-004-FFD00218.jpg
496 YBN
[1504 AD] 2 		1474) That the new lands represent a
new continent separated from Asia by a
second ocean is recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1504) (1504)

MORE INFO
[1] "Amerigo Vespucci".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5177/Amerigo-Vespucci
[2] "Vespuci". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespuci
 
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg

[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
487 YBN
[09/25/1513 AD] 4 		1485) Europeans reach the Pacific
Ocean.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Vasco Nunez de
Balboa". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/49909/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa>.
4. ^ "Vasco Nunez de Balboa".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1919/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa (09/25/1513
(or 09/27/1513)
from a peak in Darién, Panama3  
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg

[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
483 YBN
[10/31/1517 AD] 4 		1389) The start of the Protestant
Reformation.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
2. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
3. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
4. ^ "Reformation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3023/Reformation
Wittenberg, Germany3  
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
478 YBN
[09/08/1522 AD] 11 12 13 		1475) Humans circumnavigate the Earth.7
8 This proves that a single ocean
covers the Earth.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
8. ^ "Juan Sebastian de
Elcano". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2242/Juan-Sebastian-de-Elcano
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano
11. ^ "Juan Sebastián Elcano".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Sebast
i%C3%A1n_Elcano (09/08/1522)
12. ^ "Ferdinand
Magellan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-225
336/Ferdinand-Magellan (09/08/1522)
13. ^
http://www.answers.com/Juan%20Sebastian%
20del%20Cano (09/06/1522)
Seville, Spain10  
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg

[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
470 YBN
[1530 AD] 3 4 		1503) The disease "syphillis" is
described and named.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
2. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
3. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro (p3:1530)
4. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>. (1530)

MORE INFO
[1] "Girolamo Fracastoro".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Fr
acastoro
Verona, Italy2 (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
469 YBN
[1531 AD] 3 4 		1546) Spanish physician Michael
Servetus publishes a book that
describes Jesus as only human.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1531)
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1531)
Toulouse, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
467 YBN
[1533 AD] 4 5 		1541) The method of triangulation to
measure distance: a base line of known
length is chosen, and from its
endpoints the angles of sight to a
remote object are measured. The
distance to the object from either
endpoint can then be calculated using
simple trigonometry.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
2. ^ "trigonometry". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "trigonometry".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/605281/trigonometry/225332/Appli
cation-to-science>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Gemma Frisius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Frisi
us (1553)
Friesland (present day Netherlands)
(presumably)3  
[1] English: Measuring the width of a
river by triangulation, Hulsius, 16th
century. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CD006-Triangula
tion_16th_century.png/1280px-CD006-Trian
gulation_16th_century.png

[2] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
462 YBN
[10/28/1538 AD] 4 5 		1371) The University of Santo Domingo
is founded, the first university in the
Western Hemisphere.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "First universities in the
Western Hemisphere", Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2012. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335
2. ^ "First universities in the Western
Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335
3. ^ "First universities in the Western
Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335
4. ^
http://uasd.edu.do/html/website2/detalle
s/informacion_general.html
5. ^ "First universities in the Western
Hemisphere", Encyclopedia Britannica.
2012. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/618194/university/284214/First-unive
rsities-in-the-Western-Hemisphere?anchor
=ref96335

MORE INFO
[1] "List of oldest universities
in continuous operation". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old
est_universities_in_continuous_operation

Santo Domingo, (now the) Dominican
Republic3  
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
462 YBN
[1538 AD] 5 		3059) The theory that the Earth and
planets rotate around a central fixed
point.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
2. ^ Fracastoro, G. Hieronymi
Fracastorii ... Opera Omnia Quorum
Nomina Sequens Pagina Plenius Indicat
... apud Iuntas, 1584,
p. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC
3. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 16 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/215496/Girolamo-Fracastoro>.
4. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
5. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro (1538)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>
[2] "Girolamo Fracastoro". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Fr
acastoro
[3] "Girolamo Fracastoro." Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
[4] Morton RS, Hudson MM., The
iconography of Girolamo Fracastoro (c.
1483-1553). Part I: woodcuts and
engravings., J Med Biogr. 1999
May;7(2):118-21
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy3
|Verona, Italy4 (and possibly mountain
villa at Incaffi) 
[1] Fracastoro, G. Hieronymi
Fracastorii ... Opera Omnia Quorum
Nomina Sequens Pagina Plenius Indicat
... apud Iuntas, 1584,
p. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=rG98CDUIsWoC

[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
458 YBN
[1542 AD] 2 3 4 		1511) Appendicitis (an inflammation of
the appendix) is described.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1542) (1542)
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/jean%20fernel
(1542)
4. ^
http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/21/Jean-
Francois-Fernel.html (1542)
 
[1] Description العربية:
مخطط للمعدة والقولون
والمستقيم، الجهاز
الهضمي. English: Stomach colon
rectum diagram. Date 19 December
2006 Source US PD picture. Author
Indolences created it on the English
Wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg/1000px-Stomach_colon_r
ectum_diagram.svg.png

[2] Description English: Tracts of
the spinal cord. Date 17 July
2010 Source File:Medulla spinalis -
tracts - English.svg by Polarlys
(translation by Selket). Author
Polarlys and Mikael Häggström CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Spinal_cord_tracts_-_
English.svg
457 YBN
[1543 AD] 9 10 		1482) The Sun centered theory is
revived by Copernicus.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
4. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus
7. ^ "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/136591/Nicolaus-Copernicus/8437/
Publication-of-De-revolutionibus>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)
9. ^ "Nicolaus
Copernicus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5759/Nicolaus-Copernicus (1543)
10. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1543)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolaus Copernicus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Co
pernicus
[2] "Heliocentric theory". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentri
c_theory
(presumably) written in (Frauenburg,
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland7 ;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany8  
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg

[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 5 		1537) The first imaginary numbers; the
square root of a negative number.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Needham, T. Visual Complex
Analysis. Clarendon Press, 1998,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=og
z5FjmiqlQC&pg=PA1
2. ^ Cardano, G., T.R. Witmer, and O.
Ore. The Rules of Algebra: Ars Magna.
Dover Publ., 2007. Dover Books on
Mathematics
Series. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZMZY79bvOPgC
3. ^ "imaginary number." Science
Answers.. The Carnegie Library of
Pittsburgh., 2003. Answers.com 01 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/imaginary-n
umber
4. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cardano-ger
onimo
5. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Nov.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cardano-ger
onimo

MORE INFO
[1] "Girolamo Cardano".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano (1545)
(University of Pavia) Pavia, Italy
(presumably)4  
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
455 YBN
[1545 AD] 4 5 		1543) Arteries are tied to stop
bleeding and artificial limbs are
created.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Ambroise Pare".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare
4. ^ "Ambroise Pare". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8441/Ambroise-Pare (1545)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1545) (1545)
Paris, France3  
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg

[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 7 8 9 		1507) The scientific classification of
minerals.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
2. ^ "Georgius Agricola". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
4072/Georgius-Agricola
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
4. ^ "Chemnitz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemnitz
5. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology
6. ^ "Basel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel
7. ^
http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/agricol
a_textbook_of_mineralogy/page_001
(published: 1546 in Basel) (published:
1546)
8. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel) (published: 1546 in Basel in
Basel)
9. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/georg-agric
ola?cat=technology (published: 1546 in
Basel)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Georgius Agricola".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Ag
ricola
written: Chemnitz3 , Saxony, Germany4 |
published: Basel5 , Switzerland6  
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg

[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 		1547) Pulmonary circulation is
understood by Michael Servetus
(SRVETuS): that blood goes from the
right side of the heart to the lung
where it is mixed with air becoming
red, and then to the left side of the
heart where it is sent through the rest
of the body.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
2. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
3. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
4. ^ Johns Hopkins Hospital. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. 1915,
p320-322. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Bc0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321
5. ^ Osler, W. Contributions to Medical
and Biological Research. P. B. Hoeber,
1919. Contributions to Medical and
Biological Research,
p772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bqIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA772
6. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
7. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
8. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
10. ^
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)

MORE INFO
[1] "Unitarian". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
Vienne, France3  
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
454 YBN
[1546 AD] 4 5 		3057) The germ theory of disease is
revived.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>.
2. ^ Fracastoro, G., and L.A. Giunta.
Hieronymi Fracastorii ... De Sympathia
Et Antipathia Rerum Liber Vnus: De
Contagione Et Contagiosis Morbis Et
Curatione Libri III. apud heredes
Lucantonii Iuntae,
1546. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B580FxRJwQUC
3. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/girolamo-fr
acastoro
4. ^ "Fracastoro, Girolamo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5082>. (1546)
5. ^ "Girolamo Fracastoro",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p325. (1546)
Verona, Italy3  
[1] Fracastoro, G., and L.A. Giunta.
Hieronymi Fracastorii ... De Sympathia
Et Antipathia Rerum Liber Vnus: De
Contagione Et Contagiosis Morbis Et
Curatione Libri III. apud heredes
Lucantonii Iuntae,
1546. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B580FxRJwQUC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=B580FxRJwQUC

[2] Girolamo Fracastoro. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a1/Fracastoro.jpg
449 YBN
[1551 AD] 3 4 		1549) The first planetary tables based
on the Sun-centered theory.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1551) (1551)
4. ^ "Erasmus
Reinhold". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Erasmus+Reinhold+
?cat=technology (1551)

MORE INFO
[1] "Erasmus Reinhold".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Rei
nhold
[2]
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.
php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
 
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg

[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
447 YBN
[10/27/1553 AD] 7 		1548) Michael Servetus is burned alive
for heresy {HAReSE4 } in Switzerland.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
2. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.
3. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
4. ^ "heresy." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 14 Jan.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heresy
5. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus
6. ^ "Michael Servetus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6881/Michael-Servetus (1553)
7. ^ "Michael
Servetus". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/535958/Michael-Servetus>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Servetus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ser
vetus
[2] "Unitarian". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian
[3] "Champel". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champel
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1553) (1553)
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Michael%20Servetu
s (1553)
Geneva, Switzerland6  
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg

[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 5 		1538) The first systematic computations
of probabilities (for example the
chance of a certain combination in the
fall of 3 dice2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ "Girolamo
Cardano". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
4. ^ "Girolamo Cardano". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0283/Girolamo-Cardano
5. ^ "Gerolamo Cardano". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Ca
rdano (1560s)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ars Magna (Gerolamo
Cardano)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Magna_%
28Gerolamo_Cardano%29
Italy4  
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1

[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
440 YBN
[1560 AD] 3 		1563) The first scientific society (a
group for the communication of
scientific research), the precursor of
the Academy of the Lynx.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1560) (1560)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giambattista della Porta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0950/Giambattista-della-Porta
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giambattista%20de
lla%20Porta
 
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
439 YBN
[1561 AD] 4 		1562) Fallopian tubes, and semicircular
canals are identified, and the vagina,
placenta, clitoris and cochlea are
named.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
2. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3648/Gabriel-Fallopius
3. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.
4. ^ "Gabriel Fallopius". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 29 Nov.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/200926/Gabriel-Fallopius>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Fallopius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fal
lopius (1561)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy3
 
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg

[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
435 YBN
[1565 AD] 4 5 		1558) The first illustrations of
fossils.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Gesner, K. et al. De
Omni Rerum Fossilium Genere, Gemmis,
Lapidibus, Metallis, Et Huiusmodi,
Libri Aliquot, Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. excudebat Iacobus Gesnerus,
1565. De Omni Rerum Fossilium Genere,
Gemmis, Lapidibus, Metallis, Et
Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot, Plerique Nunc
Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
3. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner
4. ^ Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
5. ^ "Konrad von Gesner". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Konrad%20von%20Ge
sner (1555)

MORE INFO
[1] "Konrad von Gesner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_von_
Gesner
Zurich, Swizerland3 (presumably) 
[1] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C

[2] Gesner, K. et al. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum Editi. excudebat
Iacobus Gesnerus, 1565. De Omni Rerum
Fossilium Genere, Gemmis, Lapidibus,
Metallis, Et Huiusmodi, Libri Aliquot,
Plerique Nunc Primum
Editi. http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JP0qBLnRY58C
431 YBN
[1569 AD] 7 		1550) Cyclindrical projection is used
to make a map so that lines of latitude
and longitude are straight.3 4
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Gerardus Mercator".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator
6. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Me
rcator
7. ^ "Gerardus Mercator". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2077/Gerardus-Mercator (1569)
Duchy of Cleves, Germany5 6
(presumably) 
[1] esta es un Carta do Mundo de
Mercator (1569) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Mercator_1569.png

[2] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
427 YBN
[1573 AD] 6 		1575) A comet is proven to be farther
away than the moon and to have an orbit
that is not circular which disproves
the ancient theory of crystal2
planetary spheres.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Tycho Brahe".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Tycho+Brahe?cat=t
echnology
6. ^ "Tycho Brahe". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6148/Tycho-Brahe (1573)

MORE INFO
[1] "Tycho Brahe". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe

[2] Carl Sagan, "Cosmos", Carl Sagan
Productions, KCET Los Angeles, (1980)
[3]
"Hven". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hven
Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden)5
 
[1] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD AND The
astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpghtt
p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tycho_Br
ahe.JPG

[2] The comet of 1577 From the comet
of 1577, Tycho learned that comets are
above the atmosphere. Seen above is a
page from his notebook. The comet is
placed near the orbit of the planet
Venus. The inner solar system is in
accordance with his own system, with
the Earth in the center and the Sun
moving around, all the other planets
are moving around the Sun. He could not
accept the Copernican system because he
could not measure the parallax of the
stars. He also observed that the tail
of the comet pointed away from the
Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.rundetaarn.dk/engelsk/observa
torium/komet.htm. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/da/Brahe_notebook.jpg
418 YBN
[1582 AD] 		1566) The Gregorian calendar: February
29th is omitted in century years which
are not divisible by 400.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "Christoph Clavius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_C
lavius
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
415 YBN
[1585 AD] 6 		1581) Decimal point notation is
introduced into Europe.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/565994/Simon-Stevin>.
2. ^ Simon Stevin, "De Thiende", 1585.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English "The Tenth"
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp95-96.
4. ^ Simon Stevin,
"De Thiende", 1585.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English "The Tenth"
5. ^ "Simon
Stevinus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
6. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1585)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fraction (mathematics)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_%2
8mathematics%29
[2] Stevin, S. "L’ Arithmetique".
1585, part2,
p144. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1dU5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA144
Netherlands5 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'', 1585,
p12.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf

[2] Simon Stevin, ''De Thiende'',
1585, p16.
http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/stev001thie0
1_01/downloads.php {Stevin_De_Thiende_1
585.pdf} English ''The Tenth'' PD
source: http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/saveas
.php?filename=stev001thie01_01_scans.pdf
&dir=stev001thie01_01&type=pdf
414 YBN
[1586 AD] 6 7 		1583) Objects of different weight are
shown to fall the same distance in the
same amount of time.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 2. ^ Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
3. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 4. ^ Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
5. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin
6. ^ "Simon Stevin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9667/Simon-Stevin (1586)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982). (1586) (1586)

MORE INFO
[1] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Simon+Stevin?cat=
technology
[3] "statics". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
9478/statics
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=I9Y0AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA757 Sherwood Taylor,
"Science Past and Present", 1945,
p82. http://www.archive.org/stream/scie
ncepastandpr035050mbp/sciencepastandpr03
5050mbp_djvu.txt
Netherlands5 (presumably) 
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 4 5 6 		1182) The first modern flush toilet.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
2. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
3. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
4. ^ "Sir John Harington".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/255314/Sir-John-Harington>.
5. ^ "Sir John Harrington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Ha
rrington (based on (presented ajax to
Queen in 1592)
6. ^ "Flushing toilet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flushing_to
ilet (=1596)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Harington". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Haring
ton
(Palace of Queen Elizabeth) Richmond,
Surrey, England3  
[1] Picture A Drawing of Sir John
Harrington's Flush Toilet as Described
in ''A New Discourse of a Stale
Subject, Called The Metamorphosis of
Ajax'' (1596) 1888-1889 Source
Popular Science Monthly Volume 34,
p310 http://www.archive.org/details/pop
ularsciencemo34newy PD
source: http://ultimatehistoryproject.co
m/uploads/3/0/6/7/3067335/1340909250.jpg


[2] Artist Attributed to Hieronimo
Custodis (fl. 1589–1598) Link back to
Creator infobox template
wikidata:Q2725000 Title Sir John
Harington Description English:
Portrait of Sir John Harington
(1561-1612). Date c.
1590-95[1] Medium oil on
panel Dimensions 91.5 x 71 cm Object
history Ampleforth Abbey, offered at
Sotheby's, London, sale L11034, Lot
145 Notes A cut-down version of this
portrait is in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. References
↑ Roy Strong, The English Icon:
Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture,
1969, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London Source/Photographer
Sotheby's PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/Sir_John_Harington%2C
_attributed_to_Hieronimo_Custodis.png
409 YBN
[1591 AD] 8 9 		1568) Letters are used to represent
constant and unknown numbers (the first
"variables"4 ).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Viète, F. Introduction
à L’art Analytique.
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
atM8AAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
6. ^ Viète, F. Introduction
à L’art Analytique.
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
atM8AAAAcAAJ
7. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere
8. ^ "Francois Viete seigneur de la
Bigotiere". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5315/Francois-Viete-seigneur-de-la-Bigot
iere (1591)
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1591) (1591)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franciscus Vieta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_
Vieta
[2] "Viète's formulas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%
27s_formulas
(possibly) Paris, France7  
[1] Viète, F. Algèbre.
1636. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ATs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7

[2] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 3 		1587) That plants, like animals, have
gender is recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p97.
2. ^ "Prospero
Alpini". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_Al
pini
3. ^ "Prospero Alpini". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
5902/Prospero-Alpini (1592)
Venice, Italy2  
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg

[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
408 YBN
[1592 AD] 8 		1613) The first thermometer is invented
by Galileo.4 A glass tube is turned
upside down in a container of water. A
change in temperature changes the level
of the water within it.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
2. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
3. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
4. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
5. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>.
6. ^ Lives. Lives of Eminent Persons;
Consisting of Galileo, Kepler. 1833.
Libr. of Useful Knowledge,
p11. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
P8GAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA11
7. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
8. ^ "thermometer." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/591653/thermometer>. {1592}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2]
http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth
/Thermometer.html
[3] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei (1593)
Padua, Italy7  
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS

[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
404 YBN
[08/03/1596 AD] 6 7 8 9 		1616) A variable star is discovered, a
star that shows periodic changes in
brightness.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Kepler, J., and
E. Rosen. Kepler’s Somnium: The
Dream, Or Posthumous Work on Lunar
Astronomy. Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Kepler, J., and
E. Rosen. Kepler’s Somnium: The
Dream, Or Posthumous Work on Lunar
Astronomy. Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
5. ^ Christianson, J.R. On Tycho’s
Island: Tycho Brahe, Science, and
Culture in the Sixteenth Century.
Cambridge University Press, 2002,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SNh7SyciWPMC&pg=PA264
6. ^ Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226
7. ^ Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926, p.114-115.
8. ^ The Popular Science Monthly.
Popular Science Publishing Company,
1897,
p683. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7zwUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA683
9. ^ Campbell, W.W. Stellar Motions:
With Special Reference to Motions
Determined by Means of the
Spectrograph. Yale university press,
1913. Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial
Lectures,
p282. http://books.google.com/books?id=
a567AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA282

MORE INFO
[1] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (08/??/1596)
Resterhave (near Dorum) East Frisia
(now northwest Germany and northeast
Netherlands) (presumably)5  
[1] Kepler, J., and E. Rosen.
Kepler’s Somnium: The Dream, Or
Posthumous Work on Lunar Astronomy.
Dover Publ., 1967,
p.226. http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=OdCJAS0eQ64C&pg=PA226

[2] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
403 YBN
[1597 AD] 3 4 		1589) The preparation of hydrochloric
acid, and other chemical compounds are
described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ Libavius, A. Alchemia.
Kopffius,
1597. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u49SAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ "Andreas Libavius". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8108/Andreas-Libavius (1606)
 
[1] Table 2 from: Libavius, A.
Alchemia. Kopffius,
1597. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u49SAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=u49SAAAAcAAJ

[2] Description Deutsch: Andreas
Libavius English: Andreas Libavius
(1555 – July 25, 1616) was a German
doctor and chemist. Date 7 April 2007
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by
User:Septembermorgen using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
unbekannt) Author unbekannt. Original
uploader was Michael Sander at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. (Original text
: Urheberrecht abgelaufen) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Andreas_Libavius.jpg
400 YBN
[02/17/1600 AD] 4 		1578) Italian philosopher Giordano
Bruno is burned alive at the stake for
heresy in Rome.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
3. ^ "Giordano Bruno".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/82258/Giordano-Bruno/883/Final-y
ears>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (02/17/1600)
(02/17/1600)
(Campo de Fiori {flower market}) Rome,
Italy3  
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg

[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
400 YBN
[1600 AD] 8 9 10 		1571) That the Earth is a spherical
magnet on which a compass points to the
magnetic poles is recognized4 , and the
first electroscope, which measures
static electricity.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
3. ^ Gilbert, W., and P. Short.
Gulielmi Gilberti ... De Magnete,
Magneticisque Corporibus, Et De Magno
Magnete Tellure: Physiologia Noua
Plurimis Et Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Electroscope".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
6. ^ Gilbert, W., and P. Short.
Gulielmi Gilberti ... De Magnete,
Magneticisque Corporibus, Et De Magno
Magnete Tellure: Physiologia Noua
Plurimis Et Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
7. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1600) (1600)
9. ^ Gilbert,
W., and P. Short. Gulielmi Gilberti ...
De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus,
Et De Magno Magnete Tellure:
Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital
Dioscórides. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Mbo2oDsnrAAC
10. ^ "William Gilbert". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6815/William-Gilbert (1600)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Gilbert". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gil
bert
[2]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[3] Gilbert, W., P.F. Mottelay, and E.
Wright. William Gilbert of Colchester,
Physician of London: On the Load Stone
and Magnetic Bodies, ... J. Wiley &
Sons, 1893,
pxii. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uTfPAAAAMAAJ
London, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Gilbert, W., and P. Short. Gulielmi
Gilberti ... De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, Et De Magno Magnete
Tellure: Physiologia Noua Plurimis Et
Argumentis, Et Experimentis
Demonstrata. excudebet Petrus Short,
1600. Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides,
p222. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Mbo2oDsnrAAC&pg=PA222

[2] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 3 4 		1636) The first star catalog to show
the entire celestial sphere, and the
Bayer {BIR} star naming system where
each star is named after the
constellation associated with it in
order of brightness, for example
Betelgeuse, the brightest star in Orion
is named Alpha Orionis, and Rigel is
Beta Orionis.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109.
2. ^ "Johann Bayer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3868/Johann-Bayer
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp108-109. (1603)
(1603)
4. ^ "Johann Bayer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3868/Johann-Bayer (1603)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Bayer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Baye
r
Augsburg, Germany2  
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg

[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
397 YBN
[1603 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 		3678) The first synthetic luminescent
material; barium sulfide.1 2 3

Luminescence is light emission that
cannot be attributed to the temperature
of the emitting body.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
2. ^ F. Licetus, Litheosphorus, sive de
lapide Bononiensi lucem in se conceptam
ab ambiente claro mox in tenebris mire
conservante, Utini, ex typ. N.
Schiratti, 1640. See
http://www.chem.leeds.ac.uk/delights/tex
ts/Demonstration_21.htm
3. ^
http://www.chem.leeds.ac.uk/delights/tex
ts/Demonstration_21.htm
4. ^ "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
5. ^ "Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
6. ^ "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>.
7. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
8. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95. {1603}
9. ^ Raymond
Kane, Raymond Kane and Heinz Sell,
"Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50
Years of Progress", The Fairmont Press,
Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I {1602}
10. ^
"Phosphorescence". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence {1602}
11. ^ "luminescence."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>. {1603}
12. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307. {1602-1604}

MORE INFO
[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
Bologna, Italy5 6 7  
[1] Barium sulfate GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar
ium_sulfate
396 YBN
[1604 AD] 8 		1622) The inverse squared law of light:
that the intensity of light is
inversely related to the square of the
distance.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ferguson, K. Tycho and Kepler:
The Unlikely Partnership That Forever
Changed Our Understanding of the
Heavens. Walker, 2002,
p292-293. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7ve-vB_Kq8C&pg=PA292
2. ^ Kepler, J., C. de Marne, and J.
Aubry. Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena,
Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica
Traditur ; Potibimùm De Artificiosa
Observatione Et Aestimatione
Diametrorum Deliquiorumque Solis &
Lunae. Cum Exemplis Insignium
Eclipsium. Habes Hoc Libro, Lector,
Inter Alia Multa Nova, Tractatum
Luculentum De Modo Visionis, Et Humorum
Oculi Usu, Contra Opticos Et
Anatomicos, Authore Ioanne Keplero.
apud Claudium Marnium & haeredes
Ioannis Aubrii,
1604. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iXlZNOHpsVIC
3. ^ Kepler, Johannes, and William H.
Donahue. Optics: Paralipomena to Witelo
& optical part of astronomy. Santa Fe,
N.M.: Green Lion Press, 2000. Print,
p22. (Proposition 9)
{Kepler_Optics_1604_2000.pdf}
4. ^ Ferguson, K. Tycho and Kepler: The
Unlikely Partnership That Forever
Changed Our Understanding of the
Heavens. Walker, 2002,
p292-293. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7ve-vB_Kq8C&pg=PA292
5. ^ Kepler, J., C. de Marne, and J.
Aubry. Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena,
Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica
Traditur ; Potibimùm De Artificiosa
Observatione Et Aestimatione
Diametrorum Deliquiorumque Solis &
Lunae. Cum Exemplis Insignium
Eclipsium. Habes Hoc Libro, Lector,
Inter Alia Multa Nova, Tractatum
Luculentum De Modo Visionis, Et Humorum
Oculi Usu, Contra Opticos Et
Anatomicos, Authore Ioanne Keplero.
apud Claudium Marnium & haeredes
Ioannis Aubrii,
1604. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iXlZNOHpsVIC
6. ^ Kepler, Johannes, and William H.
Donahue. Optics: Paralipomena to Witelo
& optical part of astronomy. Santa Fe,
N.M.: Green Lion Press, 2000. Print,
p22. (Proposition 9)
{Kepler_Optics_1604_2000.pdf}
7. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
8. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 02 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler/8445/Astr
onomical-work>.

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (01/01/1604)
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)7
(presumably) 
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
394 YBN
[1606 AD] 4 		2099) Europeans discover and explore
Australia.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "australia continent". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health
2. ^ Suarez, T. Early Mapping of the
Pacific: The Epic Story of Seafarers,
Adventurers and Cartographers Who
Mapped the Earth’s Greatest Ocean. C.
E. Tuttle,
2004. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ICDV937xiNIC&pg=PA84
3. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/new-zealand
-oceania?cat=travel
4. ^
http://www.answers.com/topic/australia-c
ontinent?cat=health (1606)
Australia3  
[1] Description Chart of the Malay
Archipelago and the Dutch discoveries
in Australia Date 1618-1638 Source
National Library of Australia Author
Hessel Gerritsz Link back to Creator
infobox template Permission (Reusing
this file) PD because of age PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Hessel_Gerritsz
_-_Malay_Archipelago_and_Australia.jpg/6
91px-Hessel_Gerritsz_-_Malay_Archipelago
_and_Australia.jpg
392 YBN
[1608 AD] 10 11 		1618) The earliest telescope (a
refracting telescope5 );6 a double
convex lens (the "object glass") is
placed at the farther end of a tube,
and a double concave lens (the
"eyepiece") at the nearer end.7
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p105.
5. ^ Ted
Huntington
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105.
7. ^
http://www.ece.umd.edu/~taylor/optics3.h
tm
8. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and
Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
9. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
11. ^
Dick, T. The Telescope and Microscope.
Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland8 )
(modern: Netherlands)9  
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg

[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 6 		1599) The "law of falling bodies"; that
the distance covered by a falling body
is proportional to the square of the
elapsed time is understood,2 and that
the path of a projectile is a parabola3
 (that two forces can work on an object
at the same time) is understood4 .
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982).
5. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (1609)
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy5
 
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
391 YBN
[1609 AD] 14 		1619) That planets move in elliptical
orbits with the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse9 , and that a line connecting a
planet and the Sun will sweep over
equal areas in equal times10 is shown
by Johannes Kepler; (Kepler's first two
laws of planetary motion).11 12
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
2. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
4. ^ Johannes Kepler, "Astronomia
nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
5. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
7. ^ Johannes Kepler,
"Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
8. ^ "Johannes Kepler." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 04
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ke
pler
9. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/315225/Johannes-Kepler>.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
11. ^ Johannes
Kepler, "Astronomia nova",
1609. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf}
12. ^ "Johannes Kepler." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 04
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ke
pler
13. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108. (1609)
(1609)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
Weil der Stadt (now part of the
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)13  
[1] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
AND Description English: Portrait
of Johannes Kepler. Date 8 March 2006
(original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia Author
Original uploader was Brandmeister at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-US; PD-ART. PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514http://upload.wikimedia
.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/JKepler.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, ''Astronomia
nova'', 1609,
p267. http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/
titleinfo/162514 {Astronomia_nova_seu_p
hysica_coelestis_tradita_commentariis_de
_motibus_stellae_m.pdf} PD
source: http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content
/titleinfo/162514
390 YBN
[01/??/1610 AD] 7 		1605) The four moons of Jupiter are
first seen and their period determined
by Galileo.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
6. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
7. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
(University of Padua) Padua, Venice,
Italy6  
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg

[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
390 YBN
[12/11/1610 AD] 		6485) The phases of planet Venus are
seen by Galileo.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Machamer, P. The Cambridge
Companion to Galileo. Cambridge
University Press, 1998. Cambridge
Companions to Philosophy,
p261. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1wEFPLoqTeAC&pg=PA261
2. ^ Machamer, P. The Cambridge
Companion to Galileo. Cambridge
University Press, 1998. Cambridge
Companions to Philosophy,
p261. http://books.google.com/books?id=
1wEFPLoqTeAC&pg=PA261
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
[2] "Galileo". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (01/1610)
[3] "Galilei, Galileo."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 237-249. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Dec.
2012. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830901566&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
Florence, Italy3  
[1] [t Note that this drawing is from
13 years later in 1623.] Galileo
Galilei, Il Saggiatore {The Assayer}
Rome, 1623. Drawing showing the phases
of Venus. PD
source: http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/e
splora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/storia/imma
gini/02/15.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
390 YBN
[1610 AD] 8 		6488) The earliest Microscope, a
compound light microscope.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
2. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
3. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
4. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
5. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30
6. ^ Dick, T. The Telescope and
Microscope. Lane & Scott, 1852,
p9-10. http://books.google.com/books?id
=PjoIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9
7. ^ "Hans Lippershey". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8449/Hans-Lippershey
8. ^ King, H.C. The History of the
Telescope. Dover Publications, 1955.
Dover Books on Astronomy Series,
p30-31. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Hans+Lippershey?c
at=technology
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p105. (1608) (1608)
[3]
"microscope". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 04 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/380582/microscope>
Middleburgh, Zeeland (Holland6 )
(modern: Netherlands)7  
[1] The microscope was first built in
1595 by Hans and Zacharias Jansen
(1588-1631) in Holland (see figure).
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/jansen-micro.JPG

[2] Description Portrait of Zacharias
Jansen Date 1655 Source Pierre
Borel, De vero telescopii
inventore Author Pierre Borel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Zacharias.jpg
389 YBN
[06/13/1611 AD] 14 15 		1617) That the Sun has spots and
rotates around its own axis is shown.9
10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
3. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
6. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
7. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
8. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
9. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
10. ^ "Johannes Fabricius".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/199808/Johannes-Fabricius>.
11. ^ Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ
12. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24,
1916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/191
6PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_of_t
he_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
13. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p30. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31
14. ^ Vaquero, J.M. The Sun Recorded
Through History. Springer-Verlag New
York, 2009. Astrophysics and Space
Science Library,
p111. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iWkyiEeiyksC&pg=PA111
15. ^ Galilei, G. et al. On Sunspots.
University of Chicago Press, 2010,
p31. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA31

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/fabricius.ht
ml
[3] "David Fabricius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fabri
cius (06/??/1611)
Osteel, East Frisia13 (now northwest
Germany and northeast
Netherlands) 
[1] Fabricius, J. De Maculis in Sole
Observatis Narratio.
1611. http://books.google.com/books?id=
aGFRAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=aGFRAAAAcAAJ

[2] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
389 YBN
[1611 AD] 3 		1627) A story about a man who travels
to the moon by Kepler.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1611)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Kepler".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5767/Johannes-Kepler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[3] Caspar, Kepler, pp 142-146
[4] Caspar,
Kepler, pp 198-202
Prague, (now: Czech Republic)2  
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
388 YBN
[1612 AD] 4 		3680) The theory of storage of light;
that light can be absorbed in materials
and re-emitted later.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p94-95.
2. ^ E. Newton Harvey,
"History of Luminescence From the
Earliest Times Until 1900", American
Philosophical Society, 1957, p94-95.
3. ^ E.
Newton Harvey, "History of Luminescence
From the Earliest Times Until 1900",
American Philosophical Society, 1957,
p306-307.
4. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p306-307. {1612}

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[1] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[2] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
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[3] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
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Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
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[4] "phosphor." The American Heritage®
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2008.
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[5] "luminescence." Science of Everyday
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2>
(Collegio Romano) Rome, Italy3  
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
386 YBN
[1614 AD] 8 		1584) Exponential notation and
logarithms.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
2. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
4. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
5. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
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http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier , -97.
6. ^ Napier, J.,
and H. Briggs. Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Constructio: Et Eorum Ad
Naturales Ipsorum Numeros Habitudines;
Una Cum Appendice ... Una Cum
Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ
7. ^ "John Napier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
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http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4813/John-Napier (1614)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982).

MORE INFO
[1] "John Napier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier

[2] "Simon Stevinus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Stevi
nus (1614)
Scotland7 (presumably) 
[1] Napier, J., and H. Briggs. Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio: Et
Eorum Ad Naturales Ipsorum Numeros
Habitudines; Una Cum Appendice ... Una
Cum Annotationibus ... A. Hermann,
1620. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VukHAQAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VukHAQAAIAAJ

[2] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 4 5 		1608) Copernicanism is declared a
heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo
Borghese).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p104.
2. ^ "Paul V".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8766/Paul-V
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
5. ^ "Galileo
Galilei". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology (1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2] "Pope Paul V". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_V

[3] "Galileo affair". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_aff
air
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Portrait of Pope ''Paul V'' (aka
Camillo Borghese) by Michelangelo
Merisi da Caravaggio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pope_Paul_V.jpg

[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 4 5 		1644) The circulatory system is
described; that the heart is a muscle
that contracts to push blood out, that
blood can only move in one direction,
in a circle from the heart to the
arteries, from the arteries to the
veins, and through the veins back to
the heart.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112.
3. ^ "William
Harvey". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health
4. ^ "William Harvey". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Harvey?ca
t=health (1616)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp110-112. (1616)
(1616)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Harvey". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Har
vey
London, England3  
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health

[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
384 YBN
[1616 AD] 7 8 		1831) The reflecting telescope.3

A reflecting telescope focuses light
reflected off a parabolic shaped
(concave4 ) mirror instead of through a
lens.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
2. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
3. ^ "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
6. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (1616) (1616)
8. ^
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/zucchi.html (1616)
Rome, Italy6  
[1] Description English: Niccolò
Zucchi (December 6, 1586 – May 21,
1670) an Italian Jesuit, astronomer,
and physicist. He may have been the
first to see the belts on the planet
Jupiter (on May 17, 1630) and reported
spots on Mars in 1640. In his book
''Optica philosophia experimentalis et
ratione a fundamentis constituta'' in
1652–56 he described his attempt in
1616 to construct a reflecting
telescope, which may be the first time
anyone ever tried to construct
one. Date Source Lithuanian
Science Council of Lithuania on Science
''Science Lithuania - Lithuanian
scientists newspaper. - Andrius
Rudamina: tarp legendos ir
tikrovės Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Niccol%C3%B2_Zucchi.p
ng

[2] 03-08-04/42 BAROQUE TELESCOPE
18TH Newton's first reflecting
telescope. 18th century. The Royal
Society, London, Great Britain UNKNOWN

source: http://www.lessing-photo.com/p3/
030804/03080442.jpg
383 YBN
[01/15/1617 AD] 9 10 		6491) The first double (or binary) star
system is observed.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barb�ra, Florence, 1890�1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002
2. ^
http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar/ricciol
i/
3. ^ Fedele, U. "Le Prime Osservazioni
Di Stelle Doppie." (1949): n. pag.
Print. http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar
/fedele/
4. ^ Davies, J.K., and L.H. Barrera.
The First Decadal Review of the
Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt. Springer, 2004.
Earth, Moon, and Planets,
p395. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WuDdVbJf_d8C&pg=PA395
5. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barb�ra, Florence, 1890�1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002
6. ^
http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar/ricciol
i/
7. ^ Fedele, U. "Le Prime Osservazioni
Di Stelle Doppie." (1949): n. pag.
Print. http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar
/fedele/
8. ^ Davies, J.K., and L.H. Barrera.
The First Decadal Review of the
Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt. Springer, 2004.
Earth, Moon, and Planets,
p395. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WuDdVbJf_d8C&pg=PA395
9. ^ Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maest� Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barb�ra, Florence, 1890�1909 Vol.
XII (1902), p. 296 (Letter 1236). Mss.
Gal. P.VI, T.X, car. 16, BNCF.
http://books.google.com/books?id=70ESA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA296
10. ^ http://www.leosondra.cz/en/mizar

MORE INFO
[1] "Giovanni Battista Riccioli".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
[2] Riccioli, G.B. Almagestum Novum
Astronomiam Veterem Novamque
Complectens Observationibus Aliorum, Et
Propiis Novisque Theorematibus,
Problematibus, Ac Tabulispromotam, in
Tres Tomos Distributam Quorum
Argumentum Sequens Pagina Explicabit.
Ex typographia Haeredis Victorii
Benatii, 1651. Almagestum Novum
Astronomiam Veterem Novamque
Complectens Observationibus Aliorum, Et
Propiis Novisque Theorematibus,
Problematibus, Ac Tabulispromotam, in
Tres Tomos Distributam Quorum
Argumentum Sequens Pagina Explicabit,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_mJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA422
[3] "Mizar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar (1650)
(University of Florence) Florence,
Italy 
[1] [t Note that this is apparently
public domain because of the age.]
''The middle star of the Tail of Elix
[Great Bear] falls, by [ecliptical]
longitude, on the 9th degree of Virgo,
and its latitude is 56. Earth is now in
Cancer 25, out of which position the
star is 44 degrees distant. Between the
middle star of the Tail of Elix and the
star closest to it [Mizar B], I now put
0.0.15''. The semidiameter [radius] of
the large star, 0.0.3''; of the
smaller, 2''; the interval, 10''. The
semidiameter of the great orb [Earth's
orbit] contains 226 solar
semidiameters. The solar semidiameter
contains 300 semidiameters of the large
star. So the distance of the star
contains 300 solar distances, if the
star is posited to be as big as the
Sun, that is, 67800 solar
semidiameters.'' The amazingly
detailed record of the observation of
Mizar in Galileo's handwriting and its
translation by Thomas Winter
(University of Nebraska). No date is
given, but there are good reasons to
believe it was made on January 15,
1617. Ms. Gal. 70 c. 10r, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale Firenze. Reproduced
with authorization from the Ministry of
Cultural Activities. Any further
reproduction or publication of this
image is forbidden. PD
source: http://www.leosondra.cz/obrazky/
mizar/msgal.jpg

[2] Le Opere di Galileo Galilei.
Edizione Nazionale Sotto Gli Auspicii
Di Sua Maestà Il Re D'Italia, Edited
by Antonio Favaro, 20 vols., G.
Barbèra, Florence, 1890–1909 Vol.
III, Part II (1892), p. 877. Mss. Gal.
P.IV, T.VI, car 10r, BNCF.
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/t
ext-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=AGH6462.
0003.002 PD
source: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genp
ub/agh6462.0003.002/481?page=root;rgn=fu
ll+text;size=100;view=image
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 3 		1632) That the square of the period of
orbit of a planet is proportional to
the cube of its distance from the Sun
is shown by Kepler; (Kepler's third law
of planetary motion).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp105-108.
2. ^ "Johannes
Kepler". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler
3. ^ "Johannes Kepler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ke
pler (1619)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Johannes+Kepler?c
at=technology
[2] Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from
Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp
302-304
[3] Wolf, A History of Science,
Technology and Philosophy, pp 140-141;
Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p
252
[4] Exploring the Cosmos, 5th Edition,
Berman, Evans, 1986
Linz, Austria2  
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg

[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
381 YBN
[1619 AD] 4 		1641) That the curvature of the lens in
the human eye changes as the eye
focuses to different distances is
recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982).
2. ^ Scheiner, C. Oculus,
Hoc Est, Fundamentum Opticum.
1619. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gGY_AAAAcAAJ
3. ^ "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner
4. ^ Scheiner, C. Oculus, Hoc Est,
Fundamentum Opticum.
1619. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gGY_AAAAcAAJ

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3] "Christoph Scheiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (1603)
Dillingen, Germany3  
[1] Scheiner, C. Oculus, Hoc Est,
Fundamentum Opticum. 1619,
p125. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gGY_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gGY_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
379 YBN
[1621 AD] 6 		1651) The law of refraction, which
describes how a light ray bends when
passing between two mediums of
different density.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "light". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 15 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/340440/light/258393/Reflection-a
nd-refraction>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113.
3. ^ "light".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/340440/light/258393/Reflection-a
nd-refraction>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p113.
5. ^ "Willebrord
Snell". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell
6. ^ "Willebrord Snell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_
Snell (1621)
Leiden, Netherlands5
(presumably) 
[1] adapted from Description
Illustration of Snell's law Date
00:46, 25 December 2007 (UTC) Source
Rotated and tweaked version of
en:Image:Snells law.svg, same
license Author Oleg Alexandrov — I
just tweaked the original Other
versions Derivative works of this
file: Snells law el.svg
Snells law2-cs.svgImage:Snells
law.svg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snells_law2.svg
/1000px-Snells_law2.svg.png

[2] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
376 YBN
[1624 AD] 5 		6241) The submarine.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
2. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
3. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
4. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>.
5. ^ "submarine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 20 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/570813/submarine>. {1624}
Thames River, England4  
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg

[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
374 YBN
[1626 AD] 6 7 8 		1693) The sealed thermometer (which
measures temperature independently of
air pressure).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p124.
3. ^ Taylor, F.
Sherwood. “The Origin of the
Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2
(1942): 129–156. Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ab
s/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
4. ^ "Low Countries". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 17 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/349663/Low-Countries>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124.
6. ^ Taylor, F.
Sherwood. “The Origin of the
Thermometer.” Annals of Science 5.2
(1942): 129–156. Web. 17 Feb. 2013,
p151. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ab
s/10.1080/00033794200201401#preview {Ta
ylor_Thermometer_20060602.pdf}
7. ^ Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p124. (1654) (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ferdinando II de' Medici,
Grand Duke of Tuscany". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_
II_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany

(The Low Countries) Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg3 4 |was:
Tuscany, Italy5 (presumably) 
[1] Leurechon, J. Récréation
Mathématique: Composée De Plusieurs
Problèmes Plaisants Et Facétieux :
En Feict d’Arithméticque,
Géométrie, Méchanicque, Opticque, Et
Autres Parties De Ces Belles Sciences.
Hanzelet, 1626, facing
p90. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
sY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QsY5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA68

[2] Double Portrait of the Grand Duke
Ferdinand II of Tuscany and his Wife
Vittoria della Rovere probably
1660s SUSTERMANS, Justus 1597 -
1681 NG89. Bought with the J.J.
Angerstein collection, 1824. Ferdinand
II de' Medici (1610 - 1670), who wears
a commander's sash and the military
order of San Stefano, and carries a
commander's baton, succeeded his father
as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1621,
assuming power in 1627. In 1634 he
married Vittoria della Rovere (1621 -
1694). The poses of the two figures
correspond with two single portraits of
them by Sustermans (Florence, Uffizi).
It is possible that earlier drawings
were used forthis double portrait and
that it was not painted directly from
life. Oil on canvas 161 x 147
cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nationalgallery.org.u
k/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPubli
sher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG89
370 YBN
[1630 AD] 5 		1642) That the Sun completes one
rotation every 25 days is recognized,2
and the inclination of the Sun's axis
to the Earth's orbit is determined to
be 7 degrees.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
2. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
3. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
4. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p85,209. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_o
f_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}
5. ^ Walter M. Mitchell, "The history
of the discovery of the solar spots",
Popular Astronomy, V24, 1916,
p488-490. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1916PA.....24...22M {Mitchell_History_
of_the_Discovery_of_Sun-spots_1916.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Christoph%20Schei
ner%20
[2] "Pantograph". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph
[3]
http://journal.utarts.com/articles.php?i
d=3&type=paper
[4] http://www.christoph-scheiner.com/
[5] "Christoph Scheiner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_S
cheiner (01/12/1612)
[6] Galilei, G. et al. On
Sunspots. University of Chicago Press,
2010,
p46. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
dDhfPxIcLQC&pg=PA46
Rome, Italy4  
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif

[2] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
369 YBN
[11/07/1631 AD] 8 9 10 		1663) The transit of Mercury across the
Sun is observed.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Nadler, S. A
Companion to Early Modern Philosophy.
Wiley, 2008. Blackwell Companions to
Philosophy,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=K
ENbzY8uDGkC&pg=PA81
3. ^ Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611",
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
5. ^ Nadler, S. A
Companion to Early Modern Philosophy.
Wiley, 2008. Blackwell Companions to
Philosophy,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=K
ENbzY8uDGkC&pg=PA81
6. ^ Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611",
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
7. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
8. ^ Hockey, T. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer Reference, p409.
9. ^
Gassendi, "Mercurius in sole visus et
Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611", 1632
in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. ("Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631") http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole visus
et Venus invisa Parislis anno 1611'',
1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441

[2] Gassendi, ''Mercurius in sole
visus et Venus invisa Parislis anno
1611'', 1632 in Gassendi, 1658, vol3,
p441. (''Mercury Seen in the Sun, and
Venus Unseen at paris in the Year
1631'') http://books.google.com/books?i
d=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=VA1TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA441
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 4 		1655) The "vernier {VRnYA or VRNER}
scale", a device capable of precise
measurement is invented.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p114.
2. ^ "Pierre
Vernier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5131/Pierre-Vernier
3. ^ "Pierre Vernier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "Pierre Vernier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Vernier?ca
t=technology (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Vernier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vern
ier
Ornans, France2 3 (presumably: birth
and death location) 
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif

[2] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif
369 YBN
[1631 AD] 7 		1664) The speed of sound is measured
(as around 500 meters or 1500 feet per
second) and shown to be independent of
pitch,4 by measuring the time
difference between seeing the flash of
a gun and hearing the sound over a long
distance on a still day.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p115.
5. ^ "acoustics".
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/4044/acoustics/64048/Measuring-t
he-speed-of-sound>.
6. ^ "Pierre Gassendi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gass
endi
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p115. (1631) (1631)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Gassendi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6159/Pierre-Gassendi
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Gassendi?c
at=technology
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html

[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
367 YBN
[06/22/1633 AD] 4 5 		1611) Galileo is condemned to life
imprisonment by the Inquisition.2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
2. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
3. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (06/22/1633)
(06/22/1633)
5. ^ "Galileo". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo (06/22/1633)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Rome, Italy3  
[1] Galileo before the Holy Office, a
19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas
Robert-Fleury. Source:
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005358/im
ages/galilei_image01.jpeg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo_before_the_Holy_Office.jpg

[2] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 4 		1657) The "Académie Parisienne" (the
precursor to the French Academy of
Sciences).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
2. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
3. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
4. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1635)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marin Mersenne". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Merse
nne
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/

[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 6 		1660) Frequencies of sounds are
measured.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
2. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
3. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
4. ^
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Mersenne.html
5. ^ "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne
6. ^ Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E. Chapman,
"Harmonie Universelle", 1635, 1957.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Marin%20Mersenne
[2] "Marin Mersenne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2176/Marin-Mersenne (1637)
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.

[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
365 YBN
[1635 AD] 4 		1669) That the direction of the Earth's
magnetic field changes over time is
recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p118.
2. ^ Gellibrand, H. A
Discourse Mathematical on the Variation
of the Magneticall Needle: Together
with Its Admirable Diminution Lately
Discovered. By Henry Gellibrand
Professor of Astronomie in Gresham
College. William Iones, dwelling in
Red-crosse-street, 1635. Early English
Books,
1475-1640. http://luna.folger.edu/luna/
servlet/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~1298
48:A-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=H6
qvmAEACAAJ
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p118.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p118. (1635)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terre
strial-luminaries/timeline.html
?, England3  
[1] Gellibrand, H. A Discourse
Mathematical on the Variation of the
Magneticall Needle: Together with Its
Admirable Diminution Lately Discovered.
By Henry Gellibrand Professor of
Astronomie in Gresham College. William
Iones, dwelling in Red-crosse-street,
1635. Early English Books,
1475-1640. http://luna.folger.edu/luna/
servlet/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~1298
48:A-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=H6
qvmAEACAAJ PD
source: http://luna.folger.edu/luna/serv
let/detail/FOLGERCM1~6~6~354589~129848:A
-discourse-mathematical-on-the-var

[2] Henry Gellibrand Discovered
the secular (change over years)
variation of magnetic declination.
(Gellibrand, H., Epitome of Navigation,
London, Printed by Andr. Clark for
William Fisher, 1674 - published many
decades after his death). PD
source: http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/gesc
hichte/gellibrand.htm
364 YBN
[1636 AD] 3 		1219) Harvard College is founded.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges
2. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges
3. ^ "Colonial colleges". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_co
lleges

MORE INFO
[1] "Harvard University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Uni
versity
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 4 		1615) The slow swaying (or "libration"
{lI-BrA-suN1 }) of the moon as it
rotates is recognized.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "libration." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 17 Mar.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
ibration>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105.
3. ^ "Galileo".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
5766/Galileo
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp100-105. (1637)
(1637)

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo Galilei". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Gal
ilei
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Galileo+Galilei?c
at=technology
Florence, Italy3  
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg

[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
363 YBN
[1637 AD] 9 		1668) The Cartesian coordinate system,
where points are plotted on a two
dimensional graph.5 6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Discourse on the Method
("Discours de la Methode"). An
introduction to Dioptrique, Des
Météores and La Géométrie. Original
in French, because intended for a wider
public., 1637 English: tr: John
Veitch, "Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason, and
Seeking Truth in the Sciences",
1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ 2nd
edition:
http://books.google.com/books?id=lGFxGEE
K52oC
2. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
3. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours
de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La
Géométrie. Original in French,
because intended for a wider public.,
1637 English: tr: John Veitch,
"Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Seeking
Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
4. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
5. ^ Discourse on the Method ("Discours
de la Methode"). An introduction to
Dioptrique, Des Météores and La
Géométrie. Original in French,
because intended for a wider public.,
1637 English: tr: John Veitch,
"Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Seeking
Truth in the Sciences", 1899 and "La
géométrie" http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=aHBtAAAAMAAJ http://books.google
.com/books?id=DSjXAAAAMAAJ
6. ^ "René Descartes." A Dictionary of
Statistics. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 27 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
8. ^ "Descartes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118. (1637)
(1637)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
Netherlands (presumably)8  
[1] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC

[2] De Beaune, F. et al. Geometria a
Renato Descartes: Anno 1637 Gallicè
Edita Postea Autem Una Cum Notis
Florimondi De Beaune ... apud Ludovicum
& Danielem Elzevirios, 1659.
Diapositivas (Biblioteca Histórica
UCM).2nd
edition http://books.google.com/books?i
d=lGFxGEEK52oC PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lGFxGEEK52oC
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 8 		1708) The transit of Venus is
observed.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
4. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
6. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
7. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
8. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Ho
rrocks
Hoole, Lancashire, England7
(presumably) 
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg

[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
361 YBN
[11/24/1639 AD] 5 		6581) That the orbit of the Moon around
the Earth is approximately elliptical
(with the Earth at one focus1 ) and
that the Sun has a perturbing effect on
the Moon’s orbit is shown.2 3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p128.
2. ^ "Jeremiah
Horrocks". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 17 Mar.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/272141/Jeremiah-Horrocks>.
3. ^ Opera Posthuma of Jeremiah
Horrocks, ed. John Wallis, London,
1672. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xVQ_AAAAcAAJ
4. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks
5. ^ "Jeremiah Horrocks." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 17
Mar. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jeremiah-ho
rrocks

MORE INFO
[1] "Jeremiah Horrocks".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Ho
rrocks
[2] "Jeremiah Horrocks". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1099/Jeremiah-Horrocks (11/24/1639 (Old
Style (Julian?)
Hoole, Lancashire, England4
(presumably) 
[1] Opera Posthuma of Jeremiah
Horrocks, ed. John Wallis, London,
1672, p.
471. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
VQ_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVQ_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Opera Posthuma of Jeremiah
Horrocks, ed. John Wallis, London,
1672, p.
106. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
VQ_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVQ_AAAAcAAJ
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 4 5 		1697) The micrometer (a device for
precision measurement) is invented and
applied to the telescope.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
2. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
3. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
4. ^ Bolt, M. et al. Biographical
Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer,
2007. Springer
Reference. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA407
5. ^
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/b
ooks/sci/history/AHistoryofScienceVolume
II/chap43.html (1636)
Middleton (West Yorkshire), England3
 
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm

[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
360 YBN
[1640 AD] 3 		6490) The Earth's acceleration due to
gravity is measured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Battista Riccioli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Battista
+Riccioli+?cat=technology
3. ^ "Grimaldi, Francesco Maria."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Dec.
2012. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830901742&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w

MORE INFO
[1] "Mizar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3081/Mizar (1650)
Bologna, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Giovanni
Battista Riccioli Date 20 September
2011 Source Old Book from 17th
century -- scan partially cleaned up by
me Author Wiccioli PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Giovanni_Battista_Ric
cioli.jpg
359 YBN
[1641 AD] 8 9 10 11 		6244) The repeating gun, a gun in which
ammunition is fed from a magazine.5 6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
2. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
3. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
4. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
5. ^ "repeating rifle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>.
6. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html
7. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353&
8. ^ "The new weapons of the world
encyclopedia : an international
encyclopedia from 5000 B.C. to the 21st
century",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3Il9ubyJCisC&pg=PA353& {1641}
9. ^
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html {1641}
10. ^ "repeating rifle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 24 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/498312/repeating-rifle>. {early
1600s}
11. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p49. {1836}

MORE INFO
[1] Jeff Kinard, "Pistols: an
illustrated history of their impact",
2004, p37-38.
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVnuHX_
6bG0C&pg=PA37
Netherlands7  
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png

[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
358 YBN
[1642 AD] 4 		1719) A mechanical calculating machine
that can add and subtract.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ "Blaise
Pascal". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132. (1642)
(1642)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
[2] "Blaise Pascal". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pasc
al
Rouen, France3 (presumably) 
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

357 YBN
[1643 AD] 10 		1692) The earliest vacuum (a space
empty of matter5 ), and barometer
(which measures atmospheric pressure6 )
are invented.7 When a tube filled with
mercury is turned upside down into a
dish, the space above the mercury in
the tube is found to be a vacuum.8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
2. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
3. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
4. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
5. ^ "vacuum." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 May.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum
6. ^ "barometer." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
arometer>.
7. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
8. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
9. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli
10. ^ "Evangelista Torricelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2977/Evangelista-Torricelli (1643)

MORE INFO
[1] "Evangelista Torricelli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista
_Torricelli
[2] "atmospheric pressure." The
American Heritage� Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atmospheric
-pressure
Florence, Italy9  
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg

[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
356 YBN
[11/22/1644 AD] 8 9 10 		1694) The phases of Mercury are
observed.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
2. ^ Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Qu�
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125.
4. ^ Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Qu�
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
5. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
6. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
7. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
8. ^ Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Qu� Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis
H�nefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
9. ^ "Johannes Hevelius." Dictionary of
Astronomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Answers.com 05
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-he
velius
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp124-125. (1644)
(1644)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Hevelius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_He
velius
(rooftop observatories on many houses5
) Danzig6 (now Gdansk in Poland)7
 
[1] Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ

[2] [t Note that Mercury has the
symbol for Mercury and Venus has the
symbol for Venus.] Hevelius, J.
Johannis Hevelii Selenographia: Sive,
Lunae Descriptio; Atque Accurata, Tam
Macularum Ejus, Quam Motuum Diversorum,
Aliarumque Omnium Vicissitudinum,
Phasiumque, Telescopii Ope
Deprehensarum, Delineatio. In Quâ
Simul Caeterorum Omnium Planetarum
Nativa Facies, Variaeque Observationes,
Praesertim Autem Macularum Solarium ...
Addita Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova
Ratio; Ut Et Telescopia Diversa
Construendi ... autoris sumtibus, typis
Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ PD
source: Hevelius, J. Johannis Hevelii
Selenographia: Sive, Lunae Descriptio;
Atque Accurata, Tam Macularum Ejus,
Quam Motuum Diversorum, Aliarumque
Omnium Vicissitudinum, Phasiumque,
Telescopii Ope Deprehensarum,
Delineatio. In Quâ Simul Caeterorum
Omnium Planetarum Nativa Facies,
Variaeque Observationes, Praesertim
Autem Macularum Solarium ... Addita
Est, Lentes Expoliendi Nova Ratio; Ut
Et Telescopia Diversa Construendi ...
autoris sumtibus, typis Hünefeldianis,
1647. http://books.google.com/books?id=
i1lDAAAAcAAJ
356 YBN
[1644 AD] 8 9 		2618) The principle of the conservation
of motion is described by René
Descartes.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, "Principles of
Philosophy", in "The Philosophical
Works of Descartes", trans. E. S.
Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York:
Dover, 1955).
2. ^ Descartes, Rene?, Valentine
R. Miller, and Reese P. Miller.
Principles of Philosophy. Dordrecht,
Holland: Reidel, 1983. Print. p61.
{Descartes_Miller_and_Miller_Principle
s_of_Philosophy_1983.pdf}
3. ^ Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54
4. ^ Rene Descartes, "Principles of
Philosophy", in "The Philosophical
Works of Descartes", trans. E. S.
Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York:
Dover, 1955).
5. ^ Descartes, Rene?, Valentine
R. Miller, and Reese P. Miller.
Principles of Philosophy. Dordrecht,
Holland: Reidel, 1983. Print. p61.
{Descartes_Miller_and_Miller_Principle
s_of_Philosophy_1983.pdf}
6. ^ Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54
7. ^ "Descartes". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes
8. ^ Exploring the Cosmos, fifth
edition. Berman and Evans, p46. (1644)
9. ^
Descartes, R. Principia Philosophiae.
apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1644, Part
II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Descartes".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-descart
es?cat=technology
[3] "The World (Descartes)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[4] "Momentum". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum
[5] 1. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā
and Buridan on the Motion of the
Projectile", Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p.
477-482: "Thus he considered
impetus as proportional to weight times
velocity. In other words, his
conception of impetus comes very close
to the concept of momentum of Newtonian
mechanics."
[6] Rene Descartes, translated by John
Veitch, "Selections from the Principles
of Philosophy of Rene Descartes
(1596-1650)". http://www.classicallibra
ry.org/descartes/principles/index.htm
[7] "Inertia". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
Netherlands (presumably)7  
[1] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60

[2] Descartes, R. Principia
Philosophiae. apud Ludovicum
Elzevirium, 1644, Part II, art
37-40. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=lHpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA56
355 YBN
[1645 AD] 4 5 		1844) That the strength the Sun holds
the planets with decreases by the
inverse distance squared is
recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
2. ^, p333.
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1
3. ^
http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir=drucke/
2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
4. ^ "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus (1645)
5. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5V4DAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA333&dq=%22Astronomia+philolai
ca%22&as_brr=1#PPA333,M1 (1645)
Paris, France3  
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
AND Ismaelis Bvllialdi, Astronomia
Philolaica, Sumptibus Simeonis Piget,
Parisiis, 1645,p13 Latin text from
''Astronomia Philolaica'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpegIsmaelis Bvllialdi,
Astronomia Philolaica, Sumptibus
Simeonis Piget, Parisiis, 1645, p13.

[2] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg
352 YBN
[09/19/1648 AD] 5 		1721) Atmospheric pressure is shown to
change at different elevations.2 This
implies that empty space (a vacuum)
exists above the atmosphere.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
4. ^ "Blaise Pascal".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
(09/19/1648) (09/19/1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Blaise Pascal". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
Rouen, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal


[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
352 YBN
[1648 AD] 8 		1648) The label of "gas" is applied to
a substance.4 5 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas is recognized.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
2. ^ Van Helmont,
J.B. Joannis Baptistae Van Helmont ...
Opera Omnia. Additis His De Novo
Tractatibus Aliquot Posthumis Ejusdem
Authoris, Maximè Curiosis Pariter Ac
Perutilissimis, Antehac Non in Lucem
Editis; Una Cum Indicibus Rerum Ac
Verborum Ut Locupletissimis, Ita Et
Accuratissimis. sumptibus Johannis
Justi Erythropili, typis Johannis
Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). "Oriatrike or Physick
Refined" http://www.nightenlight.com/hi
gher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-va
n-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-0
01-030
3. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p112.
5. ^ Van Helmont,
J.B. Joannis Baptistae Van Helmont ...
Opera Omnia. Additis His De Novo
Tractatibus Aliquot Posthumis Ejusdem
Authoris, Maximè Curiosis Pariter Ac
Perutilissimis, Antehac Non in Lucem
Editis; Una Cum Indicibus Rerum Ac
Verborum Ut Locupletissimis, Ita Et
Accuratissimis. sumptibus Johannis
Justi Erythropili, typis Johannis
Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). "Oriatrike or Physick
Refined" http://www.nightenlight.com/hi
gher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-va
n-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-0
01-030
6. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
7. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont
8. ^ "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9924/Jan-Baptista-van-Helmont (1648)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Baptista van Helmont".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Baptist
a_van_Helmont
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Baptista+van+
Helmont?cat=technology
Vilvoorde, Belgium7  
[1] Van Helmont, J.B. Joannis Baptistae
Van Helmont ... Opera Omnia. Additis
His De Novo Tractatibus Aliquot
Posthumis Ejusdem Authoris, Maximè
Curiosis Pariter Ac Perutilissimis,
Antehac Non in Lucem Editis; Una Cum
Indicibus Rerum Ac Verborum Ut
Locupletissimis, Ita Et Accuratissimis.
sumptibus Johannis Justi Erythropili,
typis Johannis Philippi Andreae,
1682. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qzFFAAAAcAAJ English: John Baptista
Van Helmont; John Chandler (translator)
(1662). ''Oriatrike or Physick
Refined'' http://www.nightenlight.com/h
igher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista-v
an-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refined-
001-030 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qzFFAAAAcAAJhttp://www.nightenlight.com
/higher-worlds-visited/rsc/john-baptista
-van-helmont/oriatrike-or-physick-refine
d-001-030

[2] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 8 9 10 		1675) The first air pump.4 That sound
cannot be produced in the absence of
air is proven.5

This air pump is like a waterpump but
airtight, and is powered by hand
pumping.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
3. ^ "Otto von
Guericke." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-von-gu
ericke
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
5. ^ "Otto von
Guericke." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 06 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-von-gu
ericke
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
7. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121. (1650)
(1650)
9. ^ "Otto von Guericke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke (1650)
10. ^ Daniel
Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank
Moore Colby, "The New International
Encyclopædia",
pp238-239. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22geissler+pump%22
&pg=PA239&ci=10,460,449,440&source=bookc
lip (1654)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
Magdeburg, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1

[2] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
350 YBN
[1650 AD] 5 		1722) The hydraulic press;2 that
pressure applied to a confined liquid
is transmitted equally through the
liquid in all directions is
recognized.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp130-132.
3. ^ "Blaise
Pascal". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8317/Blaise-Pascal
4. ^ "Blaise Pascal". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Blaise+Pascal?cat
=technology
5. ^ "Syringe#Historical Timeline".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe#His
torical_Timeline (1650 (needs better
estimate)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pascals principle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8620/Pascals-principle
[2] "Pascal's law". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_
law
Rouen, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Hydraulic
Force ratio principle; Language
Neutral Ελληνικά:
υδραυλικό πιεστήριο
αρχή λειτουργίας Date
2008-01-21 (original upload
date) (Original text :
1/20/2008) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sk using CommonsHelper. (Original
text : self-made) Author Original
uploader was Darbyshmr at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Hydraulic_Force%2C_la
nguage_neutral.png

[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal

348 YBN
[1652 AD] 3 		1775) Lymphatic vessels are identified;
which have thinner walls than blood
vessels, and carry the clear, watery
fluid portion of the blood (lymph) into
the spaces around cells and back into
the blood vessels.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp140-141.
2. ^ "Olof Rudbeck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbec
k
3. ^ "Olof Rudbeck". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbec
k (Spring, 1652)
Uppsala, Sweden2  
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg

[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
„Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the „Truth'' about Atlantis.
From „Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
345 YBN
[03/25/1655 AD] 7 8 9 		1763) The first known moon of Saturn,
Titan is identified.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
3. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/597100/Titan>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
5. ^ "Titan".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/597100/Titan>.
6. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
7. ^
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
(3/25/1655)
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1656)
(1656)
9. ^ "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2] "Orion nebula#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_nebul
a#History
The Hague, Netherlands6
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens' aerial telescope, 1655
from Development of the Telescope from
1561 to 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE IN FIFTY
YEARS. source: July 25, 1896
Scientific
American http://www.machine-history.com
/Development%20of%20the%20Telescope PD

source: http://www.machine-history.com/

[2] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
345 YBN
[1655 AD] 6 		1702) Exponents are extended to include
negative numbers and fractions.3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
2. ^ Wallis, J.
Arithmetica Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126.
4. ^ Wallis, J.
Arithmetica Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
5. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
6. ^ "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis (1655)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England5
 
[1]
from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John
_wallis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joh
n_wallis

[2] Wallis, J. Arithmetica
Infinitorum.
1656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Z5w_AAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Z5w_AAAAcAAJ
342 YBN
[1658 AD] 6 7 		1804) Red blood cells are observed and
described.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
2. ^ Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
3. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
4. ^ Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819
5. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
6. ^ "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1658)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p145. (1658)
(1658)
Amsterdam, Netherlands5
(presumably) 
[1] Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave, and
H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819 PD
source: Swammerdam, J., H. Boerhaave,
and H.D. Gaubius. Bybel Der Natuure. by
Isaak Severinus, Boudewyn van der Aa,
Pieter van der Aa, 1738. Bybel Der
Natuure, Door Jan Swammerdam,
Amsteldammer. Of Historie Der Insecten,
Tot Zeekere Zoorten Gebracht: Door
Voorbeelden, Ontleedkundige
Onderzoekingen Van Veelerhande Kleine
Gediertens, Als Ook Door Kunstige
Kopere Plaaten Opgeheldert: Verrykt Met
Ontelbaare Waarnemingen Van Nooit
Ontdekte Zeldzaamhedenin De
Natuur. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=1SxMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA819

[2] Image from Swammerdam letter of
1678 showing lens and blood cells
from: Gerrit A. Lindeboom, ''Jan
Swammerdam als microscopist.''
Tijdschift voor de Geschiedenis der
Genees- , Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde
en Techniek 4 (1981):
87-110. http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu
.nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view
/140 UNKNOWN
source: http://gewina-tggnwt.library.uu.
nl/index.php/gewina-tggnwt/article/view/
140
341 YBN
[1659 AD] 5 		1771) The ring of Saturn is seen1 2
and the apparent sizes of the planets
are measured in seconds of arc3 .
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Huygens, C. Opera Varia. 1724.
Opera Varia,
p.529 http://books.google.com/books?id=
lppGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA529
2. ^ Proctor, R.A. Saturn and Its
System: Containing Discussions of the
Motions (real and Apparent) and
Telescopic Appearance of the Planet
Saturn, Its Satellites, and Rings; the
Nature of the Rings; the Great
Inequality of Saturn and Jupiter; and
the Habitability of Saturn. To Which
Are Appended Notes on Chald�an
Astronomy, Laplace�s Nebular Theory,
and the Habitability of the Moon; a
Series of Tables with Explanatory
Notes; and Explanations of Astronomical
Terms. Longman, Green, Longman,
Roberts, & Green, 1865,
p48. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
68RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA48
3. ^ Huygens, C. Opera Varia. 1724.
Opera Varia,
p.591 http://books.google.com/books?id=
lppGAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA591
4. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
5. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology (1659)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Titan (moon)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_%28mo
on%29
[3]
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features
/saturn-story/moons.cfm NASA:
News-Features-The Story of Saturn. Jet
Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved on
2007-01-08
[4]
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html
[5] "Titan". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2639/Titan
The Hague, Netherlands4
(presumably) 
[1] Images from Christiaan Huygens'
Systema Saturnium, drawn from
1610-1650. PD
source: http://www.californiasciencecent
er.org/Exhibits/AirAndSpace/MissionToThe
Planets/Cassini/CassiniUpdates/Archive/C
history.php

[2] Author: Huygens, Christiaan,
1629-1695. Title: Christiani Hvgenii
... Systema Satvrnivm; sive, De causis
mirandorum Satvrni phænomenôn, et
comite ejus planeta nova Imprint:
Hagæ-Comitis, ex typographia A.
Vlacq, 1659. Description: 6 p.l., 84
p. illus., fold. plate. 20 cm. [See
''Introduction'' for full
collation] Added Title: Systema
Satvrnivm. De causis mirandorum
Saturni phaenomenon. Systema
Saturnium. Christiani Hugenii ...
Systema Saturnium. Notes: Gift of the
Burndy Library (founded by Bern
Dibner) Signatures: Collation: ( )4
piB2 A-K4 L2. Call Number: QB671 .H98
Dibner Library of the History of
Science and Technology PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCol
lections/HST/Huygens/huygens-toc.htm
340 YBN
[11/28/1660 AD] 4 		1704) The Royal Society is formed.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
2. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
3. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society
4. ^ "Royal Society". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4290/Royal-Society (11/28/1660)
London, England3  
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html

[2] Frontispiece to Sprat 's History
of the Royal Society (1667). Engraving
by Wenceslaus Hollar, design probably
hy John Evelyn for John Beale in about
1666-1667, and transferred to Sprat's
book later. Boyle's revised version of
the air-pump is in the centre-left
background (see also figure 17). The
three figures in the foreground are the
president of the Royal Society, Lord
Brouncker (left); the King (bust,
centre, being crowned by Fame.); and
Francis Bacon (right). (From the
British Library.) PD
source: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~kimler/hi3
22001/sprat.jpg
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 10 		1737) Gas is collected for the first
time5 6 and that electrical attraction
is transmitted through a vacuum is
proven.7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Boyle, "New experiments
physico-mechanicall, touching the
spring of the air and its effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ Boyle, "New
experiments physico-mechanicall,
touching the spring of the air and its
effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
5. ^ Boyle, "New experiments
physico-mechanicall, touching the
spring of the air and its effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
8. ^ Boyle, "New
experiments physico-mechanicall,
touching the spring of the air and its
effects",
1660. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/E
CHOdocuView?url=/permanent/archimedes_re
pository/large/boyle_exper_013_en_1660/i
ndex.meta&viewMode=image
AND http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.
de//docuserver/images/archimedes/boyle_e
xper_013_en_1660/downloads/boyle_exper_0
13_en_1660.text.pdf {Boyle_exper_013_en
_1660.text.pdf}
9. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
10. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England9 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
340 YBN
[1660 AD] 3 		3142) A sub-atmospheric pressure is
measured using a mercury filled tube to
measure the pressure produced in a bell
jar by a piston pump.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. A. Redhead, The ultimate
vacuum, VacuumVolume 53, Issues 1-2, ,
May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures)
2. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
3. ^ P. A. Redhead, The ultimate
vacuum, VacuumVolume 53, Issues 1-2, ,
May 1999, Pages
137-149. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6TW4-3WC41PF-13/1/124b4
08e41b05b5d704ff7f49318d0d9) {Vacuum_19
99_sdarticle.pdf} (nice work with many
figures) (1660)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2] "Robert Boyle". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[3] "Robert Boyle". Who2? Biographies.
Who2?, 2008. Answers.com 2008.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[4] "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1660)
Oxford, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Fig. 2. The first measurement of a
sub-atmospheric pressure by
Robert Boyle c.1660. A beaker of
mercury with a manometer tube more
than 32 in long was sealed in a bell
jar and evacuated by the pump in Fig.
1. PD/Corel
source: Vacuum_1999_sdarticle.pdf

[2] Fig. 1. Piston pump constructed by
Robert Hook and used by Robert Boyle in
the Þrst measurement of a vacuum in
about 1660. PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 5 6 		1738) Acids, bases, and neutral liquids
are recognized using acid-base
indicators,2 and an element is defined
as any substance that cannot be broken
down farther into another substance.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
4. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
5. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1661)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1661)
(1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
Oxford, England4 (presumably) 
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
339 YBN
[1661 AD] 6 		1754) The connection of arteries and
veins, and microscopic blood vessels
(eventually named "capillaries") are
observed.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
2. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp137-138.
4. ^ "Marcello
Malpighi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi
5. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
6. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0369/Marcello-Malpighi (1661)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
Bologna, Italy5  
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg

[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
338 YBN
[1662 AD] 12 13 		1739) That pressure and volume of a gas
are inversely related is proven.7 8 9
A long J-shaped tube traps air at the
end using mercury. Adding twice the
mercury, adds twice the pressure,
reducing the volume of air at the end
by half. Removing half the mercury
doubles the volume of air.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
2. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
3. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
5. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
6. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
8. ^ Boyle, R. New
Experiments Physico-mechanical,
Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its
Effects: (made, for the Most Part, in a
New Pneumatical Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156
9. ^ Publishing, DK. Science: The
Definitive Visual Guide. DK Publishing,
2009, p99.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136.
11. ^ "Robert Boyle".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
12. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle (1662)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp134-136. (1662)
(1662)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Boyle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
Oxford, England11 (presumably) 
[1] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD AND {ULSF:
Note that this drawing of the J-tube
does not come from Boyle's
text} Artist's impression of Boyle's
Experiment, with precautions against
tube breaking. UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Roberthttp://iweb.tntech.edu/ch
em281-tf/Boyle_files/image002.gif

[2] Boyle, R. New Experiments
Physico-mechanical, Touching the Spring
of the Air, and Its Effects: (made, for
the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical
Engine). H. Hall, 1662,
p156. books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA156 PD AND Description
Portrait of Robert Boyle Source
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/Issue4.html
Date c. 1689 Author Johann
Kerseboom Permission Author has been
dead more than 70 years Other versions
Robert boyle.jpg PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=LqYrAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA162http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
cf/by_name_display_results.cfm?scientist
=Boyle%20Robert PD
337 YBN
[1663 AD] 7 		2247) The first static electricity
generator is built: a sulfur globe is
rotated against a cloth4 which can
produce sizable electric sparks5 .
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
2. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
3. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp120-121.
6. ^ "Otto von
Guericke". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8368/Otto-von-Guericke
7. ^ "Otto von Guericke". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Otto+von+Guericke
?cat=technology (1663)

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto von Guericke".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gu
ericke
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=R3Yt1N-
qotsC
Magdeburg, Germany6 (presumably) 
[1] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg

[2] Guericke's experiments with the
sulfur globe published 1672 PD
source: http://img.readtiger.com/wkp/en/
Guericke_Sulfur_globe.jpg
336 YBN
[1664 AD] 9 10 		1666) The theory that light is made of
particles is revived by Rene Descartes
(DAKoRT)5 , who compares light to a
ball, and is the first to describe the
two major theories of light: that light
may be transmitted by particle
collision (the "wave" or "constant
collision" theory) or by particles that
move mostly without collision through
space (the "corpuscular" or "rare
collision" theory).6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
2. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
3. ^ Rene Descartes, Translated by
Michael S. Mahoney, "The World or
Treatise on Light", Chapters 13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=YUo7A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
4. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp115-118.
6. ^ Rene Descartes,
Translated by Michael S. Mahoney, "The
World or Treatise on Light", Chapters
13 and 14.
http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/tex
ts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm
7. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ
8. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
9. ^ "Rene Descartes". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 14 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes/43352/Resi
dence-in-the-Netherlands>.
10. ^ Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras,
1664. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "The World (Descartes)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_%
28Descartes%29
[2]
http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Des
cartes/extraits/le_monde/le_monde.doc
[3] "Rene Descartes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8563/Rene-Descartes (1633)
[4] "Rene
Descartes". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 26 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes>
(in 1633:) Netherlands (presumably)8
 
[1] Descartes, R. Le Monde ... Ou Le
Traité De La Lumière Et Des Autres
Objets Principaux Des Sens, Avec Un
Discours De L’action Des Corps Et Un
Autre Des Fièvres, Composez Selon Les
Principes Du Même Auteur. Michel Bobin
et Nic. le Gras, 1664,
p221. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DHEPAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DHEPAAAAQAAJ

[2] The balls of the ''second
element'' which I think is a theory of
particles similar to an aether that
fill empty space, but its not
clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 		1688) The theory that comets move in
elliptical orbits.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
2. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology
3. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0729/Giovanni-Alfonso-Borelli
4. ^ "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Alfonso+
Borelli?cat=technology (1665)
Pisa, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg

[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 9 10 		1707) The theory of light
"diffraction".3 4 Light passed through
two narrow holes, one behind the other,
causes some light to appear outside of
the cone of light made by the holes.
This is thought to be a new property of
light named "diffraction" in which
light bends around the side of a hole.5
6 But this outer light can also be
explained as light reflected off the
inside surface of the hole.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
2. ^ Review of "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", Martyn,
J. et al. Philosophical Transactions,
Giving Some Accompt of the Present
Undertakings, Studies and Labors of the
Ingenious in Many Considerable Parts of
the World. T. N., 1710,
p3068. http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3068
3. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
4. ^ Review of "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", Martyn,
J. et al. Philosophical Transactions,
Giving Some Accompt of the Present
Undertakings, Studies and Labors of the
Ingenious in Many Considerable Parts of
the World. T. N., 1710,
p3068. http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3068
5. ^ P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp127-128.
7. ^ Huntington, Ted.
“Is Diffraction Actually
Reflection?” 10 June
2008. http://www.tedhuntington.com/pape
r_diffraction.htm
8. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology
9. ^ "Francesco Grimaldi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Francesco+Grimald
i?cat=technology (1665)
10. ^ P. Francesco
Maria Grimaldo, "Physico-mathesis de
lumine, coloribus, et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ {Grimaldi_Francesco_Physico.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/G/Grimaldi/1/html
Bologna, Italy8 (presumably) 
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9

[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 4 5 		1726) The period of a Mars day is
measured as 24 hours and 40 minutes.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
3. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp 132-133.
(1665,1666)
5. ^ "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini (1666)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 6 		1776) The first blood transfusion is
performed.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
2. ^ Richard Lower,
"An account of the experiment of
transfusion, practiced upon a man in
London", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, 1667,
Vol.2,
p489 http://books.google.com/books?id=R
F5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA489
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141.
4. ^ Richard Lower,
"An account of the experiment of
transfusion, practiced upon a man in
London", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London, 1667,
Vol.2,
p489 http://books.google.com/books?id=R
F5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA489
5. ^ "Richard Lower". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Low
er
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p141. (1665) (1665)
London?, England5  
[1] Richard Lower (1631-1691) PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/richard-lower-1631-
1691-granger.jpg

[2] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
335 YBN
[1665 AD] 10 11 12 13 14 		1799) The wave theory of light is
firmly established by Robert Hooke4 ,
with the medium being a fluid between
the stars associated with the ancient
concept of aether5 . In this view light
is analogous to sound: a motion that
results from the collisions of many
transparent material particles of a
medium.6

Hooke also uses the word
"cells" to describe tiny rectangular
holes in a thin sliver of cork viewed
under a microscope,7 and publishes the
first images of a microorganism (and
protist).8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p96-97. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
3. ^ Gest, Howard. "The discovery of
microorganisms by Robert Hooke and
Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the
Royal Society." Notes and Records of
the Royal Society of London 58.2
(2004):
187-201. http://rsnr.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/58/2/187.full.pdf
4. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
5. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p96-97. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
6. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p54-67. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
8. ^ Gest, Howard.
"The discovery of microorganisms by
Robert Hooke and Antoni Van
Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal
Society." Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London 58.2 (2004):
187-201. http://rsnr.royalsocietypublis
hing.org/content/58/2/187.full.pdf
9. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
10. ^ Hooke, R. Micrographia, Or Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses,...
by R. Hooke,... J. Martyn and J.
Allestry,
1665. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZggAYAAACAAJ
11. ^ "Robert Hooke." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2012.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-hook
e
12. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
13. ^
http://home.clara.net/rod.beavon/robert_
hooke.htm (submitted for printing:
11/23/1664released for sale: 1665)
14. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1665)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hooke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0979/Robert-Hooke
[2] "Robert Hooke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hook
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
[4]
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html
[5] http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
[6]
http://www.she-philosopher.com/gallery/c
yclopaedia.html
[7] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p54. http://books.google.com/books?id=S
gFMAAAAcAAJ
[8] P. Francesco Maria Grimaldo,
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride", 1665.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sZE_A
AAAcAAJ PD
[9] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665. other version PD
London, England9  
[1] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ

[2] Hooke, R. Micrographia: Or, Some
Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With
Observations and Inquiries Thereupon.
printed for James Allestry, 1667,
p56-57,96-97. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SgFMAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SgFMAAAAcAAJ
334 YBN
[10/??/1666 AD] 11 12 13 14 		1827) Calculus: differentiation is used
to find the rate of change (or slope)
of an equation and integration is used
to calculate the area or volume
described by an equation.7 8 9
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
2. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
5. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
8. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
9. ^ Isaac Newton, "De Analysi per
Aequationes Numero Terminorum
Infinitas" (1669; "On Analysis by
Equations with an Infinite Number of
Terms"), todo: find original work,
and English translation of original
work. partially described in
Latin: Wallis, J. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera Mathematica ... E Theatro
Sheldoniano, 1693. Johannis Wallis ...
Opera
Mathematica. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=I2BDAAAAcAAJ explained in
English: Newton, I. Two Treatises of
the Quadrature of Curves and Analysis
by Equations of an Infinite Number of
Terms, Explained by John Stewart. James
Bettenham,
1745. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eg4OAAAAQAAJ
10. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
11. ^ Isaac Newton, "The October 1666
Tract on Fluxions", MS Add. 3958.3, ff.
48r-63v, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92
12. ^ Brewster, D., and I. Newton.
Memoirs of the Life, Writings and
Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton.
Constable, 1855. Memoirs of the Life,
Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac
Newton. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=4hY6AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=%E2%8
0%9COn+Analysis+by+Equations+with+an+Inf
inite+Number+of+Terms%E2%80%9D&source=bl
&ots=TPKbJAoHv0&sig=K_kBe8m59TO6GE8oAtLd
ugq3lCs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aSA5UMWePIjPrQHj0o
DYDQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%
9COn%20Analysis%20by%20Equations%20with%
20an%20Infinite%20Number%20of%20Terms%E2
%80%9D&f=false
13. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html (07/1669)
14. ^ "Sir
Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (07/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6] Abe Mizrahi and Michael Sullivan,
"Calculus and Analytic Geometry",
Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, (1986), pp107-181
(Derivative), pp278-323 (Integral) {For
a basic explanation of differentiation
and integration, or any modern calculus
textbook}
[7] Newton, I. The Method of Fluxions
and Infinite Series: With Its
Application to the Geometry of
Curve-lines. By ... Sir Isaac Newton,
... Translated from the Author’s
Latin Original Not Yet Made Publick. To
Which Is Subjoin’d, a Perpetual
Comment Upon the Whole Work, ... By
John Colson, ... Henry Woodfall; and
sold by John Nourse, 1736
Cambridge, England10  
[1] Drawing from: Isaac Newton, ''The
October 1666 Tract on Fluxions'', MS
Add. 3958.3, ff. 48r-63v, Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/catalogue/record/NATP00100
AND http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-A
DD-03958/92 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00100

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
332 YBN
[11/26/1668 AD] 9 		3257) The equation Distance = velocity
multiplied by Time is identified.3 4
In addition the concept and equation of
momentum (mass times velocity), and the
theory of the conservation of momentum
is established.5 6 Note that
conservation of momentum may result
from the separate conservation of mass
and of motion.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf}
2. ^ Davies, E. Brian. "The Mechanical
Philosophy 1660-1675."
(2007). http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu
/3458/
3. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf}
4. ^ Davies, E. Brian. "The Mechanical
Philosophy 1660-1675."
(2007). http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu
/3458/
5. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf}
6. ^ Davies, E. Brian. "The Mechanical
Philosophy 1660-1675."
(2007). http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu
/3458/
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "John Wallis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis

9. ^ Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, "A Summary Account of
the General Laws of Motion",
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
 {Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} (11/26/1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wallis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5990/John-Wallis
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Wallis+?cat=
technology
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[4] "Christopher Wren".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Wren
[5]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Wre
n
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p126
[7] "John Wallis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wallis
 (1685)
[8] "Sir Christopher Wren".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-800
7/Sir-Christopher-Wren
[9] Wallis, J. Mechanica: Sive, De
Motu, Tractatus Geometricus. Pitt,
1670. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vGo_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA29
London, England8 (presumably) 
[1] Dr. John Wallis, and Dr.
Christopher Wren, ''A Summary Account
of the General Laws of Motion'',
Philosophical Transactions,
(1665-1678), Volume 3,1668,
pp864-868. books.google.com/books?id=SF
5FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.roy
alsociety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?
p=712eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0
{Wallis_John_Wren_Christopher_Laws_of_M
otion_1668.pdf} PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=SF5FAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA864 http://journals.royalso
ciety.org/content/3t6172g2t153q212/?p=71
2eb21bc6624d76b0bd5d68f591a77a&pi=0

[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 4 		1727) Jupiter's period of daily
rotation of nine hours fifty-six
minutes is determined by observing the
movement of spots in Jupiter's clouds.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Gian Domenico
Cassini". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/98187/Gian-Domenico-Cassini>.
3. ^ "Cassini, Gian Domenico", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
2000, p171.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1668)
(1668)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
[2] "Giovanni Domenico Cassini".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
(Observatory at) Panzano (near
Bologna), Italy3  
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
332 YBN
[1668 AD] 3 		1736) The theory of "spontaneous
regeneration" of flies from meat is
disproven, by proving that maggots only
appear in meat placed in open vessels
which flies can land on, and not in
closed vessels.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p134.
2. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12687b.h
tm
3. ^ "Francesco Redi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2979/Francesco-Redi (1668)

MORE INFO
[1] "Francesco Redi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_R
edi
Florence, Italy2 (presumably) 
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine

[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
331 YBN
[03/18/1669 AD] 6 		3258) The concept of energy (mass
multiplied by velocity squared), and
the theory of conservation of energy is
defined.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Compl�tes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Compl�tes,
p383-389. books.google.com/books?id=sH3
tV6ogFtcC&pg=PA383
2. ^ George E. Smith, "The vis viva
dispute: A controversy at the dawn of
dynamics", Physics Today, October 2006,
page
31. http://physicstoday.org/journals/do
c/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_10/31_1.shtml
3. ^ Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Compl�tes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Compl�tes,
p383-389. books.google.com/books?id=sH3
tV6ogFtcC&pg=PA383
4. ^ George E. Smith, "The vis viva
dispute: A controversy at the dawn of
dynamics", Physics Today, October 2006,
page
31. http://physicstoday.org/journals/do
c/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_10/31_1.shtml
5. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
6. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref (03/08/1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
The Hague, Netherlands5
(presumably) 
[1] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD AND Christiaan
Huygens, the astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385http://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Image:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jp
eg

[2] Huygens, C., J.A. Vollgraff, and
Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen. Oeuvres Complètes:
Correspondance. M. Nijhoff, 1895.
Oeuvres Complètes,
p385. books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6o
gFtcC&pg=PA385 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=sH3tV6
ogFtcC&pg=PA385
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 7 		1735) The phenomenon of "double
refraction" is observed.3 Objects
viewed through calcite are seen double
which is explained as light being
refracted at two different angles.4
This may be the result of light
particles reflecting off of atoms in
the two perpendicular planes within the
crystal.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp133-134.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp133-134.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ "Erasmus Bartholin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3525/Erasmus-Bartholin
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp133-134.
(1669)

MORE INFO
[1] "double refraction".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
1617/double-refraction
Copenhagen, Denmark6  
[1] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926

[2] Taken from: Brahe, T. Tychonis
Brahe Dani Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII.
Gyldendal, 1926 PD
source: Brahe, T. Tychonis Brahe Dani
Opera Omnia: Tomus XIII. Gyldendal,
1926
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 4 5 		1758) The first detailed description of
invertebrate anatomy.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
2. ^ Malpighi, M. Dissertatio
Epistolica De Bombyce. apud Jo. Martyn
& Jac. Atlestry,
1669. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-yIOAAAAQAAJ
3. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
4. ^ "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health
5. ^ Malpighi, M. Dissertatio
Epistolica De Bombyce. apud Jo. Martyn
& Jac. Atlestry,
1669. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-yIOAAAAQAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcello Malpighi".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Ma
lpighi
[2] "Marcello Malpighi". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Marcello+Malpighi
?cat=health (1666)
Bologna, Italy3  
[1] From: Malpighi, M. Dissertatio
Epistolica De Bombyce. apud Jo. Martyn
& Jac. Atlestry, 1669. Malpighi, The
silkworm, 1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD AND Malpighi,
M. Dissertatio Epistolica De Bombyce.
apud Jo. Martyn & Jac. Atlestry,
1669. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-yIOAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gifhttp://en.wikipe
dia.org/wiki/Image:MarcelloMalphigiMiall
.jpg

[2] Malpighi, The silkworm,
1669. Malpighi, Marcello.
Dissertatio epistolica de bombyce.
Londini: Apud Joannem Martyn & Jacobum
Allestry, 1699. [9], 100 pp.
plates. The image (right) is a plate
from Marcello Malpighi's Dissertatio
epistolica de bombyce, of 1669. This
detailed study of the silkworm was the
first monograph on an invertebrate.
Malpighi was the founder of histology
and the greatest of the microscopists.
He dissected and observed silkworms,
publishing his findings in this
treatise. It had been believed
previously that silkworms had no
internal organs. PD
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/spe
cial-coll/malpighi01.gif
331 YBN
[1669 AD] 4 5 		1774) The element Phosphorus is
identified as a heavy glowing liquid
obtained by distilling a red oil
distilled from urine with carbon.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
3. ^ "Hennig Brand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hennig_Bran
d
4. ^ "Hennig Brand". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6207/Hennig-Brand (about 1669)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (between 1669 and
1675) (between 1669 and 1675)

MORE INFO
[1] "Retort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retort
Hamburg, Germany3 (presumably) 
[1] Den tyske alkymist Hennig Brand
opdagede i 1669 et hvidt stof, som
lyste i mørke. Uden at vide det havde
han fundet grundstoffet fosfor, mens
han opvarmede urin i en glaskolbe. PD
source: http://historienet.dk/files/bonn
ier-his/imagecache/630x420/pictures/Imag
e20.jpg

[2] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 3 		1854) A calculating machine that can
add, subtract, multiply and divide is
constructed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ "Gottfried
Leibniz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1671)
(1671)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
Mainz, Germany2  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
329 YBN
[1671 AD] 8 		2119) The element Hydrogen is
identified when released by mixing iron
filings with acids, and is found to be
flammable.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark
Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).
2. ^ Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written by
the Honourable Robert Boyle: Containing
New Experiments Touching the Relation
Betwixt Flame and Air : and About
Explosions : an Hydrostatical Discourse
Occasion'd by Some Objections of Dr.
Henry More against Some Explications of
New Experiments Made by the Author of
These Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition
3. ^ Boyle, Robert. The works of the
Honourable Robert Boyle. In six
volumes. To which is prefixed The life
of the author. ... Vol. Volume 3.A new
edition. London, MDCCLXXII. 3. ^.
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 11 Dec. 2012
<http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33149528
23&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE>. {Boy
le_part_1672.pdf}
4. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark
Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).
5. ^ Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written by
the Honourable Robert Boyle: Containing
New Experiments Touching the Relation
Betwixt Flame and Air : and About
Explosions : an Hydrostatical Discourse
Occasion'd by Some Objections of Dr.
Henry More against Some Explications of
New Experiments Made by the Author of
These Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition
6. ^ Boyle, Robert. The works of the
Honourable Robert Boyle. In six
volumes. To which is prefixed The life
of the author. ... Vol. Volume 3.A new
edition. London, MDCCLXXII. 6. ^.
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 11 Dec. 2012
<http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33149528
23&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE>. {Boy
le_part_1672.pdf}
7. ^ "Robert Boyle". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
6071/Robert-Boyle
8. ^ Farndon, J. Hydrogen. Benchmark
Books, 2000. Elements (Benchmark
Books).

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Robert Boyle".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyl
e
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Boyle?cat=
technology
[4] "Hydrogen# ref-8". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#_r
ef-8 (1671)
[5]
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/e
lements/text/H/hist.html (1671)
[6] Boyle, R.
Tracts ... Containing New Experiments,
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air: And About Explosions. An
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion’d by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More ...
To Which Is Annex’t, An Hydrostatical
Letter ... New Experiments, of the
Positive Or Relative Levity of Bodies
Under Water; of the Air’s Spring on
Bodies Under Water; About the Differing
Pressure of Heavy Solids and Fluids.
Richard Davis,
1672. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_Dh8PQAACAAJ
Oxford, England7 (presumably) 
[1] Title page from: Boyle, Robert.
Tracts Written by the Honourable Robert
Boyle: Containing New Experiments
Touching the Relation Betwixt Flame and
Air : and About Explosions : an
Hydrostatical Discourse Occasion'd by
Some Objections of Dr. Henry More
against Some Explications of New
Experiments Made by the Author of These
Tracts : to Which Is Annex't, an
Hydrostatical Letter, Dilucidating an
Experiment About a Way of Weighing
Water in Water. London: Printed for
Richard Davis, 1673. Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition PD
source: Boyle, Robert. Tracts Written
by the Honourable Robert Boyle:
Containing New Experiments Touching the
Relation Betwixt Flame and Air : and
About Explosions : an Hydrostatical
Discourse Occasion'd by Some Objections
of Dr. Henry More against Some
Explications of New Experiments Made by
the Author of These Tracts : to Which
Is Annex't, an Hydrostatical Letter,
Dilucidating an Experiment About a Way
of Weighing Water in Water. London:
Printed for Richard Davis, 1673.
Internet resource.
http://uci.worldcat.org/title/tracts-w
ritten-by-the-honourable-robert-boyle-co
ntaining-new-experiments-touching-the-re
lation-betwixt-flame-and-air-and-about-e
xplosions-an-hydrostatical-discourse-occ
asiond-by-some-objections-of-dr-henry-mo
re-against-some-explications-of-new-expe
riments-made-by-the-author-of-these-trac
ts-to-which-is-annext-an-hydrostatical-l
etter-dilucidating-an-experiment-about-a
-way-of-weighing-water-in-water/oclc/606
570832?referer=di&ht=edition

[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
328 YBN
[02/19/1672 AD] 11 12 13 14 15 		1829) The corpuscular theory of light
is firmly established by Isaac Newton.
In this view light is thought to be
made of material particles that move
through any medium. Newton shows that
color is a property of light, not of
objects. Newton also separates white
light into primary colors and
recombines primary colors to form white
light. Newton also shows that light of
different colors refract at different
angles.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
2. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075
3. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
4. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
5. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
6. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
7. ^ Isaac Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors"', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
8. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
9. ^ Isaac Newton, "Mr Isaac Newtons
Answer to some Considerations of Robert
Hooke. ^ upon his doctrine of Light and
Colors", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society, No. 88 (18 November
1672), pp.
5084-5103. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0002
8
10. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton (02/19/1672)
11. ^ Isaac
Newton, "Draft of 'A Theory Concerning
Light and Colors"', Feb 6, 1671/2, in
English, c. 5,137 words, 14pp.
Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3, ff.460-466
Location: Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
12. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
13. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6
14. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton/12246/In
fluence-of-the-scientific-revolution>.
15. ^ Isaac Newton, "A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors", Feb 19,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075

MORE INFO
[1] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[2] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[3] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[4]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[5]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p148
[7] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
(02/19/1672)
Cambridge, England10  
[1] Isaac Newton, ''A Letter of Mr.
Isaac Newton … containing his New
Theory about Light and Colors'', Feb
19, 1671/2, in English, c. 5,263 words,
13pp. Published in: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, No.
80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp.
3075-3087. http://www.newtonproject.sus
sex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP0000
6 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=L1Ito
Q2GjMAC&pg=PA3075 PD AND Description
Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author
Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=L1ItoQ2GjMAC&pg=PA3075http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNe
wton-1689.jpg

[2] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
328 YBN
[1672 AD] 7 		1731) The scale of our star system is
measured3 using the parallax of Mars
to measure the distance from Earth to
Mars which provides a scale to
calculate the distance to the other
planets.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
2. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
3. ^ Isobel Black Gill, David Gill,
"Six Months in Ascension",
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DwJFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gill
+ascension+date:1878-1878&lr=&ei=EsCISaS
VA5OmkQTSoKSXBg
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
5. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p140.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1672)
(1672)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gian Domenico Cassini".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0655/Gian-Domenico-Cassini
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France5 ;Guiana, South America6
 
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
327 YBN
[1673 AD] 4 		3377) The combustion of gun powder is
used to create a vacuum.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/exhibi
tions/energie/power-engines/combustion-e
ngines/
2. ^ Kelly, J. Gunpowder: Alchemy,
Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History
of the Explosive That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2009,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8xfs8tC8Ow0C&pg=PA116
3. ^ "Christiaan Huygens". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
4. ^
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/exhibi
tions/energie/power-engines/combustion-e
ngines/ {1673}

MORE INFO
[1] Cosmos, Carl Sagan
[2]
http://www.richardbell.net/huygens.html
[3]
http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/christia
an_huygens
[4]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
[5]
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scient
ific-american/484/00.htm#3
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_huygens.htm
[7] Huygens, Christiaan. (1680). "Nova
vis movens mediante pulvere nitrato et
aere", ("A New Motive Power by Means of
Gunpowder and Air"), Royal Academy of
Sciences. in: Huygens, C. Opera Varia.
1724. Opera
Varia. books.google.com/books?id=19o7AA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA280
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Powder machine, Chr. Huygens 1673,
drawing by Huygens Powder machine,
Christian Huygens, 1673 Huygens´
powder machine produced mechanical
energy in a cylinder by means of
combustion. PD/Corel
source: http://www.deutsches-museum.de/t
ypo3temp/pics/d2f04f7a88.jpg

[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
326 YBN
[1674 AD] 6 		1825) The element Oxygen is
identified.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Mayow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1617/John-Mayow
2. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
3. ^ "John Mayow". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1617/John-Mayow
4. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ "John Mayow". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayow
6. ^ "John Mayow". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Mayow+?cat=t
echnology (1674)
Oxford, England5  
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg

[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg

325 YBN
[1675 AD] 3 		1732) The space between the ring of
Saturn is seen.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133.
2. ^ "Giovanni
Domenico Cassini". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Do
menico_Cassini
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp132-133. (1675)
(1675)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Giovanni+Domenico
+Cassini+?cat=technology
Paris, France2  
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943

[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
324 YBN
[06/13/1676 AD] 5 		1837) The binomial theorem is
described:1 2 for any positive integer
n, the nth power of the sum of two
numbers a and b may be expressed as the
sum of n + 1 terms.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
2. ^ Isaac Newton,
Copy of a letter from Newton to Henry
Oldenburg, dated 13 June 1676, MS Add.
3977.5, Cambridge University Library,
Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/diplomatic/NATP00181
3. ^ "binomial theorem." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/65749/binomial-theorem>.
4. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960
5. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (06/14/1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
[2] "Isaac Newton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newto
n
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[4] "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[5]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[6]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[7]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[8]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[9]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[10] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[11]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[12]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
Cambridge, England4  
[1] Series infinitas: el binomio de
Newton PD AND Binomial theorem
examples GNU
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.htmlhttp://en.wik
ipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theorem http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GodfreyKnel
ler-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg

[2] Series infinitas: el binomio de
Newton PD
source: http://platea.pntic.mec.es/apere
z4/html/newton/newton2.html
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 19 20 		1851) The speed of light is shown to be
finite and is measured by subtracting
the time it takes for the moon of
Jupiter, Io to enter and exit the
shadow of Jupiter when the Earth is
moving toward Jupiter, from the time it
takes when the Earth is moving away
from Jupiter.13 14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
2. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
3. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
4. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
5. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
6. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
7. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
8. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
9. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
10. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
11. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
12. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
13. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
14. ^ "Ole Romer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
3854/Ole-Romer
15. ^ "Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences", Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
16. ^ "A Demonstration concerning the
Motion of Light, communicated from
Paris" is published in the
"Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society" (No. 136) on June 25,
1677. http://books.google.com/books?id=
juU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=118
17. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p118.
18. ^ "Olaus
Roemer". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology
19. ^ "Olaus Roemer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Olaus+Roemer?cat=
technology (1676)
20. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp154-155. (1676)
(1676)
(Paris Observatory17 ) Paris, France18
 
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484

[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
324 YBN
[1676 AD] 3 		1870) The first observatory in the
southern hemisphere.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp159-160.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
(1676)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[3] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
Saint Helena2  
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
323 YBN
[1677 AD] 4 		1784) Sperm cells are first described.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
2. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
3. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
4. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (1677)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
Delft, Netherlands3  
[1] Figure 2. from Clarke, Gary N.
“A.R.T. and History, 1678–1978.”
Human Reproduction 21.7 (2006):
1645–1650. Van Leeuwenhoek’s
drawings of spermatozoa. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org
/content/21/7/1645/F2.large.jpg

[2] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
322 YBN
[06/25/1678 AD] 5 6 		3862) The first woman to teach at a
university after the collapse of
science of the 400s CE.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
2. ^ Maschietto, F.L. et al. Elena
Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia (1646-1684):
The First Woman in the World to Earn a
University Degree. Saint Joseph’s
University Press, 2007.
3. ^ Robin, D.M.,
A.R. Larsen, and C. Levin. Encyclopedia
of Women in the Renaissance: Italy,
France, and England. Abc-Clio
Incorporated, 2007,
p292. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OQ8mdTjxungC&pg=PA292
4. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html
5. ^
http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/
piscopia.htm {06/25/1678}
6. ^
http://www.women-philosophers.com/Helena
-Lucretia-Cornaro-Piscopia.html {1678}
(University of Padua) Padua, Italy4
 
[1] Description Italiano: Ritratto
di Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia,
Ignoto (sec. XVIII?), Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milano. (book : F. L.
Maschietto, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro
Piscopia (1646-1684). Prima donna
laureata al mondo, Padova, Antenore,
1978.). Français : Portrait de Elena
Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia Date 18th
century Source
http://scienzaa2voci.unibo.it/gallery_v
iew?id=199-cornaro-piscopia-elena Autho
r Unknown Other versions
File:Elena Cornaro
Piscopia.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Elena_Piscopia_portra
it.jpg

[2] Description Italiano: Ritratto
di Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia,
Ignoto (sec. XVIII?), Biblioteca
Ambrosiana, Milano. (book : F. L.
Maschietto, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro
Piscopia (1646-1684). Prima donna
laureata al mondo, Padova, Antenore,
1978.). Français : Portrait de Elena
Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia Date 18th
century Source
http://scienzaa2voci.unibo.it/gallery_v
iew?id=199-cornaro-piscopia-elena Autho
r Unknown Other versions
File:Elena Cornaro
Piscopia.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Elena_Piscopia_portra
it.jpg
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 9 10 11 12 13 14 		1794) The helical spring.4 5 6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia
Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining
the Power of Springing Bodies. John
Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LAtPAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
3. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
4. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia
Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining
the Power of Springing Bodies. John
Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LAtPAAAAcAAJ
5. ^ "Robert Hooke". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Robert+Hooke?cat=
technology
6. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp144-145.
8. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
9. ^ Hooke, R. Lectures De Potentia
Restitutiva, Or of Spring Explaining
the Power of Springing Bodies. John
Martyn,
1678. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LAtPAAAAcAAJ
10. ^
http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.martin/v
ectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm (1657)
11. ^
Nicholson, W., "An Account of the
Invention of the Balance Spring, and
the Determination of the Conditions of
its Isochronism in wide and narrow
Vibrations...", Journal of Natural
Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts. G.
G. and J. Robinson, 1806. Landmarks II,
Scientific Journals.,
p363. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6GcxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA363
12. ^ "Hooke, Robert", Encyclopaedia
Britannica: Or, A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature,
Enlarged and Improved. A. Constable,
1823. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, A
Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and
Miscellaneous Literature, Enlarged and
Improved.,
p592-593. http://books.google.com/books
?id=GMsnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA592
13. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl.
�Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.�
Osiris 10 (1952):
277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
301817
14. ^ Patterson, Louise Diehl.
�Pendulums of Wren and Hooke.�
Osiris 10 (1952):
277�321. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
301817

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.roberthooke.org.uk/
London, England (presumably)7 |(if
1657:) Oxford, England (presumably)8
 
[1] Plate to Hooke's Lecture of Spring
1678 PD
source: http://www1.umn.edu/ships/module
s/phys/hooke/images/Hooke1678.jpg

[2] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 6 7 		1871) The first catalog of
telescopically located southern
hemisphere stars.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ Halley, E. Catalogus Stellarum
Australium: Sive, Supplementum Catalogi
Tychenici, Exhibens Longitudines Et
Latitudines Stellarum Fixarum, Quae,
Prope Polum Antarcticum Sitae, in
Horizonte Uraniburgico Tychoni
Inconspicuae Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex
Distantiis Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677
Completum correctas...Accedit
Appendicula De Rebus Quibusdam
Astronomicis... Typis T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
4. ^ Halley, E. Catalogus Stellarum
Australium: Sive, Supplementum Catalogi
Tychenici, Exhibens Longitudines Et
Latitudines Stellarum Fixarum, Quae,
Prope Polum Antarcticum Sitae, in
Horizonte Uraniburgico Tychoni
Inconspicuae Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex
Distantiis Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677
Completum correctas...Accedit
Appendicula De Rebus Quibusdam
Astronomicis... Typis T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ
5. ^ "Edmund Halley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160. (1678)
(1678)
7. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley (late 1678)

MORE INFO
[1] "St. Helena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Title page of: Halley, E.
Catalogus Stellarum Australium: Sive,
Supplementum Catalogi Tychenici,
Exhibens Longitudines Et Latitudines
Stellarum Fixarum, Quae, Prope Polum
Antarcticum Sitae, in Horizonte
Uraniburgico Tychoni Inconspicuae
Fuere, Accurato Calculo Ex Distantiis
Supputatas, & Ad Annum 1677 Completum
correctas...Accedit Appendicula De
Rebus Quibusdam Astronomicis... Typis
T. James,
1679. http://books.google.com/books?id=
QVg4AAAAMAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
322 YBN
[1678 AD] 11 		3592) Direct neuron activation (or
direct neuron writing). Jan Swammerdam
(Yon6 SVoMRDoM) contracts a muscle by
making neurons fire using electricity.7
 A frog leg hanging from a silver wire
twitches when a brass ring contacts
it.8

This electrical muscle movement will
eventually lead to very precise remote
neuron stimulation.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ Ted Huntington
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Electric Telegraphy, to the
Year 1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Electric Telegraphy, to the
Year 1837", E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
8. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Jan Swammerdam".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam
11. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1678}"

MORE INFO
[1] "Jan Swammerdam". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammer
dam
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Jan+Swammerdam+?c
at=technology
[3]
http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.ht
ml
[4] "Apothecary". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apothecary
[5]
http://www.library.umass.edu/spcoll/exhi
bits/herbal/swammerdam.htm
[6] "Jan Swammerdam". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0581/Jan-Swammerdam (1672)
[7] "Electricity
and Magnetism" Amédée Guillemin,
translated by Silvanus P. Thompson,
B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. Macmillan and
Co., London, 1891.
http://books.google.com/books?id=iHg9A
QAAIAAJ
[8]
http://www.telephonecollecting.org/feeli
ng.htm
Amsterdam, Netherlands10
(presumably) 
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
321 YBN
[03/15/1679 AD] 5 		1858) Binary numbers are established;1
2 the basis of all modern computers.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
2. ^ Richard Jung. Sensory Research in
Historical Perspective: Some
Philosophical Foundations of
Perception. Compr Physiol 2011,
Supplement 3: Handbook of Physiology,
The Nervous System, Sensory Processes:
1-74. First published in print 1984.
doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010301
http://www.comprehensivephysiology.com
/WileyCDA/CompPhysArticle/refId-cp010301
.html
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
5. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(03/??/1679)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
Hannover, Germany4  
[1] Figure 14. G. W. Leibniz's
manuscript of the binary number theory,
written on March 15, 1679. Latin text
explains the principle to use the two
signs 1 and 0 for all
numbers. (Source: Upper part of page
shows his scheme of dual number
systems, which he called “Progressio
dyadica,” as written in title at top.
Sequence of upper lines 1–32 is
continued in left vertical column to
reach number 100 in lowest part(not
reproduced). Leibniz submitted this
dual system to the Paris Academy in
1703, where it was published in 1705
244. Practical application of this
principle had to wait for electronic
computers, which had less difficulty in
using the long number sequences than a
hand-writing mathematician. Source: the
Leibniz-Archiv, Niedersächsiche
Landesbibliothek,
Hannover.) from: Richard Jung.
Sensory Research in Historical
Perspective: Some Philosophical
Foundations of Perception. Compr
Physiol 2011, Supplement 3: Handbook of
Physiology, The Nervous System, Sensory
Processes: 1-74. First published in
print 1984. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010301
http://www.comprehensivephysiology.com
/WileyCDA/CompPhysArticle/refId-cp010301
.html UNKNOWN
source: http://media.wiley.com/mrw_image
s/compphys/articles/cp010301/image_n/ncp
01030114.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
321 YBN
[1679 AD] 4 		1863) The first pressure cooker. Water
boiled in an air-tight container raises
the pressure in the container, which
raises the boiling point of water
allowing food to cook faster.1 A
safety value prevents explosions.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158.
2. ^ "Denis Papin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
3. ^ "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p158. (1679) (1679)
London, England3  
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg

[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
318 YBN
[03/03/1682 AD] 8 9 10 11 		1788) The cell nucleus is described.5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
2. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
3. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
4. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
5. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}
6. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
7. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
8. ^ Henry Harris, "The Birth of the
Cell",
p76 http://books.google.com/books?id=zV
sxFp3CyngC&pg=PA76
9. ^
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/c
ell/resources/blooddisc.htm?HeaderFooter
=0
10. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros., Langerak, 1722 ,
p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} Cited after:
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.
11. ^ Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, and
Johan Arnold Langerak. Antonii à
Leeuwenhoeck ... Opera Omnia, Seu
Arcana Naturae, Ope Exactissimorum
Microscopiorum Detecta, Experimentis
Variis Comprobata, Epistolis, Ad Varios
Illustres Viros, Ut Et Ad Integram,
Quae Londini Floret, Sapientem
Societatem, Cujus Membrum Est, Datis,
Comprehensa, et. ^ Quatuor Tomis
Distincta. Editio novissima, prioribus
emendatior, cum indicibus cuique tomo
accommodatis. Lugduni Batavorum: apud
Joh. Arnold Langerak, 1722, p213.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
09289705 {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_A
rcana_Naturae_1719.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[2] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

[3] "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of the
Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
[4] "Leeuwenhoek". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth (10/09/1676 (letter to Royal
Society)
Delft, Netherlands7  
[1] Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia,
seu Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730, p51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=0Zs_A
AAAcAAJ {Leeuwenhoek_Opera_Omnia_Seu_Ar
cana_Naturae_1722.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0Zs_AAAAcAAJ

[2] Description English: Red Blood
cells from Salmon, with ''Lumen'' (cell
nuclei). Deutsch: Rote Blutkörperchen
vom Lachs, mit ''Lumen''
(Zellkernen). Date Leeuwenhoek lived
from 1632 - 1723.. Source
Dieter Gerlach, Geschichte der
Mikroskopie. Verlag Harry Deutsch,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2009. ISBN
978-3-8171-1781-9.(Accompanying
CD-ROM). Source given in there:
Leeuwenhoek, A. van: Opera Omnia, seu
Arcana Naturae ope exactissimorum
Microscopiorum detecta, experimentis
variis comprobata, Epistolis ad varios
illustres viros. J. Arnold et Delphis,
A. Beman, Lugdinum Batavorum
1719–1730. – Reprint: Georg Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim, New York
1971–1972 Author Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Leeuwenhoek1719RedBlo
odCells.jpg
317 YBN
[09/12/1683 AD] 8 9 		1785) The first picture of bacteria.5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
2. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
3. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
4. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
5. ^ "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7611/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek
6. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A history of
the ecological sciences, part 19:
Leeuwenhoek's microscopic natural
history." Bulletin of the Ecological
Society of America 87.1 (2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf
7. ^ "Leeuwenhoek". Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leeuwenhoek?cat=h
ealth
8. ^
http://www.euronet.nl/users/warnar/leeuw
enhoek.html (09/12/1683)
9. ^ Egerton, Frank N. "A
history of the ecological sciences,
part 19: Leeuwenhoek's microscopic
natural history." Bulletin of the
Ecological Society of America 87.1
(2006):
47-58. http://esapubs.org/bulletin/curr
ent/history_list/history19.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Anton van Leeuwenhoek".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_L
eeuwenhoek
[3] "Haberdasher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberdasher

Delft, Netherlands7  
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939–1999, IV:Plate
8). PD
source: http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/m
icrobiologia/wp-content/blogs.dir/110/fi
les/1431/o_Leeuwenhoek.jpg

[2] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
315 YBN
[1685 AD] 3 		3348) A portable pin-hole camera.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ http://www.johann-zahn.com/
2. ^ http://www.johann-zahn.com/
3. ^
http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=
ft296nb16b&chunk.id=0&doc.view=print
{1685}
(Würzburg praemonstrantensian
monastery) Würzburg, Germany2  
[1] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif

[2] Johann Zahn, camera obscura
portabilis (reflex box camera obscura),
1685. Courtesy of the Gernsheim
Collection, Harry Ransom Humanities
Research Center, University of Texas
at Austin. PD/Corel
source: http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/dat
a/13030/6b/ft296nb16b/figures/ft296nb16b
_00000.gif
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 13 		1845) The law of gravitation by Isaac
Newton; that all matter attracts other
matter with a force that is the product
of their masses, and the inverse of
their distance squared.6

Newton clearly distinguishes between
mass and weight7 , viewing mass as the
quantity of matter contained in a body8
, and defines a force as the product of
mass and acceleration (F=ma).9

Newton shows that the acceleration on
any mass from a second mass due to
gravity can be calculated as the mass
of the second object divided by the
distance between the two objects
squared10 and theorizes that even
light particles are affected by
gravity.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor.
XXIX.) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
2. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
3. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
4. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
5. ^ (De Motu Corporum, Liber Primus,
Prop XCVI Scholium) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and
J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 1,
p316-317. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA316
6. ^ (Liber I Prop. LXIX. Theor. XXIX.)
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qjEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA190
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071 English
(note: Third Edition): Newton, I., A.
Motte, and J. Machin. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. B.
Motte, 1729. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy,
Volume 1,
p259. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
8. ^ (Proposition
LXIX Theorem XXIX) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. (London:
1687) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/view/texts/diplomatic/NATP00077
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and
J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy,
p259-260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp148-154.
10. ^ (Proposition
LXIX Theorem XXIX) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. (London:
1687) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/view/texts/diplomatic/NATP00077
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and
J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy,
p259-260. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA259
11. ^ (De Motu Corporum, Liber Primus,
Prop XCVI Scholium) Isaac Newton,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. (London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
English: Newton, I., A. Motte, and
J. Machin. The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729.
The Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 1,
p316-317. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA316
12. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
8764/Sir-Isaac-Newton
13. ^
Newton_isaac_letters_739364699_content.p
df Annals of Science, The Newton
Letters Vols I and II, G Burniston
Brown, 06/01/1960 (publishes: 1687)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (Scholium.) Newton, I., and A.
Motte. The Principia. Prometheus Books,
1848. Great Minds Series., p182
Cambridge, England12
(presumably) 
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg

[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
313 YBN
[1687 AD] 5 6 		3895) That a mite causes scabies, a
skin inflammation1 , is proven, and the
mite first seen with a microscope.2 3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "scabies." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 22 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/526234/scabies>.
2. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850}
3. ^ "Bonomo, Giovan Cosimo", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p118.
4. ^ Marcia Ramos-e-Silva ,
"Giovan Cosimo Bonomo (1663–1696):
discoverer of the etiology of scabies",
International Journal of
Dermatology, Volume 37, Issue 8, Pages
625-630. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/HTMLSTAR
T
5. ^ J Théodoridès, "Casimir Davaine
(1812-1882): a precursor of Pasteur.",
Med Hist. 1966 April; 10(2):
155–165. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih
.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1033586
{08/1850} {1687}
6. ^ "Bonomo, Giovan Cosimo",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p118. {1687}

MORE INFO
[1] "Casimir Davaine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Dav
aine
[2] "Pierre François Olive Rayer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Fran
%C3%A7ois_Olive_Rayer
[3] "Davaine, Casimir Joseph", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p233
[4] "Koch, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 17
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
848>
[5] Joseph A. Witkowski, Lawrence
Charles Parish, The story of anthrax
from antiquity to the present: a
biological weapon of nature and humans,
Clinics in Dermatology, Volume 20,
Issue 4, July-August 2002, Pages
336-342, ISSN 0738-081X, DOI:
10.1016/S0738-081X(02)00250-X. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6
T5G-46MBF63-4/2/8d6754fb70b3b214872fb2cd
8fe4bca9)
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=weyQKyh
tTGMC&pg=PA742&dq=bonomo+cestoni&as_brr=
1&ei=1KO_SfruN5XSlQSL8dVQ
[7] Dr Bonomo and Richard Mead, "An
Abstract of Part of a Letter from Dr
Bonomo to Sigmor Redi, Containing Some
Observations concerni... more",
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 23, (1702 - 1703), pp.
1296-1299. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
102886
Livorno, Italy4  
[1] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel AND source:
de.wikipedia Deutsch: Räudemilbe,
weiblich author: Kalumet
date: 06.11.2004 GNU
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1http://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c
/c0/Sarcoptes_scabei_2.jpg

[2] Bonomo's drawings of the agent of
scabies PD/Corel
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/119104681/nf1
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 6 		1200) A gear-cutting machine2 (a
machine for cutting gears out of
cylinders of metal3 ).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
5. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
6. ^ "Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polhem
Sweden5  
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
AND On Sunday, December 18
inaugurated the exhibition of
Christopher Polhem On Technical ...
Class 5 pilot from Klastorp School had
the honor to visit it before,
photographed, snabbguidas and also
showcase their inventions. There are
many parts of the mechanical alphabet,
mine lifts, computer games, one point
for creative children and adolescents
mm. UNKNOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpghttp://kungsholms
uppfinnare.se/wp-content/uploads/2011/12
/IMG_1050.jpg

[2] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
310 YBN
[1690 AD] 5 		1864) The steam engine is reinvented;2
a pump with a piston is raised by
steam.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerks, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement, No.
484, April 11,
1885 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/139
39/13939-h/13939-h.htm
2. ^ Dugald Clerks, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement, No.
484, April 11,
1885 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/139
39/13939-h/13939-h.htm
3. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
4. ^ "Denis Papin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Papin

5. ^ "Denis Papin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Denis%20Papin
(1690)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Papin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
8341/Denis-Papin
[2]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
Leipzig, Germany4  
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg

[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
306 YBN
[1694 AD] 3 4 		1888) A water wheel is used to lift ore
from a mine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p165-168. {Polhem_1963.pdf}
2. ^ Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p168. {Polhem_1963.pdf}
3. ^ Svenska
teknologf�reningen. Christopher
Polhem, the Father of Swedish
Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p168. {Polhem_1963.pdf}
4. ^ "Christopher
Polhem". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher
_Polhem (1690)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christopher%20Pol
hem
(Falun Mine) Blankstoten, Sweden2
 
[1] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p167. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p167.

[2] Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963,
p25. {Polhem_1963.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Svenska teknologf�reningen.
Christopher Polhem, the Father of
Swedish Technology. Trustees of Trinity
College, 1963, p25.
305 YBN
[1695 AD] 5 6 		3260) The quantity mass times velocity
squared is named "vis-visa" ("the
living force"), and the theory that
vis-visa, not momentum is the quantity
always conserved.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
2. ^ George E. Smith,
"The vis viva dispute: A controversy at
the dawn of dynamics", Physics Today,
October 2006, page
31. http://physicstoday.org/journals/do
c/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_10/31_1.shtml
3. ^ Gottfried Leibniz, "Specimen
Dynamicum"
(1695). books.google.com/books?id=0je_D
N18UkoC&pg=PA315 English translation:
L. E. Loemker, "Philosophical Papers
and Letters", (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_16
95.pdf}
4. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
5. ^ Gottfried Leibniz, "Specimen
Dynamicum"
(1695). books.google.com/books?id=0je_D
N18UkoC&pg=PA315 English translation:
L. E. Loemker, "Philosophical Papers
and Letters", (1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_16
95.pdf}
6. ^
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html (1695)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
[3] "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(03/??/1679)
[4] G. W. Leibniz, Acta Eruditorum
(1686), p. 161; English translation in
Philosophical Papers and Letters, L. E.
Loemker, trans. and ed., Reidel,
Dordrecht, the Netherlands (1969), p.
296
Hannover, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Gottfried Leibniz, ''Specimen
Dynamicum''
(1695). books.google.com/books?id=0je_D
N18UkoC&pg=PA315 PD English
translation: L. E. Loemker,
''Philosophical Papers and Letters'',
(1976),
pp.435-452. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC {Leibniz_specimen_16
95.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: books.google.com/books?id=0je_DN
18UkoC&pg=PA315http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=vm_7-mtXj0YC

[2] [t Diagram from Leibniz's Specimen
Dynamicum] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vm_7-mtXj0YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
losophical+papers+and+letters+leibniz&si
g=8UL3CfCXAuOCpgMc-1WCFh7hHvg#PPA435,M1
303 YBN
[1697 AD] 7 8 9 		1885) The "phlogiston {Flo-JiS-ToN1 }
theory" of combustion.2 Phlogiston is
thought to be the combustible element
in substances.3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "phlogiston." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phlogiston
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162.
3. ^ "Georg Ernst
Stahl". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Georg+Ernst+Stahl
?cat=technology
4. ^ Mellor, J.W. A Comprehensive
Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical
Chemistry. Longmans, Green and Co.,
1922. A Comprehensive Treatise on
Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry,
p64-65. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=PnjVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65
5. ^ "Zymotechnia fundamentalis) in:
Stahl, G.E. Georgii Ernesti Stahlii
Opusculum Chymico-physico-medicum, Seu
Schediasmatum a Pluribus Annis Variis
Occasionibus in Publicum Emissorum Nunc
... in Unum Volumen Jam Collectorum ...
typis et impensis Orphanotrophei, 1715,
p67. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
Kx7vYJ-ujsC&pg=PA67
6. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-687
0/Georg-Ernst-Stahl
7. ^ Mellor, J.W. A Comprehensive
Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical
Chemistry. Longmans, Green and Co.,
1922. A Comprehensive Treatise on
Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry,
p64-65. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=PnjVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp161-162. (1700)
(1700)
9. ^ "Georg Ernst Stahl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Ernst
_Stahl (1697)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/phlogiston?cat=te
chnology
[2] "phlogiston". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9739/phlogiston
Halle, Germany6  
[1] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD AND ''Zymotechnia
fundamentalis) in: Stahl, G.E. Georgii
Ernesti Stahlii Opusculum
Chymico-physico-medicum, Seu
Schediasmatum a Pluribus Annis Variis
Occasionibus in Publicum Emissorum Nunc
... in Unum Volumen Jam Collectorum ...
typis et impensis Orphanotrophei, 1715,
p67. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
Kx7vYJ-ujsC&pg=PA67 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.pnghttp://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZKx7vYJ-ujsC&pg=PA67

[2] English: Georg Ernst Stahl
(1660-1734), German chemist, physician
and metallurgist Source
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/exhibit
/large/01_19.gif Date 18th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Ernst_Stahl.png
302 YBN
[1698 AD] 12 		1777) The size and distance of other
stars is measured by comparing the
apparent size of Sirius to a fractional
portion of the Sun.7 8 9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
2. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
3. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
4. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
5. ^ Thomas Dick, "The sidereal heavens
and other subjects connected with
astronomy: as ...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
6. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140.
8. ^ Thomas Dick,
"The sidereal heavens and other
subjects connected with astronomy: as
...", 1844,
p63. books.google.com/books?id=a-gRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA63
9. ^ Huygens, "Cosmotheoros, Or
Conjectures Concerning the Planetary
Worlds and Their Inhabitants",
1699. Huygens, Christiaan.
Cosmotheoros: or, conjectures
concerning the inhabitants of the
planets. Translated from the Latin of
Christian Huygens. A new edition,
corrected. Glasgow, Mcdlxii (1762).
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 May 2012, Book 2,
p116.
http://find.galegroup.com/ecco/infomar
k.do?&source=gale&prodId=ECCO&userGroupN
ame=ucirvine&tabID=T001&docId=CW33099415
61&type=multipage&contentSet=ECCOArticle
s&version=1.0&docLevel=FASCIMILE {Huyge
ns_Cosmotheoros.pdf}
10. ^ Sagan, Soter, Druyan, "Cosmos",
1984.
11. ^ "Christiaan Huygens".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1658/Christiaan-Huygens
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp138-140. (1698)
(1698)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Huygens".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Huygens
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Christiaan+Huygen
s?cat=technology
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ntZwxtt
ZF-sC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=huygens+distan
ce+stars+sirius&source=web&ots=LS3xk1VXz
b&sig=dggeaF1_TGO8d12SB7CC9-t0Wxg
The Hague, Netherlands11
(presumably) 
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm

[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
301 YBN
[1699 AD] 4 5 		2008) The theory that color is
determined by the frequency of light.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Optics in the age of Euler,
Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p75.
2. ^ Optics in
the age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort,
1995, p75.
3. ^ Optics in the age of Euler,
Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p57.
4. ^ Optics in
the age of Euler, Casper Hakfoort,
1995, p56. (1699)
5. ^ "Malebranche".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malebranche
 (1699)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolas-mal
ebranche
[2] light_color_malebranche_Newton.pdf
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n572
10216334v842/ VI From Newton to
Young Journal Documenta
Ophthalmologica Publisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0012-4486 (Print)
1573-2622 (Online) Issue Volume 96,
Numbers 1-3 / July,
1999 DOI 10.1023/A:1017248722519 Pages
88-111 Subject
Collection Medicine SpringerLink
Date Monday, October 25, 2004
Paris, France3  
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
300 YBN
[07/11/1700 AD] 5 6 		1857) The "Akademie der Wissenschaften1
" (Academy of Sciences) is established
in Berlin.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
2. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gottfried+Wilhelm
+Leibniz?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156.
4. ^ "Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
5. ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7669/Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz
(07/11/1700)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp155-156. (1700)
(1700)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottfried Leibniz".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_L
eibniz
Berlin, Germany3 4  
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg

[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 4 		3593) A frog muscle is caused to move
by rubbing a cut nerve with a scalpel.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1
2. ^ Histoire de l'Academie des
Sciences," 1700, p. 40, and 1742, vol.
I. p.
187. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3502d/f46.image {Historie_de_l_Acad
emie_1700.pdf}
3. ^ "Duverney, Joseph-Guichard",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p270
4. ^ John
Joseph Fahie, "A History of Electric
Telegraphy, to the Year 1837", E. & F.
N. Spon,
1884,p175-176. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
#PPA176,M1 {1700}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph-Guichard Du Verney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph-Guic
hard_Du_Verney
[2]
http://www.speedylook.com/Joseph-Guichar
d_Of_Verney.html
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] AND Histoire de l'Academie des
Sciences,'' 1700, p. 40, and 1742, vol.
I. p.
187. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3502d/f46.image {Historie_de_l_Acad
emie_1700.pdf} AND Joseph Guichard
(Joseph Guichard) Du Verney (Duverney,
1648-1730) donnant une lecon d'anatomie
au duc de Bourgogne Louis de France
(1682-1712). 18eme siecle. 1878.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artelista.com/prints/
scala/big/4/6/WH19289m.jpghttp://gallica
.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3502d/f46.image

[2] Joseph Guichard (Joseph Guichard)
Du Verney (Duverney, 1648-1730) donnant
une lecon d'anatomie au duc de
Bourgogne Louis de France (1682-1712).
18eme siecle. 1878. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artelista.com/prints/
scala/big/4/6/WH19289m.jpg
300 YBN
[1700 AD] 4 		6251) The pianoforte (or piano) is
invented.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91.
2. ^ Mary Remnant,
"Musical Instruments", 1989, p91.
3. ^ Mary
Remnant, "Musical Instruments", 1989,
p91.
4. ^ Mary Remnant, "Musical
Instruments", 1989, p91. {1700}
Florence, Italy3  
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
298 YBN
[06/28/1702 AD] 4 5 		1892) That liquids such as water always
boil at the same temperature is
determined.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p163.
2. ^ Amontons, G.
"Discours sur quelques proprits de
lair, et le moyen den connatre la
temprature dans tous les climats de
la Terre." Mmoires de lAcadmie
Royale des Sciences (1702):
155-171. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et
%20M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mi
e%20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences
3. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology
4. ^ Amontons, G. "Discours sur
quelques proprits de lair, et le
moyen den connatre la temprature
dans tous les climats de la Terre."
Mmoires de lAcadmie Royale des
Sciences (1702):
155-171. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et
%20M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mi
e%20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences
5. ^ "Guillaume Amontons". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Guillaume+Amonton
s?cat=technology (1702)

MORE INFO
[1] "Guillaume Amontons".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_A
montons
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Amontons, G. ''Discours sur
quelques propriétés de l’air, et le
moyen d’en connaître la
température dans tous les climats de
la Terre.'' Mémoires de l’Académie
Royale des Sciences (1702):
155- http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%20M
%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%20
royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%2
0M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%
20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN

[2] Amontons, G. ''Discours sur
quelques propriétés de l’air, et le
moyen d’en connaître la
température dans tous les climats de
la Terre.'' Mémoires de l’Académie
Royale des Sciences (1702):
155- http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%20M
%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%20
royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3505b.image.langEN.r=Histoire%20et%20
M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%2
0royale%20des%20sciences PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3505b/f314.image.r=Histoire%20et%2
0M%C3%A9moires%20de%20l%27Acad%C3%A9mie%
20royale%20des%20sciences.langEN
295 YBN
[1705 AD] 4 		1872) The path of a comet is correctly
calculated.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
2. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
3. ^ "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://classconnection.s3.amazon
aws.com/510/flashcards/1411510/jpg/pictu
re1061336605287772.jpg

[2] Halley's comet on the Bayeux
tapesry {ULSF: determine date} PD
source: http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/
laserdisk/0214/21434.JPG
292 YBN
[1708 AD] 4 		4481) Light rays are shown to move
low-mass objects.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History
and Present State of Discoveries
Relating to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
2. ^ Histoire de l'Académie royale des
sciences, 1708,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e {verify this link - I can't find the
specific text}
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The
History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours", 1772, kraus reprint
1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
4. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
{1708}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyc
lop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Homberg,_Wilhelm

Paris, France3  
[1] Histoire de l'Académie royale
des sciences, 1708,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
source: Histoire de l'Académie
royale des sciences, 1708,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
N0EAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
290 YBN
[1710 AD] 5 6 		3773) The first theory of relativity;
that a motion requires at least two
bodies, as opposed to the theory of
absolute space, time, and motion.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Berkeley, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>.
2. ^ George Berkeley, Thomas Joseph
McCormack, A Treatise Concerning the
Principles of Human Knowledge, Open
Court Pub. Co.,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
mWVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=auth
or:berkeley&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=8qNbSfClJo_I
M8mO4BY#PPR4,M1 1710
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=mmMIOwAACAAJ&dq=author:berkeley+date:
1710-1710&ei=17tbSaRQkagzyaC43wE
3. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf}
4. ^ George Berkeley, "De Moto",
1721. from: George Berkeley, "The
Works of George Berkeley" By
http://books.google.com/books?id=3dIQA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=de+moto+author:berkel
ey&ei=47BbSdXIII2YMsKwybAH#PPA73,M1
5. ^ W. A. Suchting, "Berkeley's
Criticism of Newton on Space and Motion
Berkeley's Criticism of Newton on Space
and Motion", Isis, Vol. 58, No. 2
(Summer, 1967), pp.
186-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228223.pdf {Suchting_Berkeley_Geo
rge_Newton_1967.pdf} {1710}
6. ^ "Berkeley,
George." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
31 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
783>. {1710}
(Trinity College) Dublin, Ireland4
 
[1] George Berkeley PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/584/0
00087323/berkeley-3.jpg
287 YBN
[03/28/1713 AD] 15 		6594) The mass and density of the
planets are determined5 and the theory
that the Universe is made of mostly
empty space by Newton6 .

Newton calculates the mass of Jupiter
to be around 1/1000th the mass of the
Sun, Saturn around 1/2000th, and the
Earth to be 1/200000th.7

Newton estimates the density of Earth
to be about 4 times the density of the
Sun, Jupiter 3/4 the density, and
Saturn only 1/2 the density.8

Newton allows that gravitational
attraction may arise as a result of
emissions from the bodies themselves,
or by the action of a material medium.9
10 11

Newton also recognizes that the Sun is
moved by the gravity of the other
planets.12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
2. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
3. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
4. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
5. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
6. ^ (Book III, Propositions X)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p372-373. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA372 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p372-373. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p230-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA230
7. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
8. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228
9. ^ Newton, I., and F. Cajori. Sir
Isaac Newton’s Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy and
His System of the World: The System of
the World. University of California
Press, 1962. Sir Isaac Newtons
Mathematical Principles on Natural
Philosophy and His System of the World,
p634. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gB2-Hqdx_LUC&pg=PA634
10. ^ (Proposition LXIX Scholium)
Newton, I. Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. sumptibus
Societatis, (Second edition), 1723,
p172-173. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA172 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p172-173. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf}
11. ^ Newton, I., A. Motte, and J.
Machin. The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy. B. Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy,
p262. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA262
12. ^ (Book III, Propositions XI and
XII) Newton, I. Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
sumptibus Societatis, (Second edition),
1723,
p373-374. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA373 AND: Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p373-374. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p232-233. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA232
13. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf}
14. ^ "Sir Isaac Newton."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 27 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/413189/Sir-Isaac-Newton>.
15. ^ (Proposition VIII) Newton, I.
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. sumptibus Societatis,
(Second edition), 1723,
p370-371. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3h9_GY8v-hgC&pg=PA370 AND Newton,
Isaac, Sir. Philosophi� naturalis
principia mathematica. Auctore Isaaco
Newtono, Equite Aurato. Editio secunda
auctior et emendatior. Cantabrigi�,
MDCCXIII. (1713). Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale. UC Irvine. 27
Mar. 2013, p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} For English see Third
Edition: Newton, I. The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy.
printed for Benjamin Motte, 1729. The
Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, Volume 2,
p228. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA228

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Isaac Newton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Isaa
c_Newton
[2] "binomial theorem". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9241/binomial-theorem
[3]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Newton.html
[4]
http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.htm
l
[5]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=47
[6]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/te
xts/viewtext.php?id=NATP00006&mode=norma
lized
[7]
http://www.jstor.org/view/03702316/ap000
007/00a00090/0
[8] "Niccolo Zucchi". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8475/Niccolo-Zucchi
[9]
http://grus.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeH
istory/Early_Period.html
[10]
http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/pr
ism.php?id=15
[11] "acoustics". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-640
48/acoustics
[12] (De Motu Corporum -Liber Primus-
Scholium) Isaac Newton, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
(London: 1687),
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
jEyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34
AND http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.
uk/catalogue/record/NATP00071
[13] Sir Isaac Newton, The mathematical
principles of natural philosophy,
Volume 2, printed for Benjamin Motte,
1729,
p227-228. http://books.google.com/books
?id=6EqxPav3vIsC&pg=PA227
[14] "Ismael Bullialdus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismael_Bull
ialdus
[15] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704),
p132. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
AND http://archive.org/details/optickso
rtreatis00newt
[16] Isaac Newton, "Opticks: Or, A
treatise of the Reflections,
Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of
Light. Also Two treatises of the
Species and Magnitude of Curvilinear
Figures", First Edition, (London:
1704) http://www.newtonproject.sussex.a
c.uk/catalogue/record/NATP00031
[17]
http://www.physics.odu.edu/~kuhn/PHYS101
/VisViva.html#ref
[18] "Isaac Newton". Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Isaac+Newton+?cat
=technology
[19]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7wkAAA
AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA136&dq=aristotle+physics+
gravity+levity&as_brr=1
[20]
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AMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA141&lpg=RA1-PA141&dq=aris
totle+gravity+levity&source=web&ots=uMyd
iEAeSU&sig=7Jj8rcY4QjtyJC6olR_uyAt2KAE#P
RA1-PA141,M1
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n
[22] "Edmund Halley". Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
2008.
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[23] The Mechanical Universe, Episode
18, Waves
[24]
http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath109/k
math109.htm
[25] Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p4
(Dabam) London, England13 14  
[1] Newton, Isaac, Sir. Philosophiæ
naturalis principia mathematica.
Auctore Isaaco Newtono, Equite Aurato.
Editio secunda auctior et emendatior.
Cantabrigiæ, MDCCXIII. [1713].
Eighteenth Century Collections Online.
Gale. UC Irvine. 27 Mar. 2013,
p370-371. .
{Newton_Principia_Second_Edition_17130
328.pdf} PD
source: .

[2] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
286 YBN
[1714 AD] 4 		1925) A thermometer that uses mercury
and the Fahrenheit temperature scale.1
That boiling point changes with change
in pressure is recognized.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3562/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168.
3. ^ "Gabriel
Fahrenheit". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Gabriel+Fahrenhei
t+?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp167-168. (1714)
(1714)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Fahrenheit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Fah
renheit
Amsterdam, Netherlands3
(presumably) 
[1] An original thermometer invented by
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit to fetch
$157,000 at London auction UNKNOWN
source: http://www.instablogsimages.com/
1/2012/08/31/an_original_thermometer_inv
ented_by_daniel_gabriel_fahrenheit_to_fe
tch_100000_at_auction_gxlbd.jpg

[2] Fahrenheit nació en Gdansk en
1686 y murió en La Haya en 1736 PD
source: http://static.tvazteca.com/image
nes/2012/48/Crean-retrato-virtual-Daniel
-Gabriel-1741871.jpg
282 YBN
[1718 AD] 11 12 		1876) The movement of the stars over
long periods of time is proven.7 8 9
This adds proof against the ancient
claim that the stars are fixed on a
celestial sphere.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edmund Halley, "Considerations on
the Change of the Latitudes of Some of
the Principal Fixt Stars.", R. S. Sec.
Phil. Trans. 1717 30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
2. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
4. ^ Edmund Halley,
"Considerations on the Change of the
Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt
Stars.", R. S. Sec. Phil. Trans. 1717
30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
5. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
7. ^ Edmund Halley,
"Considerations on the Change of the
Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt
Stars.", R. S. Sec. Phil. Trans. 1717
30 351-363 736-738;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025
http://intl-rstl.royalsocietypublishin
g.org/citmgr?gca=roypt;30/351-363/736
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/103320
8. ^ Aitken, R. G., "Edmund Halley and
Stellar Proper Motions", Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol.
4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
12. ^ Aitken, R. G.,
"Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper
Motions", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 4, No. 164,
p.103. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1942ASPL....4..103A/0000106.000
.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
[2] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[3] "comet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0156/comet
[4] "Comet Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halle
y
 
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
280 YBN
[1720 AD] 4 		6650) The theory that space is mostly
dark because other stars are too far
away for light emitting from them to be
going in our direction.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Halley, Edmund. "Of the Infinity
of the Sphere of Fix'd Stars. By Edmund
Halley, LLDRSS." Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) 31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22
2. ^ Halley, Edmund. "Of the Number,
Order, and Light of the Fix'd Stars. By
the Same." Philosophical transactions
31.364-369 (1720):
24-26. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA24
3. ^ Jaki, Stanley L. "Olbers',
Halley's, or Whose Paradox?." American
Journal of Physics 35 (1967):
200. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajp
ias/v35/i3/p200_s1
4. ^ Halley, Edmund. "Of the Infinity
of the Sphere of Fix'd Stars. By Edmund
Halley, LLDRSS." Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) 31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22

MORE INFO
[1] "Edmund Halley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hall
ey
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Edmund+Halley+?ca
t=technology
[3] "St. Helena". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Helena
[4] "Edmond Halley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8943/Edmond-Halley
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp159-160.
(1676)
 
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
AND Halley, Edmund. ''Of the
Infinity of the Sphere of Fix'd Stars.
By Edmund Halley, LLDRSS.''
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775)
31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpghttp://books.googl
e.com/books?id=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22

[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD AND Halley, Edmund.
''Of the Infinity of the Sphere of
Fix'd Stars. By Edmund Halley,
LLDRSS.'' Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) 31 (1720):
22-24. http://books.google.com/books?id
=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gifhttp://books.google.
com/books?id=O19FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA22
275 YBN
[1725 AD] 5 		3604) A machine uses a perforated roll
of paper to form patterns in textiles.2


Perforated paper is the basis for early
mechanical computers, and perforated
film.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
2. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ W. Maigne, "Dictionnaire
classique des origines, inventions &
découvertes dans les arts, les
sciences, et les lettres, présentant
une exposition dommaire des grandes
conquétes du génie de l'homme:
ouvrage destiné aux gens du monde et
aux élèves des écoles", Larousse et
Boyer, 1864,
p614. http://books.google.com/books?id=
DOgIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA614&dq=basile+bouchon+
lyon&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KjLZSP_RKYXWsgOKouS
ZDg
5. ^ "textile." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/589392/textile>. {1725}

MORE INFO
[1] "Basile Bouchon". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basile_Bouc
hon
[2]
http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac.at/inde
x.php?id=315
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=vf8tAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA444&dq=basile+bouchon&as_brr=
1&ei=JjHZSLTaMYjutAP99KHeDg#PPA444,M1
Lyon, France4  
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
274 YBN
[1726 AD] 4 		3381) "Coal gas", a flammable gas made
mostly of hydrogen, methane and carbon
monoxide1 is produced by distillation
of coal.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "coal gas." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
02 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
oal gas>.
2. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
3. ^ "Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales
4. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1726}

MORE INFO
[1] "Stephen Hales". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hal
es
[2]
http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/r
arebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727
 (Vegtable Staticks)
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p165. (1727) (1727)
[4]
"Stephen Hales". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8874/Stephen-Hales (1727)
Teddington, England3
(presumably) 
[1] Description Scan of old picture of
Stephen Hales Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hales_Stephen.jpg

[2] Stephen Hales measuring the blood
pressure of a mare by means of a tube
placed in the carotid artery. The
Granger Collection, New York
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15460/Stephen-Hales-measuring-the-blood
-pressure-of-a-mare-by?articleTypeId=1
271 YBN
[1729 AD] 3 4 		1957) That electricity can flow in silk
and metal is discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook
2. ^ "Stephen Gray (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gra
y_%28scientist%29
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p173. (1729) (1729)
4. ^
"electromagnetism#152023.hook".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
98/electromagnetism#152023.hook (1729)
London, England2  
[1] Picture of the month - Flying
boy Stephen Gray FRS Flying boy The
above image depicts the famous ''flying
boy'' experiment carried out by Stephen
Gray in the early 18th century. The
experiment was used to demonstrate
electrical polarity in suspended
objects. The boy was suspended on silk
cords and charged with electricity,
which attracted paper and other light
objects to his hands. Gray's work was
very important in the understanding of
the role played by conductors and
insulators in electricity for which he
was awarded the Society's first Copley
Medal in 1731. PD
source: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.a
sp?id=6276

[2] Stephen Gray découvre la
conduction (Les Merveilles de la
Science, Louis Figuier) PD
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/parcou
rspedagogique/agora/spip.php?article18
267 YBN
[12/27/1733 AD] 7 8 		1965) The theory that electricity is
made of two different fluids3 4 ;
"vitreous" and "resinous".5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay
Du Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
2. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
3. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay Du
Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
4. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
5. ^ "Charles François de Cisternay Du
Fay". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Fran%C3%A
7ois+de+Cisternay+Du+Fay?cat=technology
6. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HT
M
7. ^ Du Fay, "V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay", Philosophical Transactions. N432,
Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263. (p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263
8. ^ "C. F. du Fay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._du_Fa
y (12/1733)
Paris, France6  
[1] Du Fay, ''V. A Letter from Mons. Du
Fay'', Philosophical Transactions.
N432, Jan-Mar 1734, p258-266,p263.
(p797 in
link) http://books.google.com/books?id=
sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=sfMyAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA263

[2] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
265 YBN
[1735 AD] 14 15 16 		1996) Life of Earth, including the
human species, is systematically
categorized by Carolus Linnaeus (lin
Aus8 9 ).10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
4. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
5. ^ "linnaeus." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 14 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
innaeus>.
6. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=linnae
us&submit=Submit
9. ^ "Carl Linnaeus." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 28 May. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
10. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp181-183.
12. ^
"carolus linnaeus". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus
13. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Lin
naeus
14. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8407/Carolus-Linnaeus (1735)
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp181-183. (1735)
16. ^ "carolus linnaeus".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carolus-lin
naeus (1735)
Netherlands12 13  
[1] Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum
Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first
edition (1735) of Systema Naturae. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Linnaeus_-_Regnum_Animale_%281735%29.
png

[2] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 3 		1923) Substances that can conduct a
flow of electricity are called
"conductors" and those that cannot are
called "insulators".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p167.
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html)
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/desaguliers.html (copy at
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/desagu
liers.html) (1736 (loosely based on )
(1736 (loosely based on )

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/gray.h
tml
[3]
http://www.roughashlar.com/members/artic
le_index/9990194831362.html
London, England2  
[1] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Artist: Hans
Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.6 x 10 cm PD

source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-02a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Desaguliers, John
Theophilus (1683 -
1744) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: James Tookey, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Hans Hysing, 1678-1752 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12 x 9.6 cm /
Sheet: 17.5 x 11.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D3-01a.jpg
264 YBN
[1736 AD] 5 		1966) That the Earth is an oblate
spheroid (a sphere flattened at the
poles) is verified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p175.
2. ^ "Pierre Louis
Moreau de Maupertuis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
3. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
4. ^ "Maupertuis". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Maupertuis?cat=te
chnology
5. ^ "Pierre Louis Moreau de
Maupertuis". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1494/Pierre-Louis-Moreau-de-Maupertuis
(1736)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Louis Maupertuis".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Loui
s_Maupertuis
Lapland3 4  
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology

[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
262 YBN
[1738 AD] 4 5 6 		1971) The kinetic theory of gases and
heat. Pressure is explained as the
impact of molecules on a surface.
Pressure and motion are shown to
increase with temperature.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
2. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
3. ^ Henry Crew, The Rise of Modern
Physics, The Williams & Wilkins
Company, 1935, p218-223. {This also
contains a partial translation from
Latin.}
4. ^ "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli (1738)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp175-176. (1738)
(1738)
6. ^ Henry Crew, The Rise of Modern
Physics, The Williams & Wilkins
Company, 1935, p218-223. {This also
contains a partial translation from
Latin.} {1738}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daniel Bernoulli".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bern
oulli
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Bernoulli?
cat=technology
[3]
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes
/252/kinetic_theory.html
Basel, Switzerland2 (presumably)|
(published in ) Strasbourg3  
[1] Bernoulli's Picture [t From 1738
book] PD/Corel
source: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/classes/252/kinetic_theory_files/image0
02.jpg

[2] Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) [Portrait by anonymous
painter, in Historisches Museum
Basel; from the frontispiece of Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli, Band 1,
Birkhaeuser Verlag] PD
source: http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/phi
sci/Gallery/D.bernoulli.html
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 3 		2019) That phosphorus gains weight when
burned (now known as oxidation) is
found. This conflicts with the
phlogiston theory.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185.
2. ^ "Andreas
Sigismund Marggraf". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
0865/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp184-185. (1740)
(1740)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Sig
ismund_Marggraf
Berlin, Germany2 (presumably) 
[1] Marggraf,
engraving Bavaria-Verlag To cite this
page: * MLA style:
''Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund.'' Online
Photograph. Britannica Student
Encyclopædia. 4 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://student.britannica.com/eb
/art-28657/Marggraf-engraving
260 YBN
[1740 AD] 4 		2067) Parthenogenesis (reproduction
without fertilization) is conclusively
proven; in female aphids.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
2. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
3. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
4. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net (1740)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/parthenogenesis
Geneva?, Switzerland2 3
(presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
258 YBN
[1742 AD] 3 		1975) The Celsius (or centigrade)
temperature scale is invented; the
freezing and boiling point of water are
divided into 100 degrees1 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p177.
2. ^ "Celsius
Anders". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders
3. ^ "Celsius Anders". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2032/Celsius-Anders (1742)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Celsius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Cels
ius
Uppsala, Sweden2 (presumably) 
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg

[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
257 YBN
[1743 AD] 2 3 		1976) The first philosophical society
in America, "the American Philosophical
Society" is formed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179. (1743)
(1743)
3. ^ "John Harrison". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Harrison?cat
=technology (1735) (1743)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[2]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity-this portrait
hung in Franklin's dining room in
Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole
it during the British occupation of
Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in
1906, it is now in the White House, in
Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
256 YBN
[1744 AD] 4 		2121) An electric spark is used to
ignite a flammable liquid;1 ether.2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ether." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 Mar.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ether
2. ^ "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electricity".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
3. ^ Royal Society (Great Britain).
Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some
Account of the Present Undertakings,
Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious
in Many Considerable Parts of the
World. Royal Society, Volume 43, N744,
1746,
p167. books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA167
4. ^ "Electricity (1744)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Electricity".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity (1744) (1744)

MORE INFO
[1] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p.
167)
 
[1] Royal Society (Great Britain).
Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some
Account of the Present Undertakings,
Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious
in Many Considerable Parts of the
World. Royal Society, Volume 43, N744,
1746,
p167. books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA167 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=6j9WAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA167
255 YBN
[03/27/1745 AD] 4 		1244) An electric spark ignites black
powder.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Watson, W. Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity.
C. Davis, 1746,
p3. books.google.com/books?id=TRw5AAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA3
2. ^ Lynch, A.J., and C.A. Rowland. The
History of Grinding. Society for
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration,
Incorporated, 2005,
p168. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kj7PSOqTZ3IC&pg=PA168
3. ^ "Blasting cap". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasting_ca
p
4. ^ Watson, W. Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity.
C. Davis, 1746,
p3. books.google.com/books?id=TRw5AAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA3

MORE INFO
[1] "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
[2] Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale
Group. http://galenet.galegroup.com/ser
vlet/ECCO Gale Document Number:
CW3308601351 http://galenet.galegroup.c
om/servlet/ECCO?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0
657800501&srchtp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&df=f&d2=1
40&docNum=CW3308601351&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=
BN&d6=140&d3=140&ste=10&stp=Author&d4=0.
33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T036346 Priestley_Hist
ory_of_Electricity.pdf
England3  
[1] William Watson (1715-1787) *
Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Watson.jpg
255 YBN
[11/04/1745 AD] 18 19 20 		1972) The storage of electricity. The
first electric memory and capacitor
(commonly called the Leyden jar).10 11
12

A Leyden jar is a glass bottle holding
water that can store electricity and
give the holder of the bottle a large
electric shock.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
2. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
3. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
4. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
5. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
6. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
7. ^ "E Georg von Kleist". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
8. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history and
present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
9. ^ Keithley,
J.F. The Story of Electrical and
Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to
the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
10. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
11. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group,
pp102-103.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
12. ^
Keithley, J.F. The Story of Electrical
and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC
to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
13. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
14. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
15. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist
16. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kleist
.html
17. ^ "Pomerania". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania
18. ^ Keithley, J.F. The Story of
Electrical and Magnetic Measurements:
From 500 BC to the 1940s. Wiley, 1999,
p21. http://books.google.com/books?id=u
wgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA21
19. ^ Priestley, Joseph. The history
and present state of electricity, with
original experiments, by Joseph
Priestley, ... The third edition,
corrected and enlarged Vol. 1. London,
1775. 2 vols. Eighteenth Century
Collections Online. Gale Group, p102.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O Gale Document Number: CW3308601351
(11/04/1745)
20. ^ "E Georg von Kleist".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5738/E-Georg-von-Kleist (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewald Georg von Kleist".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Georg
_von_Kleist
(University of Wittenburg) Wittenburg,
Germany14 (was for von Kleist:
Pomerania?, Prussia15 16 ) (coast of
Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland17
) 
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png

[2] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
255 YBN
[1745 AD] 7 8 		2966) An electrostatic motor.3 4

A clapper swings back and forth between
two bells of oppositely charged
glasses, causing a ring on contact with
each, until the charge is gone.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
2. ^ video of a modern version of
Hamilton's Mill
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewgVXg_
tsC4
3. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
4. ^ video of a modern version of
Hamilton's Mill
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewgVXg_
tsC4
5. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml
6. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
7. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm (1745)
8. ^
http://www.arcsandsparks.com/franklin.ht
ml (Bells= 1742)

MORE INFO
[1] Elementary Lessons in
Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus
Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en
(University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany6
 
[1] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en

[2] Elementary Lessons in Electricity
and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips
Thompson http://books.google.com/books?
id=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winc
kler+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=
Op8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6H
zA&hl=en PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hLk3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=winckl
er+leipzig+electricity&source=web&ots=Op
8vIkfDDE&sig=qHZAdRw3VdIi8ePfK7kcsGP6HzA
&hl=en
http://books.google.com/books?id=TFLkGa4
bDCIC
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 3 4 		2953) The theory that electricity is
made of two streams of electrical fluid
that move in opposite directions.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Riskin, J. Science in the Age of
Sensibility: The Sentimental
Empiricists of the French
Enlightenment. University of Chicago
Press, 2002, p77.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9
XSnFx4C&pg=PA77
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
3. ^ "JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology (1746)
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html (1745)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Antoine Nollet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[2]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Abben
ollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
254 YBN
[1746 AD] 4 		2968) That electricity in an
electrostatic generator comes from the
ground and not the sphere is proven.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p113.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William,
pp713-714.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
3. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
4. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29 (1746) (1746)

MORE INFO
[1] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[2] An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
London, England3  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
253 YBN
[07/11/1747 AD] 4 5 6 		1981) The theory that electricity is a
single fluid, and that lightning is
electricity.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
3. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
4. ^ The Writings of Benjamin
Franklin By Benjamin
Franklin Published 1905 Macmillan &
co., ltd. United States, p302.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA302&lpg=PA302&dq=franklin+mar
ch+28+1747+letter&source=web&ots=cMKNLDw
QT2&sig=rk0pZ33SEwyWeJb7wA3PCHnUKOk&hl=e
n (07/11/1747)
5. ^ "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin (1751)
6. ^ "Leyden Jar
(1747-1748)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar (1747-1748) (1747-1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[4] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[5] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA
(letter to London, England3 ) 
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668

[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 4 5 		2055) Citris fruits are proven to cure
scurvy in one of the earliest clinical
experiments.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p189.
3. ^ "James
Lind". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8347/James-Lind
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p189. (1747) (1747)
5. ^
"James Lind". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lind
(1747)
England3  
[1] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html

[2] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
253 YBN
[1747 AD] 6 		3452) The basis of refrigeration is
understood.3 That evaporating liquids
produces cold is recognized.4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
2. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
3. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
4. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
5. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
6. ^ William Cullen, "Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf}
{1747}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Cullen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cul
len
[2] "William Cullen." Encyclopedia of
the Early Modern World. The Gale Group,
Inc, 2004. Answers.com 09 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cul
len
[3] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf} (05/01/1755)
(Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg,
Russia5  
[1] William Cullen, ''Of the Cold
produced by evaporating Fluids and of
some other Means of producing Cold'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and observations, physical and
literary. Read before a Society in
Edinburgh, and published by them.
Volume 2. Edinburgh, 1754. 464pp. 2
vols,
p145-156. {Cullen_evaporation.pdf} PD

source: Cullen_evaporation.pdf

[2] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
252 YBN
[02/14/1748 AD] 4 		1932) The phenomenon of "nutation",
that the apparent declination of some
stars changes annually because of the
movement of the nodes of the Moon's
orbit around the Earth.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
2. ^ "James Bradley". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
3. ^ "James Bradley". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/James+Bradley+?ca
t=technology
4. ^ "James Bradley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bradl
ey (02/14/1748)

MORE INFO
[1] "Aberration of light".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_
of_light
Kew, England3  
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg

[2] Description English: Movement
of a planet's (e.g. Earth's) axis
R - Rotation of a planet P -
Precession N - Nutation Date Bad
Muskau, May 2004 Source This file
is lacking source
information. Please edit this file's
description and provide a
source. Author User Herbye (German
Wikipedia). Designed by Dr. H.
Sulzer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Praezession.svg
/1000px-Praezession.svg.png
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 7 8 9 		2954) Osmosis is described (the
spontaneous passage or diffusion of
water or some other solvent through a
semipermeable membrane1 ).2 3 4 5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "osmosis." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 13 Dec.
2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/osmosis
2. ^ Memoires de l'Acudemie des
Sciences, Paris 1748, p101
3. ^ Chapman,
H.C. Treatise on Human Physiology ...
Lea brothers & Company,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Np1BAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202
4. ^ Kahlenberg, Louis. "The bearing of
actual osmotic experiments upon the
conception of the nature of solutions."
Transactions of the Faraday Society
3.July (1907):
22-26. http://books.google.com/books?id
=khbzAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA22
5. ^
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nollet
.html
7. ^ Memoires de l'Acudemie des
Sciences, Paris 1748, p101
8. ^ Chapman,
H.C. Treatise on Human Physiology ...
Lea brothers & Company,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Np1BAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202
9. ^ Kahlenberg, Louis. "The bearing of
actual osmotic experiments upon the
conception of the nature of solutions."
Transactions of the Faraday Society
3.July (1907):
22-26. http://books.google.com/books?id
=khbzAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA22

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/JEAN+ANTOINE+NOLL
ET?cat=technology
[2] "Jean-Antoine Nollet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Antoin
e_Nollet
[3]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11090b.h
tm
[4] "electromagnetism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[5] "Jean Antoine Nollet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ant
oine_Nollet
[6]
http://www.enotes.com/microbiology-resou
rces/historical-chronology (1748)
Paris, France6 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg

[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
252 YBN
[1748 AD] 4 5 		4537) That irregularities in the
motions of satellites occur because the
bodies they orbit are not perfectly
spherical is recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert Grant, "History of
physical astronomy: from the earliest
ages to the middle of the ...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse
2. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922)
3. ^
"Leonhard Euler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3216/Leonhard-Euler
4. ^ Charles Lane Poor, "Gravitation
versus Relativity" (New York, 1922)
{1748}
5. ^ Robert Grant, "History of physical
astronomy: from the earliest ages to
the middle of the ...", 1852,
p88. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
P_ekCK1MQgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=1758+wal
msley+jupiter&source=bl&ots=zsFdAtj7iK&s
ig=SjyleX3mZhWpM1XsXxRsD7xXE3w&hl=en&ei=
U1dDTPWnLY2-sQOb0_iCDQ&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=1758%20walmsley%20jupiter&f=fa
lse {1748}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leonhard Euler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eu
ler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Leonhard%20Euler%
20
[3] "Contributions of Leonhard Euler to
mathematics". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributio
ns_of_Leonhard_Euler_to_mathematics
[4] "E (mathematical constant)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_%28mathem
atical_constant%29
[5] ^ O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson,
E.F.; The MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive: "The number e";
University of St Andrews Scotland
(2001)
[6] History of Mathematics, D. E. Smith
[7]
http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/ca
talogue.asp?isbn=9780521035071 (Optics
in the Age of Euler), Conceptions of
the Nature of Light, 1700-1795
[8]
http://math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/
[9] "Johann Andreas von Segner".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andr
eas_von_Segner
[10]
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/optics/co
lour.htm
[11] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, pp56-57
[12] Home, R.W. (1988).
"Leonhard Euler's 'Anti-Newtonian'
Theory of Light". Annals of Science 45
(5): 521-533.
(euler_antiNewton_light_1988_annals_of_s
cience.pdf), p13
[13] Optics in the age of
Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, pp1-2
[14]
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p75
[15] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995,
pp78-79
[16] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p82
[17] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p84
[18]
"Johann Andreas von Segner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6597/Johann-Andreas-von-Segner
[19] Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, pp88-89
[20] Optics in the age
of Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995, p102
[21]
Optics in the age of Euler, Casper
Hakfoort, 1995, p103
[22]
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/pag
es/E088.html (1746)
[23] Optics in the age of
Euler, Casper Hakfoort, 1995 (1746)
[24]
Charles Walmesley, "Of the
Irregularities in the Motion of a
Satellite Arising from the Spheroidical
Figure of Its Primary Planet: In a
Letter to the Rev. James Bradley D. D.
Astronomer Royal, F. R. S. and Member
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris;", Phil. Trans. 1757, 10/21/1758.
50:809-835;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1757.0111 http://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=S-U_AAAAYAAJ&pg=P
A295&lpg=PA295&dq=%22since+the+time+that
+astronomers+have+been+enabled%22&source
=bl&ots=03k1LyYeep&sig=Eb-Z2Mu_sAc_baKvd
SXS4TI9YIs&hl=en&ei=PVtDTLmNDZHCsAOwl-H5
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22since%2
0the%20time%20that%20astronomers%20have%
20been%20enabled%22&f=false
[25] Robert E. Bradley, Charles Edward
Sandifer, "Leonhard Euler: life, work
and legacy",
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
75vJL_Y-PvsC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=euler
+1748+jupiter&source=bl&ots=RslLkxNhjB&s
ig=gmr0_82LV9HvoxrDdGYLT_f5Vys&hl=en&ei=
_l5DTOP_CpGmsQPo-oH1DA&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAw#v=
onepage&q=euler%201748%20jupiter&f=false

Berlin, Germany3  
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg

[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD

source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
251 YBN
[04/29/1749 AD] 4 		2971) That the electric charge is
stored in the glass of a Leyden jar is
proven.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Leyden Jar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Leyden Jar".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Leyden_J
ar
2. ^ Benjamin Franklin, "The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin", Macmillan & co.,
ltd., 1905, p402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA402
3. ^ Benjamin Franklin, "The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin", Macmillan & co.,
ltd., 1905, p396.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA396
4. ^ Benjamin Franklin, "The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin", Macmillan & co.,
ltd., 1905, p411.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA411

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Benjamin Franklin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
[3] "Benjamin Franklin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[5]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=QpWa9XS
nFx4C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=nollet+electri
cal+mechanical&source=web&ots=soy1Mv8usj
&sig=lEG1Yk6qvpp4Img5Ga3ZGHz5r-I&hl=en#P
PA76,M1
[7] An Account of Mr. Benjamin
Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published,
Intituled, Experiments and Observations
on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in
America; By Wm. Watson, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 47 -
1751/1752 Authors Benjamin Franklin
and Wm.
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1751.0032 http
://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q49
0w47733103h6h/?p=d81fd6c4f77d41ce864b64a
fe5cacc64&pi=9 Franklin_Electricity_175
1.pdf (resuscitates pigeon killed by
shock which flies into wall as if
blind)
[8] Electrical Experiments, Made in
Pursuance of Those by Mr. Canton, Dated
Decem. 3, 1753; With Explanations by
Mr. Benjamin Franklin, Communicated Mr.
Peter Collinson, F. R.
S. Franklin_1753_RS.pdf (threads
separate electroscope, Canton made
pithballs)
[9] "Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Ul
rich_Theodor_Aepinus
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Aepinus.html
[11] Franklin, B., W.T. Franklin, and
W. Duane. Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin.
McCarty & Davis, 1840. Memoirs of
Benjamin Franklin,
p251. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251
Philadelphia, Pennsylviania, (English
Colonies) USA3  
[1] Benjamin Franklin, ''The Writings
of Benjamin Franklin'', Macmillan &
co., ltd., 1905, p402.
http://books.google.com/books?id=BITTQfM
LcpEC&pg=PA402 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=BITTQfMLcpEC&pg=PA402

[2] Franklin, B., W.T. Franklin, and
W. Duane. Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin.
McCarty & Davis, 1840. Memoirs of
Benjamin Franklin,
p251. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=HptPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA251
250 YBN
[1750 AD] 2 		2025) The theory that the Sun is not
the center of the universe, and that
the Milky Way is flattened.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp185-186.
2. ^ "Thomas Wright
(astronomer)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wrig
ht_%28astronomer%29 (1750) (1750)
 
[1] AN ORIGINAL THEORY OR NEW
HYPOTHESIS OF THE UNIVERSE ~ Thomas
Wright, 1750 :: The confinement of
the Milky Way to a narrow plane in the
sky gave rise to speculation in the
18th century about the structure f the
universe. Thomas Wright of Durham,
England, hypothesized that the Earth
was at the center of a vast spherical
shell of stars :: PD
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_mdg7jlYfnG1qb07b5o1_1280.jpg

[2] Thomas Wright PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29.jpg
249 YBN
[1751 AD] 3 4 		2047) Diderot's (DEDrO) twenty-eight
volume encyclopedia.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189.
2. ^ "Denis Diderot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot
3. ^ "Denis Diderot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-181
8/Denis-Diderot (1751)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp188-189. (1751)
(1751)

MORE INFO
[1] "Denis Diderot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Dider
ot
Paris, France2  
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD AND [3] Portrait of
Denis Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81
x 65 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeghttp://www.wga.hu
/art/l/loo/louis/diderot.jpg

[2] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg
248 YBN
[01/03/1752 AD] 3 		2009) The different spectra of an
alcohol flame colored by various salts
is described.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Melvill, Thomas, "Observations on
Light and Colours", Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Vol. 8, p.231,
08/1914 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914JRASC...8..231M {melville_thomas.pdf
}
2. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18
542?_fromAuth=1 (01/03/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] A Letter from Mr. T. Melvil
to the Rev. James Bradley, D. D. F. R.
S. With a Discourse concerning the
Cause of the Different Refrangibility
of the Rays of Light Author T.
Melvil DOI 10.1098/rstl.1753.0038
melvil_thomas_1753_phil_trans.pdf
[2] Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data
System (ADS) Title: Early Papers on
Light and Color by Thomas
Melville Authors: Hess, H.
V. Journal: Publication of the Pomona
College Astronomical Society, vol. 4,
pp.22-25 1914 melville_thomas2.pdf
[3]
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes
/252/spectra.html
[4]
http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/D1/hist.ht
m
[5] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/003
1-9120/16/2/314/pev16i2p112.pdf?request-
id=GEXT97iQ3BG5LVsA3Ai7Kg michell_corpu
scular_criticism_pev16i2p112.pdf
Edinburgh, Scotland2  
[1] Melvill, Thomas, ''Observations on
Light and Colours'', Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,
Vol. 8, p.231,
08/1914 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914JRASC...8..231M {melville_thomas.pdf
} PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
14JRASC...8..231M
248 YBN
[02/20/1752 AD] 6 		2976) A spark is passed through a
vacuum tube.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 347-351.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 347-351.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

4. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor
5. ^ "William Watson (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wat
son_%28scientist%29
6. ^ An Account of the Phaenomena of
Electricity in Vacuo, with Some
Observations Thereupon, by Mr. Wm.
Watson, F. R. S. Wm. Watson
Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775),
Vol. 47. (1751 - 1752), pp. 362-376.
http://www.jstor.org/view/02607085/ap0
00035/00a00610/0?frame=noframe&userID=80
c3de14@uci.edu/01c0a848640050f4dd0&dpi=3
&config=jstor (02/20/1752) (02/20/1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "electromagnetism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-715
99/electromagnetism
[2] A Continuation of a Paper
concerning Electricity, by William
Watson F. R. S. Printed in These Trans.
N. 477, Article I. Ending p.
501 Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 -
1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0118 Wats
on_William_1746_Continuation.pdf
[3] A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
London, England5  
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg

[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 3 4 		1922) Digestion of food is proven to be
chemical and not mechanical; small
metal cylinders with food inside are
regurgitated by birds with partially
digested food.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167.
2. ^ "René Antoine
Ferchault de Réaumur". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp166-167. (1752)
(1752)
4. ^ "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Ren%C3%A9+Antoine
+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur?cat=technolog
y (1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Antoine Ferchault de
Reaumur". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2880/Rene-Antoine-Ferchault-de-Reaumur
[2] "René Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_A
ntoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/cupola?cat=
health
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
248 YBN
[1752 AD] 3 		1983) Lightning is proven to be
electricity by charging a Leyden jar
with electricity from the sky using a
kite.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179.
2. ^ "Benjamin
Franklin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-224
67/Benjamin-Franklin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp177-179. (1752)
(1752)

MORE INFO
[1] "Benjamin Franklin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fr
anklin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Benjamin%20Frankl
in%20
[3]
http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preser
vation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania2
(presumably) 
[1] A drawing of Franklin's kite
experiment CREDIT: Currier & Ives.
''Franklin's experiment, June 1752:
Demonstrating the identity of lightning
and electricty, from which he invented
the lightning rod.'' Prints and
Photographs Division of the Library of
Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
a/franklinb/aa_franklinb_electric_2_e.ht
ml

[2] Franklin with kite PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/bo
ok/apr17.html
247 YBN
[12/??/1753 AD] 3 		2972) Electrostatic induction is
identified: that an electrified object
can induce an opposite charge in a
second object just by being close.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
3. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p260-261.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf
(12/1753) (12/1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[3] "Electroscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscop
e
[4]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM
[5] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
[6]
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
[7] "Electrostatic induction".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostat
ic_induction
London, England2  
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg

[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
247 YBN
[1753 AD] 3 		2957) That air can hold electricity is
discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The History and Present State of
Electricity, with Original
Experiments by Joseph Priestley, ...
The third edition, corrected and
enlarged. London, 1775. 542pp. (2
vols), v1 p245.
http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ECC
O?dd=0&locID=ucirvine&d1=0657800501&srch
tp=a&c=1&SU=0LRM&d2=1&docNum=CW330860121
2&h2=1&vrsn=1.0&af=BN&d6=1&ste=10&dc=tiP
G&stp=Author&d4=0.33&n=10&d5=d6&ae=T0363
46 Priestley_History_of_Electricity.pdf

2. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/ELECTROSCOPE.
HTM (1753)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[3] "Electroscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscop
e
[4] "Electroscope". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electros
cope
[5]
http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/s
tories/enlightenment_and_measurement/05.
ST.05/?scene=6
London, England2  
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg

[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). PD/Corel
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
245 YBN
[01/25/1755 AD] 4 5 		1370) Moscow State University is
founded.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Moscow State University."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
2. ^ "Moscow State University."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
3. ^
http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
4. ^
http://www.msu.ru/en/info/history.html
5. ^ "Moscow State University."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2012.
Web. 13 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393517/Moscow-State-University>.
Moscow, Russia3  
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU AND from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Lomonosov.jpg

[2] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg
245 YBN
[06/05/1755 AD] 4 		2089) Carbon dioxide is isolated; when
released by mixing magnesium oxide with
an acid.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
2. ^ Joseph Black, "Experiments upon
Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some
Other Alcaline Substances",
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and Observations, Physical and
Literary. G. Hamilton and J. Balfour,
1756. Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157
3. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black
4. ^ "Joseph Black". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
5464/Joseph-Black (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Black". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blac
k
Edinburgh, Scotland3  
[1] Joseph Black, ''Experiments upon
Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some
Other Alcaline Substances'',
Philosophical Society of Edinburgh.
Essays and Observations, Physical and
Literary. G. Hamilton and J. Balfour,
1756. Essays and Observations, Physical
and Literary,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=7IUDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157

[2] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
245 YBN
[1755 AD] 4 		2072) The nebular hypothesis, that the
star system formed as a result of the
gravitational interaction of atoms1 ,
that the Milky Way is a lens shaped
collection of stars, and that other
such "island universes" exist.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Immanuel Kant". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Immanuel%20Kant%2
0
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
3. ^ "Immanuel Kant".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Immanuel%20Kant%2
0
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1755) (1755)

MORE INFO
[1] "Immanuel Kant". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-271
37/Immanuel-Kant
[2] "Immanuel Kant". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Ka
nt
[3] "solar system". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-242
060/solar-system
[4] "Nebular hypothesis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebular_hyp
othesis
Königsberg, Germany3  
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg

[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
242 YBN
[1758 AD] 4 		3649) The first color specification
based on the painters' three primary
colors (red, yellow, and blue1 ).2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml
3. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml
4. ^
http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.h
tml {1758}
(lecture at U of Göttingen)
Göttingen, Germany3  
[1] tobias mayer's trichromatic mixing
triangle (1758) PD/Corel
source: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/
IMG/mayer.jpg
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 4 5 		2141) The theory that specialized
organs arise out of unspecialized
tissue in the embryo is introduced and
will replace the theory that a body is
preformed in the egg or sperm.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p206.
2. ^ Wolff, C.F.
Theoria Generationis. typis et sumtu
Io. Christ. Hendeli,
1774. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ZlS5D9A_8QC
3. ^ "Caspar Friedrich Wolff".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Frie
drich_Wolff
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p206. (1759) (1759)
5. ^
"Caspar Friedrich Wolff". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Caspar%20Friedric
h%20Wolff (1759)
Halle, Germany3  
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later edition} One of the founding
works of modern embryology, Caspar
Wolff’s Theoria generationis (1774)
proposes a ‘theory of generation’
for plants and animals. This plate
shows chick embryos and their parts.
CCD.46.87, table 2 PD
source: http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/exhibit
ions/Babies/pictures/big/CCD.46.87.jpg

[2] C. F. Wolff, attribution of the
portrait dubious.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas
par_Friedrich_Wolff
241 YBN
[1759 AD] 3 		3011) The electrical inverse distance
squared law. The theory that electrical
attraction and repulsion between
charged bodies decreases by the inverse
of the distance between them squared.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
2. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>.
3. ^ "Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich
Theodor Hoch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
3864>. (1759)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/F
ranz_Ulrich_Theodor_Aepinus
[2] John L. Heilbron, "Electricity in
the 17th and 18th centuries: a study
of early Modern physics", University
of California Press, (1979), pp391-392.
ISBN 0-520-03478-3
[3] Joseph Priestley, The History and
Present State of Electricity, with
Original Experiments (London, England:
1767), page
732. http://books.google.com/books?id=H
ZE_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA732
St. Petersberg, Russia2  
[1] Franz Maria Ulrich Theodosius
Aepinus PD/Corel
source: http://www.eoearth.org/article/A
epinus

[2] Charge device by Ulrich Theodor
Aepinus
source: http://www.fisicamente.net/aepin
us1.jpg
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 4 		2074) Locating the center of an
earthquake by recording the time when
the earthquake is felt in different
places is described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Conjectures Concerning the Cause
and Observations upon the Phaenomena of
Earthquakes (1760),
p10-11. http://archive.org/details/Mich
ell1760sc82C
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192.
3. ^ "John Michell".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
4. ^ "John Michell". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology (1760)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
Cambridge, England3  
[1] Conjectures Concerning the Cause
and Observations upon the Phaenomena of
Earthquakes (1760),
p10-11. http://archive.org/details/Mich
ell1760sc82C PD
source: http://archive.org/details/Miche
ll1760sc82C
240 YBN
[1760 AD] 6 7 		2122) Electrolysis. Molecules are split
using electricity. Water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen gases by
passing electricity through water.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16009a.h
tm
5. ^ "Giovanni Battista Beccaria".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Beccaria
6. ^
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/c8x97gg743267538/fulltext.pdf (1760
(presumably)
7. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=wKzJTBZ
h20wC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22john+warlti
re%22+electricity&source=web&ots=qx-N2a9
F9w&sig=0ReDFF5mI7Bgvvrn__a-VFc2T-0
(c1762)

MORE INFO
[1] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[2] Phil. Trans., 1 744, 43, p. 167)
[3]
"Electrolysis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electrol
ysis
[4]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649b.h
tm
[5]
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/conte
nt/?k=Beccaria
[6] "biophysics#48706.toc".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0580/biophysics#48706.toc
[7]
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/
beccaria.xml
Turin, Italy4 5  
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg

[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
237 YBN
[1763 AD] 5 		2080) That valleys are formed by
streams that run through them is
understood,1 and that all rocks are
not sedimentary is proven because
basalt is shown to be formed by
volcanoes2 (has an igneous origin3 ).
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p193.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p193.
3. ^ "Nicolas
Desmarest". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
4. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology
5. ^ "Nicolas Desmarest". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Nicolas+Desmarest
?cat=technology (1763)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicolas Desmarest".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Des
marest
France4  
[1] Desmarest, Nicolas (1725-1815).
''Mémoire Sur l'origine & la nature du
Basalte à grandes colonnes polygones,
determinées par l'Histoire Naturelle
de cette pierre, observée en
Auvergne''. Histoire de l'Académie
royale des Sciences, Année M. DCCLXXI,
Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique &
de Physique. Paris, De l'Imprimerie
Royale, 1774, pp. 705-775 PD?
source: http://members.chello.nl/~a.heks
tra2/VII%2019%20In%201771%20werd%20de%20
vulkanische%20oorsprong...htm

[2] Puy De Dome COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wired.cz/cyklo/images
/Provence/puy_de_dome.jpg
236 YBN
[05/08/1764 AD] 5 6 		6589) A globular cluster is recognized
as a group of stars.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200.
2. ^ "Charles
Messier". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
3. ^ Charles Messier, 1774. Catalogue
des N�buleuses & des amas
d'�toiles, que l'on d�couvre parmi
les �toiles fixes sur l'horizon de
Paris; observ�es � l'Observatoire
de la Marine, avec differens
instruments. M�moires de l'Acad�mie
Royale des Sciences for 1771, Paris
(dated February 16, 1771, published
1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl. VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 English: http://messi
er.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat71.html
4. ^ Charles Messier, 1774. Catalogue
des N�buleuses & des amas
d'�toiles, que l'on d�couvre parmi
les �toiles fixes sur l'horizon de
Paris; observ�es � l'Observatoire
de la Marine, avec differens
instruments. M�moires de l'Acad�mie
Royale des Sciences for 1771, Paris
(dated February 16, 1771, published
1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl. VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 English: http://messi
er.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat71.html
5. ^ Charles Messier, 1774. Catalogue
des N�buleuses & des amas
d'�toiles, que l'on d�couvre parmi
les �toiles fixes sur l'horizon de
Paris; observ�es � l'Observatoire
de la Marine, avec differens
instruments. M�moires de l'Acad�mie
Royale des Sciences for 1771, Paris
(dated February 16, 1771, published
1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl. VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 English: http://messi
er.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat71.html
6. ^
http://messier.seds.org/m/m004.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Messier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mes
sier
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp199-200. (1758)
(1758)
[3] "Charles Messier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2247/Charles-Messier (1758)
[4] Cudnik, B.
Faint Objects and How to Observe Them.
Springer New York, 2013. Astronomers�
Observing Guides,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=3F
gpvtufVW0C&pg=PA7
Paris, France4  
[1] Description Charles Messier,
French astronomer, at the age of
40 Date circa 1770 Source Stoyan R.
et al. Atlas of the Messier Objects:
Highlights of the Deep Sky. —
Cambridge: Cambridge Univercity Press,
2008. — P. 15. Author Ansiaume
(1729—1786) PD AND Charles
Messier, 1774. Catalogue des
Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles, que
l'on découvre parmi les Étoiles fixes
sur l'horizon de Paris; observées à
l'Observatoire de la Marine, avec
differens instruments. Mémoires de
l'Académie Royale des Sciences for
1771, Paris (dated February 16, 1771,
published 1774), pp. 435-461 + Pl.
VIII.
http://books.google.com/books?id=z0FRA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA435 PD AND English: htt
p://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat7
1.html UNKNOWN
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpghttp://books.googl
e.com/books?id=z0FRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA435http
://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat71
.html

[2] Listado Completo - M4 - NGC
6121 Cúmulo Globular en
Scorpius Datos del objeto Messier
Mapa Celeste centrado en el
objeto Nombre: Número Messier:
M4 Número NGC:
NGC6121 Constelación a la que
pertenece: Scorpio Ascensión recta:
16h
23,6m Declinación: -26,32° Magni
tud aparente: 5.0 Tamaño aparente:
26,3 (min/arco) Distancia en años
luz: 7200 años luz Estación del
año que es visible: (Depende de la
latitud del lugar de observación)
Invierno Invierno (Hemisferio
Sur) Verano Verano (Hemisferio
Norte) Mejor fecha para la
observación: 2008-06-07 CC
source: http://www.messier.com.ar/messie
r/fotos_messier/m4.jpg
234 YBN
[05/29/1766 AD] 8 9 		2113) Hydrogen gas is isolated by
dissolving metals in acids and
collecting the gas released in bottles
inverted over water or mercury.5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
7. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
8. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Three Papers,
Containing Experiments on Factitious
Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S.", Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) , Vol. 56, (1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491
9. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1766)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Hydrogen#History". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#Hi
story
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ygqYnSR
3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scienti
fic+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1
[4]
http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/co
ntent?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=925&content_id=CTP_004439&use
_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1
[5] Three Papers, Containing
Experiments on Factitious Air, by the
Hon. Henry Cavendish, F. R.
S. Journal Philosophical Transactions
(1683-1775) Issue Volume 56 -
1766 Pages 141-184 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
66.0019 http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac
.uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c9
05fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish
_3gases.pdf
London, England7  
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91

[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 3 		2667) The first Encyclopaedia
Britannica.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica
2. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica
3. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2600/Encyclopaedia-Britannica (1768)

MORE INFO
[1] "Encyclopaedia britannica".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaed
ia_britannica
Edinburgh, Scotland2  
[1] First edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-97337/First-edition-of-the-Encyclopaedi
a-Britannica?articleTypeId=1

[2] Scanned titlepage of my facsimile
copy of the first edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica, published in
1771. Slightly rotated and saved using
the GIMP. Scanned and modified by me on
3 April 2007 and released into the
public domain, owing to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EB1_titlepage.gif
232 YBN
[1768 AD] 4 		4482) That light particles do not
appear to interfere or collide with
each other is recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Canton, M. A. and F. R. S.,
"An Easy Method of Making a Phosphorus,
That Will Imbibe and Emit Light, like
the Bolognian Stone; With Experiments
and Observations"; Phil. Trans. January
1, 1768 58:337-344;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1768.0045 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/58/33
7.full.pdf+html?sid=001d4bce-e36d-4a76-9
692-410401128f00
2. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The History and
Present State of Discoveries Relating
to Vision, Light and Colours",
1772, kraus reprint 1978,
p385. {Priestley_History_Light.pdf}
3. ^ "John Canton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0076/John-Canton
4. ^ John Canton, M. A. and F. R. S.,
"An Easy Method of Making a Phosphorus,
That Will Imbibe and Emit Light, like
the Bolognian Stone; With Experiments
and Observations"; Phil. Trans. January
1, 1768 58:337-344;
doi:10.1098/rstl.1768.0045 http://rstl.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/58/33
7.full.pdf+html?sid=001d4bce-e36d-4a76-9
692-410401128f00

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/John+Canton?cat=t
echnology
[2] "John Canton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Canton
 (1750)
London, England3  
[1] ABOUT THIS PAINTING John
Canton by unknown artist National
Portrait Gallery, London Date
painted: 1740s Oil on canvas, 48.9
x 39.4 cm Collection: National
Portrait Gallery, London Where to
see this painting? National Portrait
Gallery, London PD
source: http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/arts/you
rpaintings/images/paintings/npg/large/np
g_npg_809_large.jpg

[2] 1762 John CANTON
(1718-1772). ORIGINAL:
PD COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://11magazine.free.fr/SWL_BC
L/2004/04/swl_bcl04_fichiers/image008.jp
g
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 16 		1206) The first self-propelled
vehicle.11 12 A steam-engine powered
automobile.13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
2. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
3. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
4. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
5. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
6. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
7. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
8. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
9. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
10. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
11. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
12. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
13. ^ Trevor I. Williams, "A history of
invention : from stone axes to silicon
chips ", (New York: Checkmark Books,
2000).
14. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
15. ^ "Cugnot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cugnot
16. ^ "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/145966/Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot>. {1769}
England15  
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg

[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
231 YBN
[1769 AD] 5 		2069) The theory that fossils that
resemble no living creature may have
been animals that went extinct.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp190-191.
3. ^ "Charles
Bonnet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bon
net
4. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet
5. ^ "Charles Bonnet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0625/Charles-Bonnet (1769)
Geneva?, Switzerland3 4
(presumably) 
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg

[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
229 YBN
[1771 AD] 3 		2118) That quantity of charge equals
electric potential times capacity is
understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, Second
Edition, 1935, p272-273.
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1771)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England2  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 5 6 7 		2138) Carbon dioxide gas is dissolved
in water which is the beginning of the
soda-water industry.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ Priestley, J.
Directions for Impregnating Water with
Fixed Air: In Order to Communicate to
It the Peculiar Spirit and Virtues of
Pyrmont Water, and Other Mineral Waters
of a Similar Nature. By Joseph
Priestley, LL.D. F.R.S. printed for J.
Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
5. ^ Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ
6. ^ Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ
7. ^ American Council of Learned
Societies. Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Scribner’s,
2000, p722-724.

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1772)
Leeds, England3 4  
[1] Priestley, J. Directions for
Impregnating Water with Fixed Air: In
Order to Communicate to It the Peculiar
Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water,
and Other Mineral Waters of a Similar
Nature. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D.
F.R.S. printed for J. Johnson,
1772. http://books.google.com/books?id=
huNbAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=huNbAAAAQAAJ

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[06/04/1772 AD] 18 19 		6495) Five new gases are identified and
isolated (including nitrous oxide and
carbon monoxide).7 8 9 10 11 12 That
some gases cannot be collected over
water because they are soluble in
water, but can be collected over
mercury is realized.13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.216. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA216
2. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
3. ^ SMITH, W. D. A. “A HISTORY OF
NITROUS OXIDE AND OXYGEN ANAESTHESIA
PART I: JOSEPH PRIESTLEY TO HUMPHRY
DAVY.” British Journal of Anaesthesia
37.10 (1965): 790–798.
Print. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/37/10/790.extract
4. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p118. http://www.archive.org/details/ex
perimentsobser01prie
5. ^ Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley.
Dent, 1906. English Men of Science,
p177. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uAwFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA177
6. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p38-39. http://www.archive.org/details/
experimentsobser01prie
7. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.216. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA216
8. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
9. ^ SMITH, W. D. A. “A HISTORY OF
NITROUS OXIDE AND OXYGEN ANAESTHESIA
PART I: JOSEPH PRIESTLEY TO HUMPHRY
DAVY.” British Journal of Anaesthesia
37.10 (1965): 790–798.
Print. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/37/10/790.extract
10. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p118. http://www.archive.org/details/ex
perimentsobser01prie
11. ^ Thorpe, T.E. Joseph Priestley.
Dent, 1906. English Men of Science,
p177. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uAwFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA177
12. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774,
p38-39. http://www.archive.org/details/
experimentsobser01prie
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
14. ^ "Observations
on different Kinds of Air."
Philosophical Transactions 62 (1772):
147-264,
p.213. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA213
15. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
16. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
17. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
18. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147
19. ^ "Observations on different Kinds
of Air." Philosophical Transactions 62
(1772): 147-264,
p.230. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ABJ8KuRujGQC&pg=PA147

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley (1772)
[2] Experiments
and Observations on Different Kinds of
Air, Vol.2. London,
1775. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gB0UAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=da
[3] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
[4] Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.1. London,
1774. http://www.archive.org/details/ex
perimentsobser01prie
Leeds, England16 |(does not move to
Calne until 1773)17  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 6 7 8 		2076) The theory that gravity must
change the speed of light particles,
that a mass may be so large that light
particles cannot escape it, and that
the force that causes light to be
emitted from luminous bodies is much
higher than the force of gravity at the
surface of the Sun.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771,
p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787
2. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
6576 michell_1783.pdf
3. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol
1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787
4. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
6576 michell_1783.pdf
5. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106
576 michell_1783.pdf
6. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol
1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787
7. ^ Michell, John (1784), "On the
Means of Discovering the Distance,
Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars, in
Consequence of the Diminution of the
Velocity of Their Light, in Case Such a
Diminution Should be Found to Take
Place in any of Them, and Such Other
Data Should be Procured from
Observations, as Would be Farther
Necessary for That Purpose. By the Rev.
John Michell, B. D. F. R. S. In a
Letter to Henry Cavendish, Esq. F. R.
S. and A. S.", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (The Royal Society) 74:
35–57 http://www.jstor.org/stable/106
576 michell_1783.pdf {05/26/1783}
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p192. (1784) (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Michell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Michel
l
[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Michell?cat=
technology
[3]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/Bios/mi
chell.html
[4] Criticisms of the projectile theory
of light G N Cantor 1981 Phys. Educ.
16 112-119
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/16/2/314 G N
Cantor Print publication: Issue 2
(March
1981) michell_corpuscular_criticism_pev
16i2p112.pdf
[5] "John Michell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2474/John-Michell
Thornhill, Yorkshire, England5  
[1] Text from p789 in: Joseph
Priestley, ''The history and present
state of discoveries relating to
vision, light, and colours.'', Leeds:
n.p., 1771, p786-791,787. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC&pg=PA787 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xg
h257sC&pg=PA789

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 4 		2140) The mass of a light particle is
measured to be around 10 nanograms.2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history
and present state of discoveries
relating to vision, light, and
colours.", Leeds: n.p., 1771,
p389-390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC
2. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p389-390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC
3. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
4. ^ Joseph Priestley, "The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.",
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=prOsrEl
RVHoC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=ac.+par.+1723&
source=web&ots=8KE7ChOjYe&sig=5bJOnyDkXk
JNqljVIEI_-nhrl_k&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&resnum=1&ct=result {interesting
account about Newton believing
inflexion}
[4] "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley (1772)
Leeds, England3  
[1] Joseph Priestley, ''The history and
present state of discoveries relating
to vision, light, and colours.'',
Leeds: n.p., 1771, p390. Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390 Vol 2:
http://books.google.com/books?id=pmF8xgh
257sC PD
source: Vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=MLxz5yy
mkNcC&pg=PA390

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 3 		2172) The inverse square law of
gravitation is applied to chemical
forces of attraction.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
2. ^ "Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8619/Louis-Bernard-Guyton-de-Morveau
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp211-212. (1772)
(1772)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Berna
rd_Guyton_de_Morveau
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Guyton+De+Morveau
+?cat=technology
Dijon, France2  
[1] Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,
also known as Louis-Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. This is a cropped and
contrast-enhanced version of an image
from the Library of Congress online
collection. It is in the public domain;
see catalog information below. TITLE:
Louis Bernard Guyton-Morveau, né Ã
Dijon le 4 janvier 1737 / Dess. et
gravé au physionotrace par Quenedey,
rue Croix des Petits Champs, no. 10,Ã
Paris. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 56
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02240 (digital file from
original print) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders profile portrait of
French scientist Louis Bernard
Guyton-Morveau. MEDIUM: 1 print :
stipple engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
[Paris : s.n., between 1790 and
1820] CREATOR: Quenedey, Edme PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau.jpg
228 YBN
[1772 AD] 5 		2285) Nitrogen gas is isolated.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p238.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
4. ^ "Daniel
Rutherford". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Daniel+Rutherford
?cat=technology
5. ^ "nitrogen". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5947/nitrogen (1772)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "Nitrogen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen
Edinburgh, Scotland4  
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
226 YBN
[08/01/1774 AD] 6 7 		2139) Oxygen gas is isolated by
collecting the gas emitted by heating
mercury oxide.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp204-206.
3. ^ Experiments and
Observations on Different Kinds of Air,
Vol.2. London, 1775,
p34. books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAA
QAAJ&pg=PA34
4. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y
5. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Prie
stley
6. ^ "Joseph Priestley". Encyclopedia
of the Early Modern World. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Priestle
y (08/01/1774)
7. ^ Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air, Vol.2. London,
1775,
p34. books.google.com/books?id=gB0UAAAA
QAAJ&pg=PA34

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Priestley".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1366/Joseph-Priestley
[2] "oxygen". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7841/oxygen
[3] "Oxygen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
[4]
http://www.answers.com/oxygen?cat=health

Calne, England5  
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
AND [5] Joseph Priestley Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpghttp://www.answers.com/K
arl+Wilhelm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 3 		2111) The first catalog of Messier
objects, celestial objects which
include nebulae and star clusters.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Messier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
2. ^ "Charles Messier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology
3. ^ "Charles Messier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Messier+?
cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Messier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
2247/Charles-Messier
[2] "Charles Messier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mes
sier
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Messier 1730 - 1817 [t
Notice how the curtain appears to be
made to look like a spiral galaxy with
the earth as part of it. I doubt this
is coincidence. Interesting that the
artist felt that this needed to be
hidden. it seems unlikely to be
coincidence, because the curtain is so
important as to cover part of the
globe.] PD
source: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise
/a101_historicalfigures.html

[2] Messier, Charles Joseph
(1730-1817) PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/M/Messier.html
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 4 5 6 7 		2200) The element chlorine is isolated,
as a gas, using hydrochloric acid on
manganese dioxide.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
5. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
6. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
7. ^ "chlorine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
2243/chlorine (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3] "Chlorine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine
Uppsala, Sweden3  
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology

[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 6 		2216) Combustion is shown to be a
reaction with a gas in the air (later
named oxygen).3 Material in the air is
shown to combine with metals when
heated, which will end the phlogiston
theory of combustion, and demonstrates
the conservation of mass.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
5. ^ "Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1774)
(1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France5 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
226 YBN
[1774 AD] 11 		2664) The earliest telegraph.7 8 9
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
2. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
3. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
4. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
5. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
6. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
7. ^
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/blu
etelephone/html/part4.html
8. ^ Bowers , Brain, "Sir Charles
Wheatstone" Science Museum- London Her
Majesty's Stationery Office 1977, Pg109
9. ^
The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48.
10. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49.
11. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p48-49. (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georges-Louis LeSage".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Lou
is_LeSage
Switzerland10 (presumably) 
[1] Le Sage: Telegraph, 1774 PD
source: http://images.fineartamerica.com
/images-medium-large/le-sage-telegraph-1
774-granger.jpg

[2] Description Georges-Louis Le
Sage Source Bibliotheque
Geneve Date 2007-08-27 Author
Created around 1780 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lesage.jpg
223 YBN
[1777 AD] 7 8 9 10 		2201) Eleven new acids are identified
(including citric and lactic),3 in
addition to the identification of
casein, aldehyde, and glycerol.4 The
effect of light on silver compounds is
also described, which 50 years later
will be used in the development of
photography.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
2. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
4. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219.
6. ^ "Carl Wilhelm
Scheele". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
7. ^ "Carl Wilhelm Scheele".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6095/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp218-219. (1774)
(1774)
9. ^ "Karl Wilhelm Scheele". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)
10. ^ "Karl Wilhelm
Scheele". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilhelm+Sche
ele+?cat=technology (1774)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Wilhelm Scheele".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhel
m_Scheele
[2] A History of Chemistry from the
Earliest Times, Ernst von Meyer, 1905,
http://books.google.com/books?id=QUENAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele#P
PA133,M1
[3]
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/scheele77
.html
(starts phramacy position in 1777 in)
Uppsala, Sweden6  
[1] PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
cheele77.html

[2] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 3 		1209) A threshing machine: a farm
machine that separates seeds from
plants.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Andrew Meikle". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/373349/Andrew-Meikle>.
2. ^ "Andrew Meikle". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/373349/Andrew-Meikle>.
3. ^ "Andrew Meikle". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 16 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/373349/Andrew-Meikle>.

MORE INFO
[1] Trevor I. Williams, "A
history of invention : from stone axes
to silicon chips ", (New York:
Checkmark Books, 2000)
[2] "Lothian".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothian
[3] "Threshing machine". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshing_m
achine (=1796)
[4] "Andrew Meikle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Meik
le (=1786)
[5]
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst243.html (=1789)
Houston Mill, near Dunbar, East
Lothian, Scotland2  
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg

[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
222 YBN
[1778 AD] 4 		2248) Methane gas is discovered and
isolated.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ "Conte
Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
3. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1778)
(1778)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2] "Methane". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
[3]
http://www.answers.com/methane?cat=healt
h
Como, Italy3  
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg

[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
219 YBN
[03/13/1781 AD] 6 7 		2840) Planet Uranus is identified.3

This is the first new planet to be
discovered since prehistoric times.4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
4. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
5. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1781)
(1781)
7. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (03/13/1781)

MORE INFO
[1] # Full text of The Story of
the Herschels (1886) from Project
Gutenberg
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12340
[2]
http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/similar
/herschel.html
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
Bath, England5  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://cunosc.ro/curiozitati/ima
gini/backup/Astronomie/William_Herschel-
high.jpg

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
219 YBN
[1781 AD] 3 		2208) That the shape of crystals
implies their chemical composition is
understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p221.
2. ^ "ren just ha y".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology
3. ^ "ren just ha y". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ren-just-ha
-y?cat=technology (1781)

MORE INFO
[1] "Rene Just Hauy".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
9573/Rene-Just-Hauy
[2] "René Just Haüy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_J
ust_Ha%C3%BCy
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] René Just Haüy (1743-1822),
French mineralogist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ren%C3%A9_Just_Ha%C3%BCy.jpg

[2] Scientist: Haüy, René Just
(1743 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Geology Print Artist: Riedel
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Felix Massard, 1773- Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 9 x 7.2 cm /
Sheet: 20.5 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=H
218 YBN
[11/??/1782 AD] 3 4 		2348) Periodic variations in the
intensity of the light from variable
stars is explained as the star being
eclipsed by a darker companion body.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke
2. ^ "John Goodricke". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Goodri
cke
3. ^ "John Goodricke". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7383/John-Goodricke (11/1782)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p253. (1782)
(1782)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.jyi.org/features/ft.php?id=93
8
York Minster, England2  
[1] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html

[2] John Goodricke (1764-1786),
Astronomer PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de
/himmel/Bios/Goodricke-e.html
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 3 		2220) The theory that respiration is a
combustion process that accounts for
animal heat.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1782)
(1782)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg

[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
218 YBN
[1782 AD] 4 		6608) The first sewer (a drain used to
carry away surface water or sewage1 )
to be installed under the streets.2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "sewer." Collins English
Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th
Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. 13
Apr. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/s
ewer>.
2. ^ Massey, H.C. Plumber’s Handbook.
Craftsman Book Company, 1998,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jd
W_X7OwP-IC&pg=PA6
3. ^ Massey, H.C. Plumber’s Handbook.
Craftsman Book Company, 1998,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jd
W_X7OwP-IC&pg=PA6
4. ^ Massey, H.C. Plumber’s Handbook.
Craftsman Book Company, 1998,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jd
W_X7OwP-IC&pg=PA6

MORE INFO
[1] Carter, "Flushed", 2006
New York City, New York, USA3  
[1] the cover of Scientific American
showing the construction of a 19th
century NYC
sewer books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA367 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA367http://1.bp.blogspot.com/
_evsx5sAIVrc/TKtVVskEdqI/AAAAAAAAAjs/VZM
qj_ncFQY/s1600/sewer1.gif

[2] the cover of Scientific American
showing the construction of a 19th
century NYC
sewer books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQA
AMAAJ&pg=PA367 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=7qA0AQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA367http://1.bp.blogspot.com/
_evsx5sAIVrc/TKtVVskEdqI/AAAAAAAAAjs/VZM
qj_ncFQY/s1600/sewer1.gif
217 YBN
[02/01/1783 AD] 7 8 		2183) The motion of the Sun relative to
the other stars is recognized;3 the
Sun is found to be moving towards the
constellation Hercules.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
2. ^ Herschel,
William. "On the Proper Motion of the
Sun and Solar System; With an Account
of Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ Herschel,
William. "On the Proper Motion of the
Sun and Solar System; With an Account
of Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
6. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology
7. ^ Herschel, William. "On the Proper
Motion of the Sun and Solar System;
With an Account of Several Changes That
Have Happened among the Fixed Stars
since the Time of Mr. Flamstead. By
William Herschel, Esq. FRS."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 73 (1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247
8. ^ "William Herschel". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/William+Herschel?
cat=technology (1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
[2] "William Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Datchet, near Winsor, England5
|(Slough, England6 ) 
[1] Figure 3 from: Herschel, William.
''On the Proper Motion of the Sun and
Solar System; With an Account of
Several Changes That Have Happened
among the Fixed Stars since the Time of
Mr. Flamstead. By William Herschel,
Esq. FRS.'' Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London 73
(1783):
247-283. http://archive.org/details/phi
ltrans06614922
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=AE
9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247 PD
source: http://archive.org/details/philt
rans06614922

[2] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
217 YBN
[06/04/1783 AD] 6 7 		2192) The hot air balloon.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
2. ^ "Joseph Michel
and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
4. ^ "Joseph Michel
and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
5. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne
Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
6. ^ "Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne
Montgolfier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier (06/04/1783)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp216-217.
(06/05/1783) (06/05/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

Annonay, France5  
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg

[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
217 YBN
[07/15/1783 AD] 5 6 7 		2206) A steam engine boat.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
2. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
3. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
4. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans
5. ^ http://www.answers.com/steamship
(1783)
6. ^ "Claude Francois Dorothee marquis
de Jouffroy dAbbans". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4021/Claude-Francois-Dorothee-marquis-de
-Jouffroy-dAbbans (1783)
7. ^
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08526b.h
tm (07/15/1783)

MORE INFO
[1] "Claude de Jouffroy".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_de_J
ouffroy
[2] "Steamboat". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat
Saône River, near Lyon, France4  
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
217 YBN
[11/21/1783 AD] 5 6 		2194) Human flight by balloon.3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
2. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
3. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>.
4. ^ "Montgolfier". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Montgolfier?cat=t
echnology
5. ^ "balloon flight." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1424455/balloon-flight>. {11/21/1783}
6. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p40.
{11/21/1783}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Joseph Michel and
Jacques Etienne Montgolfier".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
3540/Joseph-Michel-and-Jacques-Etienne-M
ontgolfier
[3] "Montgolfier". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier

[4] "Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C
3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozier
(11/21/1783)
Paris, France4  
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg

[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
217 YBN
[1783 AD] 4 		2114) The density of gases is measured
by measuring the weight of particular
volumes of gas.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
3. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
4. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1783 (presumably)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England3  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
216 YBN
[01/15/1784 AD] 11 12 		2115) Water is shown to be a compound,
not an element. The fusion of molecules
using electricity.5 6

Water is produced by burning hydrogen
gas in oxygen gas with an electric
spark.7 This shows that water is a
combination of two gases, hydrogen and
oxygen, and not an element as was
thought for centuries.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
2. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
4. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
6. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
7. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
9. ^ Henry Cavendish,
"Experiments On Air", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
10. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
11. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments On
Air", Philosophical Transactions, Vol
74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
(01/15/1784) (01/15/1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
[2] "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
London, England10  
[1] Text from: Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784, pp119-153,
text from
p129. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA119 AND
http://books.google.com/books?id=-uEKA
AAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false


[2] Scan of a drawing of Cavendish's
apparatus for making hydrogen
gas Source Philosophical
Transactions (periodical) Date
1766 Author Henry Cavendish PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_hydrogen.jpg
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 4 		2180) That some nebulae contain stars
is observed, and nebulae are thought to
be very large and distant collections
of stars.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
4. ^ "Sir William Herschel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel (1784)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Datchet, England3  
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg

[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
216 YBN
[1784 AD] 11 12 13 		2259) The first gas is liquefied,
sulfur dioxide.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
2. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
3. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
4. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
6. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
7. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
8. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231.
9. ^ Ren� Taton,
Gaspard MONGE (Count de P�luse.),
"L'�uvre Scientifique de Monge",
1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
10. ^ "Monge, Gaspard." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 469-478. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
11. ^
"Monge, Gaspard." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 9.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
469-478. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
12. ^ Ren�
Taton, Gaspard MONGE (Count de
P�luse.), "L'�uvre Scientifique de
Monge", 1951,
p332-333. {Monge_First_liquefaction_of_
gas_Taton_1951.pdf}
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp230-231. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gaspard Monge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspard_Mon
ge
[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=YrQEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=intitle:statics&as_brr=
1&hl=en An Elementary Treatise on
Statics With a Biographical Notice of
the Author (Biddle, Philadelphia, 1851)
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UjEDAAA
AQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=inauthor:Gas
pard+inauthor:Monge&as_brr=0&hl=en An
elementary treatise on descriptive
geometry, with a theory of shadows and
of perspective (Weale, London, 1851)
(École du génie) Angers, France10
 
[1] Scientist: Monge, Gaspard (1746 -
1818) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist:
François-Seraphin Delpech, 1778-1825
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: Henri-Joseph Hesse, 1781-1849
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.2 x
8.5 cm / Sheet: 21.3 x 12.4
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] GASPARD MONGE Photo : Patrice
Maurin-Berthier (C) Photo
Collections Ecole
polytechnique PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sabix.org/bulletin/b2
3/monge.html
215 YBN
[02/17/1785 AD] 6 		3463) The earliest "diffraction"
grating;2 constructed using hair.3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
2. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
3. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
4. ^ Horace C. Richard, "Some Early
American Physicists", Proceedings,
American Philosophical Society, v86,
1943,
pp22-28. http://books.google.com/books?
id=o1ULAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22&dq=david+rittenh
ouse+grating&lr=&as_brr=1&sig=ACfU3U0Z2V
gHcMQd0GbphTKuQKpcv0ybEw#PPA22,M1
5. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
}
6. ^ F. Hopkinson and David
Rittenhouse, "An Optical Problem,
Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and Solved
by Mr. Rittenhouse", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 2, (1786), pp.
201-206. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
05186 {Rittenhouse_David_1785_02_17.pdf
} {02/17/1785}
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA5  
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
215 YBN
[06/02/1785 AD] 9 10 		2116) Air is shown to be a mixture of
gases, and not a single element3 by
showing that nitric acid is produced by
sparking air.4 5 6 Air is found to be
made of around 4 parts nitrogen to 1
part oxygen.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
3. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
4. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.2307/106766 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
5. ^ "Henry Cavendish". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Henry+Cavendish?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Henry Cavendish." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 29 Feb. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-caven
dish
7. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
8. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
9. ^ Henry Cavendish, "Experiments on
Air.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 75 - 1785,
372-384 Henry Cavendish, "Experiments
On Air", Philosophical Transactions,
Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
10. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England8  
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ

[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 5 		2107) The first artificial insemination
(impregnating an organism by injecting
semen into the vagina1 ).2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "Lazzaro Spallanzani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8983/Lazzaro-Spallanzani
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198.
4. ^ "Lazzaro
Spallanzani". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazzaro_Spa
llanzani
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp197-198. (1785)
(1785)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Lazzaro+Spallanza
ni?cat=health
Pavia, Italy4 (presumably) 
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg

[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007 . PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
215 YBN
[1785 AD] 8 		2168) Electric and magnetic attraction
and repulsion are proven to be both
proportional to amount of charge and
inversely proportional to distance
squared.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
5. ^ Baigrie, B.S. Electricity and
Magnetism: a Historical Perspective.
Greenwood Press., p46.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5
xkWxi4C&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=coulomb+1785
+construction+and+usage&source=web&ots=R
Cp1tlEosB&sig=olOXH2XVdh36x0kmcoBsMtstqT
I#PPA44,M1 Electricity and Magnetism,
By Brian Baigrie, 2006
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), p211.
8. ^
"Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Augustin+
Coulomb+?cat=technology (1785)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Augustin de
Coulomb". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6555/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb
[2] "Charles Augustin Coulomb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Aug
ustin_Coulomb
Paris?, France7 (presumably) 
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg

[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
213 YBN
[07/28/1787 AD] 3 		6595) The earliest iron ship.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale�s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
2. ^ Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale�s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
3. ^ Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale�s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
Birmingham, England2  
[1] Grantham, J. Iron Ship-building:
With Practical Illustrations. Virtue &
Company, 1868. Weale’s Rudimentary
Series,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=3z
cEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=3zcEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6
213 YBN
[08/27/1787 AD] 5 		2265) That volume and temperature of a
gas are inversely related is known.2
In addition, for each degree Centigrade
rise in temperature, the volume of a
gas is found to expand by 1/273 parts
of its volume at 0˚ Celsius, which
implies that at a temperature of -273˚
Celsius the volume of a gas would reach
0, and that there can be no lower
temperature.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
2. ^ "Jacques Charles". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232.
4. ^ "Jacques
Charles". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Charles?c
at=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p232. (1787)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Alexandre Cesar
Charles". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2590/Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar-Charles
[2] "Jacques Charles". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cha
rles
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg

[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
211 YBN
[1789 AD] 5 		2222) Light is listed as the most
simple element on the first list of the
known elements.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ De Lavoisier, A.L. Trait�
�l�mentaire De Chimie, Pr�sent�
Dans Un Ordre Nouveau, Et D�apr�s
Les D�couvertes Modernes... 1793.
Trait� �l�mentaire De Chimie,
Pr�sent� Dans Un Ordre Nouveau, Et
D�apr�s Les D�couvertes
Modernes. books.google.com/books?id=Cut
AsQTSzCcC&pg=PA192
2. ^ "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Antoine+Laurent+L
avoisier+?cat=health
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226.
4. ^ "Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6472/Antoine-Laurent-Lavoisier
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp222-226. (1789)
(1789)

MORE INFO
[1] "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lau
rent_Lavoisier
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm

[2] LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743 -
1794). Traité élémentaire de chimie,
présenté dans un ordre nouveau et
d'après les découvertes modernes. 2
vols. Paris, 1789. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
exhibit/lavoisier.htm
210 YBN
[1790 AD] 3 		3271) A sewing machine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "sewing machine." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
2. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine
3. ^ "sewing machine." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 14 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sewing-mach
ine (1790)
England2  
[1] Thomas Saint Sewing
Machine Replica sewing machine created
for Brother International for their
Sewing Machine museum in Nagoya,
Japan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.gluefactory.co.uk/mod
elmaker/thomas-saint-1.jpg
209 YBN
[04/??/1791 AD] 3 4 5 		2295) That all objects emit heat and
that heat always moves from a hot body
to a cold body is known.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241.
2. ^ Prevost, Pierre.
"M�moire sur l��quilibre du feu."
Journal de physique 38 (1791):
314-322. books.google.com/books?id=IeQP
AAAAQAAJ&pg=PA314 English: "Memoire on
the Equilibrium of Fire"
3. ^ Prevost,
Pierre. "M�moire sur l��quilibre
du feu." Journal de physique 38 (1791):
314-322. books.google.com/books?id=IeQP
AAAAQAAJ&pg=PA314 English: "Memoire on
the Equilibrium of Fire"
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp240-241. (1791)
(1791)
5. ^ "Pierre Prévost". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Pierre+Pr%C3%A9vo
st+?cat=technology (1791)

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Prévost". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C
3%A9vost
[2] "Abraham Gottlob Werner". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Abraham+Gottlob+W
erner?cat=technology
 
[1] Pierre Prévost Ref. Journal
Officiel Illustré De L'Exposition
Nationale Suisse Genève 1896 - No 21 -
12 Juin 1896 -- page 241 (page de
titre) PD AND Prevost, Pierre.
''Mémoire sur l’équilibre du feu.''
Journal de physique 38 (1791):
314-322. books.google.com/books?id=IeQP
AAAAQAAJ&pg=PA314 PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.j
pghttp://bern-1914.org/pictures/geneve18
96/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.jpgbook
s.google.com/books?id=IeQPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA
314

[2] Pierre Prévost Ref. Journal
Officiel Illustré De L'Exposition
Nationale Suisse Genève 1896 - No 21 -
12 Juin 1896 -- page 241 (page de
titre) PD
source: http://bern-1914.org/pictures/ge
neve1896/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.j
pghttp://bern-1914.org/pictures/geneve18
96/pictet/21_1_pierre_prevost_72.jpg
209 YBN
[1791 AD] 7 		2175) Remote neuron activation (or
remote neuron writing) by Luigi
Galvani. A muscle is contracted
remotely by using a remote electric
spark while metal is connected to the
nerve.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Luigi Galvani, Elizabeth Licht,
Robert Green, "Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
2. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
3. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
4. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
5. ^ Luigi Galvani,
Elizabeth Licht, Robert Green,
"Commentary on the Effect of
Electricity on Muscular Motion",
Waverly Press, 1953.
6. ^ "Luigi Galvani".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani
7. ^ "Luigi Galvani". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5937/Luigi-Galvani (1791)

MORE INFO
[1]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Nat
ureandArtifice/lecture14.html
Bologna, Italy6  
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg

[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 3 		2312) Coal gas is used to light a
house.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
2. ^ "William Murdock". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245. (1792) (1792)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Murdoch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mur
doch
[2] "Coal gas". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gas
Redruth, Cornwall, England2  
[1] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
208 YBN
[1792 AD] 6 7 		2343) That acids and bases neutralize
each other in fixed proportions is
shown.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252.
3. ^ "Richter,
Jeremias Benjamin." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
434-438. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 July
2013. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830903667&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Richter, Jeremias Benjamin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 434-438. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 July
2013. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830903667&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Silesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 18 Jul. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/544097/Silesia>.
6. ^ "Richter, Jeremias Benjamin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 434-438. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 18 July
2013. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?i
d=GALE%7CCX2830903667&v=2.1&u=univca20&i
t=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/18t
hCentury/benjamin.asp
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p252. (1791) (1791)
Gross-Ober-Tschirnau, near Glogau, in
Lower Silesia, Prussia4 5
(presumably) 
[1] Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ AND Description
Deutsch: Jeremias Benjamin
Richter Date 29 June 2006 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Leyo using
CommonsHelper. http://histoirechimie.fr
ee.fr/Lien/RICHTER.htm Author
Original uploader was Dr. Manuel at
de.wikipedia PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJhttp://upload.wik
imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Jeremi
as_Benjamin_Richter.jpeg

[2] Richter, J. B. Anfangsgründe der
Stöchyometrie oder Meßkunst
chymischer Elemente. Vol. 1. Korn,
1792. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJ AND Description
Deutsch: Jeremias Benjamin
Richter Date 29 June 2006 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
de.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Leyo using
CommonsHelper. http://histoirechimie.fr
ee.fr/Lien/RICHTER.htm Author
Original uploader was Dr. Manuel at
de.wikipedia PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=NhFQAAAAcAAJhttp://upload.wik
imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Jeremi
as_Benjamin_Richter.jpeg
207 YBN
[1793 AD] 4 		2372) That the amount of water vapor
the air can hold rises with temperature
is shown.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dalton, J. Meteorological
Observations and Essays. Ostell, 1793,
p135. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IxsAAAAAQAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
3. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1793)
(1793)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England3  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
206 YBN
[1794 AD] 5 6 		2085) The theory of natural selection:
that species less adapted are more
likely to die while those better
adapted will continue and multiply.3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October
2003). In Retrospect (html). Nature V.
425 #6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
2. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}
3. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003).
In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
4. ^ "James Hutton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
1650/James-Hutton
5. ^ Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003).
In Retrospect (html). Nature V. 425
#6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's
3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and
Philosophy. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v425/n6959/index.html
6. ^ Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ {Hutton_Investigation_of_t
he_Principle_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hutton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/James%20Hutton
(1795)
Edinburgh, Scotland4
(presumably) 
[1] Hutton, J. An Investigation of the
Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ
{Hutton_Investigation_of_the_Principle
_of_Knowledge_1794.pdf} PD
source: Hutton, J. An Investigation of
the Principles of Knowledge and of the
Progress of Reason, from Sense to
Science and Philosophy... by James
Hutton,... A. Strahan, 1794, Volume 2,
p500. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b_MkAQAAIAAJ

[2] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
204 YBN
[07/01/1796 AD] 5 6 7 		2280) Immunity by vaccination is
proven: that having cow pox disease
provides immunity from the more severe
small pox disease is confirmed.3
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
4. ^ "Edward Jenner".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner
5. ^ "Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (07/01/1796
(injection of small pox)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp236-237.
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
(05/14/1796 (injection of cow pox)
7. ^
"Edward Jenner". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
3524/Edward-Jenner (05/14/1796
(injection of cow pox)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Jenner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenn
er
[2]
http://www.answers.com/edward+jenner?cat
=health
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Berkeley, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg

[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
204 YBN
[1796 AD] 4 		2330) That different parts of the brain
control different parts of the body is
understood.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p249.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p249.
3. ^ "Franz
Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Franz Joseph Gall".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Jo
seph_Gall
4. ^ "Franz Joseph Gall (1796)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911. "Franz
Joseph Gall". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Franz_Jo
seph_Gall (1796) (1796)

MORE INFO
[1] "Franz Joseph Gall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josep
h_Gall
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Franz%20Joseph%20
Gall
Vienna, Germany3  
[1] English: Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828), German physician and
anatomist Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htmh
ere. Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Franz_Joseph_Gall.jpg

[2] Franz Joseph Gall, engraving by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger after a
portrait by Karl Heinrich Rahl, c.
1812 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10919/Franz-Joseph-Gall-engraving-by-Fr
iedrich-Wilhelm-Bollinger-after-a?articl
eTypeId=1
203 YBN
[1797 AD] 6 		2338) Marble is produced by melting and
quickly cooling limestone (which is
calcium carbonate3 ).4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
2. ^ "Sir James Hall
4th Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
3. ^ "Sir James Hall 4th Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet ,
-251.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp250-251.
5. ^ "Sir James Hall
4th Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8914/Sir-James-Hall-4th-Baronet
6. ^ "Wilhelm Olbers". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
6957/Wilhelm-Olbers (1797)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Hall, 4th Baronet".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hall%
2C_4th_Baronet
[2]
http://www.electricscotland.com/history/
other/hall_james.htm
[3]
http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/f
amousfirst2053.html
 
[1] Description A limestone formation
in the Waitomo District of New
Zealand. Date 2007-12-?? Source
Self-photographed Author
Uploader. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Limestone_Forma
tion_In_Waitomo.jpg/1280px-Limestone_For
mation_In_Waitomo.jpg

[2] Description English: Weathered
marble anticline at General Carrera
Lake, Chile Date 17 November
2008 Source Glaciers Transferred
from en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Common Good using
CommonsHelper. Author Dentren at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Catedraldemarmo
l.JPG/1280px-Catedraldemarmol.JPG
202 YBN
[1798 AD] 8 		2117) The gravitational constant, the
mass, and the density of the Earth are
measured.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
2. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
4. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp200-202.
6. ^ "Henry
Cavendish". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
7. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish
8. ^ "Henry Cavendish". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
1916/Henry-Cavendish (1798)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Cavendish". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Caven
dish
London, England7  
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/

[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 4 5 		2283) The metric system.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p238.
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste
Joseph Delambre". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9788/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph-Delambre
(1792-1799)
5. ^ "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Jos
eph+Delambre?cat=technology (1791-1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Delambre". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Delambre
France3  
[1] Scientist: Delambre, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1749 - 1822) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist:
Attributed to Julien Leopold Boilly,
1796-1874 and Benjamin Holl, 1808-1884
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 25.8 x 17.5 cm Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Delambre - French mathematician
and astronomer. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-D2-17a.jpg Date 1820 Author Julien
Leopold Boilly (1796-1874) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Joseph_Delambre.jpg

[2] Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Delambre Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
DelambreBorn: 19-Sep-1749 Birthplace:
Amiens, France Died:
19-Aug-1822 Location of death: Paris,
France Cause of death:
unspecified PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/404/0
00097113/
201 YBN
[1799 AD] 5 6 7 8 		2315) Elements are shown to combine in
definite proportions.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246.
4. ^ "Joseph Louis
Proust". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust
5. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1640/Joseph-Louis-Proust (1793)
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp245-246. (1799)
(1799)
7. ^ "Joseph Louis Proust". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Louis+Prou
st?cat=technology (1799)
8. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1799)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Proust".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Proust
Segovia, Spain4  
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg

[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007 . PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
200 YBN
[03/20/1800 AD] 12 13 		2250) The electric battery (or voltaic
pile) is invented:7 8 stacks of
alternating silver and zinc plates,
each separated by a moist pad produce a
large electric force when the opposite
ends are connected with a conductor.9

This battery provides a continuous
source of electrical current.10
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
4. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
6. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229.
8. ^ Volta, "On the
Electricity excited by the mere Contact
of conducting Substances of different
Kinds.", Philosophical Magazine,
September 1800,
p288. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf
9. ^ Bern Dibner, "Alessandro Volta and
the Electric Battery", 1964, p64-66.
10. ^
"Conte Alessandro Volta". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
11. ^ "Conte Alessandro Volta".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
5699/Conte-Alessandro-Volta
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp228-229. (1800)
(1800)
13. ^ "alessandro volta". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/topic/alessandro-
volta?cat=technology (03/20/1800(sends
letter to Banks secretary of royal
society)

MORE INFO
[1] "Alessandro Volta".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_
Volta
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm
Pavia, Italy11  
[1] Volta, ''On the Electricity excited
by the mere Contact of conducting
Substances of different Kinds.'',
Philosophical Magazine, September 1800,
p415. http://archive.org/download/lepid
opterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07winc
.pdf PD
source: http://archive.org/download/lepi
dopterarepor07winc/lepidopterarepor07win
c.pdf

[2] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
200 YBN
[03/27/1800 AD] 12 13 		2179) Invisible light is recognized: an
invisible portion of the spectrum of
light beyond the color red (later named
infrared) is found to heat up a
thermometer more than any other color.9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
3. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
5. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
7. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
9. ^ William
Herschel, "Investigation of the Powers
of the Prismatic Colours to Heat and
Illuminate Objects; With Remarks, That
Prove the Different Refrangibility of
Radiant Heat. To Which is Added, an
Inquiry into the Method of Viewing the
Sun Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215.
11. ^ "Sir William
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0235/Sir-William-Herschel
12. ^ William Herschel, "Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London , Vol. 90,
(1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp212-215. (1800)
(1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Herschel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Her
schel
Slough, England11  
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255

[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
200 YBN
[06/27/1800 AD] 3 		3254) The change in temperature caused
by compressing and expanding air is
measured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Dalton, "Experiments and
Observations on the Heat and Cold
produced by the Mechanical Condensation
and Rarefaction of Air", Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, 1802, 5: 515-526.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3qdJA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA515
2. ^ Making of America Project, Eliakim
Littell, Robert S. Littell, "The Living
Age", 1845,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
2L3mqFyy8w0C&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=Exper
iments+and+Observations+on+the+Heat+and+
Cold+produced+by+the+Mechanical+Condensa
tion+and+Rarefaction+of+Air&source=web&o
ts=2XlBC3fRdE&sig=iDBlqgzlZyCmRpe0tDK2zo
Ac35c&hl=en (06/27/1800)
3. ^ John Dalton,
"Experiments and Observations on the
Heat and Cold produced by the
Mechanical Condensation and Rarefaction
of Air", Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester,
1802, 5: 515-526.
http://books.google.com/books?id=3qdJA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA515

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1801)
(1801)
[5] Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Caloric Theory
of Adiabatic Compression", Isis, Vol.
49, No. 2 (Jun., 1958), pp.
132-140. http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici
=0021-1753(195806)49%3A2%3C132%3ATCTOAC%
3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 {Cullen_William_1755_Isi
s.pdf}
Manchester, England2  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
200 YBN
[06/??/1800 AD] 5 6 		3597) That electricity in water mixed
with litmus is colored blue around the
silver electrode and red around the
zinc electrode is found.1 2 Litmus is
a material obtained from certain
lichens that turns blue in in alkaline
solution and red in acid solution.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p196. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the
+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA#PPA
196,M1
2. ^ William Cruickshank, "Some
Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.", "Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson", G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. books.google.com/books?
id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187 {06/1800}
3. ^ "litmus."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 31 Mar. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/l
itmus>.
4. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57
592?_fromAuth=1
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884,p220-227. http://books.google.com/
books?id=0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&dq=A+History+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to
+the+year+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
 {09/1800} {06/1800}
6. ^ William Cruickshank,
"Some Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.", "Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson", G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. books.google.com/books?
id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187 {06/1800}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemi
stry/cruickshank.html
[2]
http://www.buchmann.ca/Article3-page3.as
p
[3] "William Cruickshank (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cru
ickshank_(chemist)
[4] William Cruickshank, "Additional
Remarks on Galvanic Electricity.",
"Journal of Natural Philosophy,
Chemistry and the Arts By William
Nicholson", G. G. and J. Robinson,
1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800- March
1801),p254-264. http://books.google.com
/books?id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcov
er&dq=editions:0eMW4sl3XZyNHpE6-nh#PPA25
4,M1
(Royal Military Academy at Woolwich)
Woolwich, England4  
[1] William Cruickshank, ''Some
Experiments and Observations on
Galvanic Electricity.'', ''Journal of
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the
Arts By William Nicholson'', G. G. and
J. Robinson, 1801, v.4 (Apr. 1800-
March
1801),p187-191. books.google.com/books?
id=TggAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187 PD
AND Description Deutsch: de:William
Cumberland Cruikshank (* 1745 in
Edinburg; †27. Juni 1800) Date
Published in London.: J. Sewell.,
1787 Source
http://imagesvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi
/i/image/image-idx?type=detail&cc=smith&
entryid=X-smit0130&viewid=1&sstrt=1&hits
=1& http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0565
1 Author Engraved by J.
Corner Permission (Reusing this file)
This image is in the public domain
due to its age. PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=TggAAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA187https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/William_Cumbe
rland_Cruikshank.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: de:William
Cumberland Cruikshank (* 1745 in
Edinburg; †27. Juni 1800) Date
Published in London.: J. Sewell.,
1787 Source
http://imagesvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi
/i/image/image-idx?type=detail&cc=smith&
entryid=X-smit0130&viewid=1&sstrt=1&hits
=1& http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B0565
1 Author Engraved by J.
Corner Permission (Reusing this file)
This image is in the public domain
due to its age. PD
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/3/34/William_Cumberland_C
ruikshank.jpg
200 YBN
[09/17/1800 AD] 5 6 		2436) Hydrogen and oxygen gas are
collected separately from the
electrolysis of water.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ "Johann Wilhelm
Ritter". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p244. (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)
(Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800)
6. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (Nicholson: 05/02/1800)(by:
)09/17/1800) (Nicholson:
05/02/1800)(by: )09/17/1800)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
Jena, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
200 YBN
[11/??/1800 AD] 5 6 		2437) Electroplating is discovered: by
passing electric current through a
solution of copper sulfate, metallic
copper can be made to cover (or plate)
a conductive object that is used as an
electrode.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p278.
3. ^
"electroplating." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 31 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183990/electroplating>.
4. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
5. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml (c11/1800 (just a guess after
id2436)
6. ^ Ted Huntington. (c11/1800 (just a
guess after id2436)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
Jena, Germany4 (presumably) 
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
199 YBN
[01/01/1801 AD] 6 		2261) The first known asteroid (and
minor planet), Ceres {SErEZ3 }, is
recognized.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ceres." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 20 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
eres>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
3. ^ "ceres."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 20 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
eres>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp231-232.
5. ^ "Giuseppe
Piazzi". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology
6. ^ "Giuseppe Piazzi". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Giuseppe+Piazzi?c
at=technology (01/01/1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Giuseppe Piazzi".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
9895/Giuseppe-Piazzi
[2] "Giuseppe Piazzi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Pi
azzi
[3]
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsI
II/pdf/3027.pdf
[4] "Ceres (dwarf planet)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dw
arf_planet%29
[5] "olbers s paradox". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/olbers-s-pa
radox?cat=technology
Palermo, Sicily5  
[1] NASA's Hubble Space Telescope color
image of Ceres, the largest Main Belt
asteroid. Astronomers optimized spatial
resolution to about 18 km per pixel,
enhancing the contrast in these images
to bring out features on Ceres'
surface, that are both brighter and
darker than the average which absorbs
91% of sunlight falling on it.
(Original discription by NASA) Source
http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ceres
.jpg (Slightly cropped from
original) Date Taken: December 2003
- January 2004. Released 7 September
2005 Author NASA, ESA, J. Parker
(Southwest Research Institute), P.
Thomas (Cornell University), and L.
McFadden (University of Maryland,
College Park) Permission Unless
otherwise specifically stated, no claim
to copyright is being asserted by STScI
and it may be freely used as in the
public domain in accordance with NASA's
contract. [...] [1] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ceres_optimized.jpg

[2] Scientist: Piazzi, Giuseppe (1746
- 1846) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: F. Bordiga
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.4 cm /
Sheet: 20.7 x 15.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=P
199 YBN
[02/22/1801 AD] 8 9 		2167) The invisible light, ultra-violet
light is discovered: an invisible part
of the spectrum of light beyond the
violet part causes a silver chloride
chemical reaction more strongly than
any other part of the spectrum.5 6
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
2. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
3. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
4. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
5. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278.
6. ^ Ritter, J. W.
"Auffindung nicht-sichtbarer
Sonnenstrahlen an der Seite des
Violett." Annalen der Physik 7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
7. ^
"Johann Wilhelm Ritter". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
8. ^ Ritter, J. W. "Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett." Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
"Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of
violet." {todo: Determine if there is
any English translation of this work}
9. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p278. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[2]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[3]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[4] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[5]
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.ht
ml
Jena, Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Ritter, J. W. ''Auffindung
nicht-sichtbarer Sonnenstrahlen an der
Seite des Violett.'' Annalen der Physik
7 (1801):
527. http://books.google.com/books?id=q
wU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527 English:
''Discovery of non-visible solar
radiation to the side of violet.'' PD
AND [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=qwU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA527http://www2.uni-je
na.de/biologie/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/P
hysik_als_Kunst/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
199 YBN
[11/12/1801 AD] 13 		2405) The frequencies and wavelengths
(or particle intervals) of light are
determined and the theory of light
interference: that two light waves can
add to each other or cancel each other
out, similar to two sound waves. The
first glass diffraction gratings are in
use.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
2. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
3. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
4. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
5. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
6. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
7. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p147.
8. ^
"Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas
Young", Thomas Young, George Peacock,
1855 John Murray, p161.
9. ^ Thomas Young,
"The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of
Light and Colours", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
10. ^ "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
Peacock, 1855 John Murray, p161.
11. ^ Thomas
Young, "The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Theory of Light and Colours",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886),Volume
92, (1802),
pp12-48. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575ba
e414c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140 {Young_Thomas_1802_
on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.pdf}
12. ^ John Charles Drury Brand, Raymond
Bonnett, "Lines of Light: The Sources
of Dispersive Spectroscopy, 1800-1930",
CRC Press, 1995, p27.
http://books.google.com/books?id=sKx0I
BC22p4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=joseph+fraun
hofer+measured+wavelengths+lines&source=
web&ots=qKuKNGN2kv&sig=ZwvLfbjr0XPa68680
mOZkZhEnUs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=4&ct=result#PPA32,M1 {11/12/1801}
13. ^ Thomas
Young, Philip Kelland, "A Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ {11/12/1801}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] "etalon." Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/e
talon>
[3] Thomas Young, "The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886),Volume 92, (1802), pp12-48.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a9
74a16d595c628d0π=24
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=-X
AXAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA140
London, England12  
[1] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel AND Portrait of
Thomas Young in color PD
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdfhttp://ugadayki.
ru/images/sv/133163204157_full.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Table of light wavelengths
and frequencies calculated by Young
from Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801} The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
199 YBN
[12/10/1801 AD] 5 6 		2508) The first oxygen-hydrogen torch
and gas torch welding.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291.
2. ^ Hare, Robert.
Memoir on the Supply and Application of
the Blow-pipe: Containing an Account of
a New Method of Supplying the Blowpipe
Either with Common Air, Or Oxygen Gas:
and Also of the Effects of the Intense
Heat Produced by the Combustion of the
Hydrogen and Oxygen Gases: Illustrated
by Engravings. Chemical Society,
1802. also printed in (Ending on "I
have now concluded..."): Smith, E.F.
Chemistry in America: Chapters from the
History of the Science in the United
States. D. Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
3. ^ Hare, Robert. "XIV. On the
oxi-hydrogen blow-pipe." Philosophical
Magazine, 1817,
p106-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=xRZRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA106
4. ^ Hare, Robert. Memoir on the Supply
and Application of the Blow-pipe:
Containing an Account of a New Method
of Supplying the Blowpipe Either with
Common Air, Or Oxygen Gas: and Also of
the Effects of the Intense Heat
Produced by the Combustion of the
Hydrogen and Oxygen Gases: Illustrated
by Engravings. Chemical Society,
1802. also printed in (Ending on "I
have now concluded..."): Smith, E.F.
Chemistry in America: Chapters from the
History of the Science in the United
States. D. Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
5. ^ Hare, Robert. Memoir on the Supply
and Application of the Blow-pipe:
Containing an Account of a New Method
of Supplying the Blowpipe Either with
Common Air, Or Oxygen Gas: and Also of
the Effects of the Intense Heat
Produced by the Combustion of the
Hydrogen and Oxygen Gases: Illustrated
by Engravings. Chemical Society,
1802. also printed in (Ending on "I
have now concluded..."): Smith, E.F.
Chemistry in America: Chapters from the
History of the Science in the United
States. D. Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p291. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hare (chemist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hare
_%28chemist%29
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania4  
[1] {ULSF: Note that this image is
different slightly from the
original} Smith, E.F. Chemistry in
America: Chapters from the History of
the Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157

[2] Smith, E.F. Chemistry in America:
Chapters from the History of the
Science in the United States. D.
Appleton and company, 1914,
p157-179. http://books.google.com/books
?id=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=SiJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA157
199 YBN
[1801 AD] 3 		2374) The law of partial pressures:
that each component of a mixture of
gases exerts the same pressure that it
would exert if it alone occupied the
whole volume of the mixture, at the
same temperature.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261.
2. ^ "John Dalton".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1801)
(1801)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Manchester, England2  
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 11 12 		2365) Spectral lines are identified as
dark lines in the spectrum of a ray of
light from the Sun.7 8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
2. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
4. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
5. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
7. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
8. ^ William Hyde Wollaston, "A Method
of Examining Refractive and Dispersive
Powers, by Prismatic Reflection",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
92, (1802),
pp365-380. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
107124
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/k1u515395v15n93p/?p=5f779c071a024f
e5bd90a27e9245eea7π=13 {Wollaston_Will
iam_1802_PT.pdf}
9. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
10. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology
11. ^ "William Hyde Wollaston". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Hyde+Woll
aston+?cat=technology (1802)
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp257-258. (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Hyde Wollaston".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyd
e_Wollaston
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Francis Wollaston, "The secret
history of a private man",
1795. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=vCUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=The+Secret+History
+of+a+Private+Man&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=web&ots=lMwgXnBmu7&sig=JiY5flaqsad7
lmMEp0aw3Smzu-c&sa=X&oi=book_result&resn
um=1&ct=result
[4] "William Hyde Wollaston."
Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 15 May.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/646649/William-Hyde-Wollaston>.
London, England10  
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf

[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 4 5 		2439) The first dry electric battery.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
2. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm
4. ^ "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3787/Johann-Wilhelm-Ritter (1802)
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ritter.htm (1802)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Johann Wilhelm Ritter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilh
elm_Ritter
[3]
http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie/ehh/for
um/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kunst/Physik
_als_Kunst.htm
[4]
http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/di
bner-library-lectures/scientific-discove
ries/text-lecture.htm
[5] "Dowsing". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowsing
[6] Ritter, Johann Wilhelm. "Neue
Versuche über den Galvanismus."
Reichs-Anzeiger (Gotha) 66 (1802):
813-820
Gotha, Germany3  
[1] Replikation der trockenen
Ladungssäule Ritters, dem ersten
Akkumulator PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm

[2] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 3 		2464) That different gases all expand
by equal amounts with rise in
temperature is discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
2. ^ "Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1802)
(1802)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Arcueil, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
198 YBN
[1802 AD] 3 		6609) The first water distribution
system of a city; Philadelphia.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Baker, L.A. The Water Environment
of Cities. Springer Science+Business
Media, LLC, 2009,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hj
MYxB8aeR8C&pg=PA6
2. ^ Baker, L.A. The Water Environment
of Cities. Springer Science+Business
Media, LLC, 2009,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hj
MYxB8aeR8C&pg=PA6
3. ^ Baker, L.A. The Water Environment
of Cities. Springer Science+Business
Media, LLC, 2009,
p6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hj
MYxB8aeR8C&pg=PA6

MORE INFO
[1] Carter, "Flushed", 2006
[2]
http://www.phillyh2o.org/backpages/MSB_W
ater.htm
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA2  
[1] Plan and Profile of
Philadelphia's First Water Supply
System (Plan drawn 1904-1905) PD
source: http://www.phillyh2o.org/backpag
es/MSB_Water/MSBW_1801Plan.jpg

[2] ''New Plan Of The City And Its
Environs'', 1802 map by Charles P.
Varle Courtesy of The Atwater Kent
Museum of Philadelphia. In 1802, a
geographer and engineer, Charles P.
Varle, published a map of the city and
county of Philadelphia which he titled,
''New Plan of the City and its
Environs.'' It included an idealized
view of the future expansion of the
city into West Philadelphia, with West
Philadelphia streets following the
city’s grid pattern as well as its
practice of city squares dedicated to
public use. Varle’s map called for
three public spaces along High (now
Market) Street – a Market Square,
Washington Square, and an unnamed oval
– and also located the country houses
of the Penn, Bingham, Powel, and
Hamilton families. West
Philadelphia’s development eventually
followed the city’s grid pattern, but
it did not include Varle’s proposed
city squares. PD
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/hi
sty/features/wphila/img/map1802varles_al
l_full.jpg
197 YBN
[10/21/1803 AD] 7 8 		2375) That atoms of different elements
vary in size and mass is shown, and the
first table of elements by atomic mass3
 with Hydrogen assigned a value of 1.4
5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
2. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
3. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
4. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
5. ^ "John Dalton". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/John+Dalton?cat=t
echnology
6. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
8616/John-Dalton (10/21/1803 (paper to
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society)
7. ^ "John Dalton". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 27 May.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/150287/John-Dalton/217770/Atomic
-theory>.
8. ^ John Dalton, "On the Absorption of
Gases by Water and Other Liquids."
Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dalton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton

[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp259-261. (1803)
(10/21/1803 (paper to Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society)
[4]
http://www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/
Bios/Goodricke-e.html (1803)
Manchester, England6  
[1] Two figures from: John Dalton,
''On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
AND Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259http://en.wikipedi
a.org/wiki/Image:Dalton_John_desk.jpg

[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
197 YBN
[1803 AD] 4 5 		2400) The steam engine railway train.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Richard Trevithick".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
2. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
3. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick
4. ^ "Richard Trevithick". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3323/Richard-Trevithick (1803)
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p268. (1801) (1801)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Richard%20Trevith
ick%20
South Wales, England3  
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg

[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
196 YBN
[12/20/1804 AD] 4 		6506) The size of an atom is estimated
to be around a nanometer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Young, Thomas. "An essay on the
cohesion of fluids." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 95 (1805):
65-87. http://books.google.com/books?id
=YghGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65
2. ^ "Molecule" in Chisholm, H.
Encyclopaedia Britannica: a Dictionary
of Arts, Sciences, Literature and
General Information. Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1911. Encyclopaedia
Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, Literature and General
Information,
p656. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IycqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA656
3. ^ "thomas young". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
4. ^ Young, Thomas. "An essay on the
cohesion of fluids." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 95 (1805):
65-87. http://books.google.com/books?id
=YghGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA65

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Color". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[4] Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[5] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[6]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0&pi=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf
[7] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[8] The Last Man Who Knew
Everything, Robinson, 2005
[9] Thomas Young,
Philip Kelland, "A Course of Lectures
on Natural Philosophy and the
Mechanical Arts", Taylor and Walton,
1845. {Contains the lectures which form
vol. I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
[10] "astigmatism". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online, p161.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[11] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978, p181
[12] "Miscellaneous
Works of the Late Thomas Young", Thomas
Young, George Peacock, 1855 John
Murray, p179
London, England (presumably)3  
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Thoma
s_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg

[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
196 YBN
[1804 AD] 7 8 		6519) There are 1 billion humans on
Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
6. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
7. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
8. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 3 		3223) The first percussion ignition
gun.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>.
2. ^ "Forsyth, Alexander John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4927>.
3. ^ "small arm." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-572
57>. (1805)
Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland2
(presumably) 
[1] Forsyth gun with special
lock UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikitree.com/photo.ph
p/2/23/Forsyth_guns.jpg
195 YBN
[1805 AD] 4 		6249) The first refrigeration machine:
ether is expanded into a vacuum to
lower the temperature inside a
refrigerator, then compressed to raise
the temperature outside the
refrigerator, and this process is then
repeated.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blrefrigerator.htm
2. ^ Oliver Evans, John Stevens, "The
abortion of the young steam engineer's
guide",
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 {Evans_Oliver_1805.pdf}
3. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
4. ^
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_16.shtml
{1805}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Evans". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Evan
s
[2]
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g
00000/3g02000/3g02700/3g02758v.jpg
Philadelphia, PA, USA3  
[1] [t Note, I don't know if this is
the water cooler and ice making
machine.] Plate 1 from: Oliver
Evans, John Stevens, ''The abortion of
the young steam engineer's guide'',
1805 http://books.google.com/books?id=z
lpGAAAAYAA
AND http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-sear
ch/we/Evans
AND http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinThom
asProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URocheste
rCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.htm#A
RTICLE9 PD
source: http://www.himedo.net/TheHopkinT
homasProject/TimeLine/Wales/Steam/URoche
sterCollection/Evans/Evans%20Combined.ht
m#ARTICLE9

[2] Colin Hempstead, William E.
Worthington, ''Encyclopedia of
20th-century technology, Volume 2'',
2005. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+an
d+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0wkIlnNjDWcC&pg=PA672&dq=Oliver+Evans+a
nd+refrigeration#v=onepage&q&f=false
194 YBN
[11/20/1806 AD] 4 5 6 		2474) The theory that chemical
combination occurs between substances
of opposite charge.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Davy, Humphry. "The Bakerian
Lecture: On Some Chemical Agencies of
Electricity." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 97 (1807):
1-56. books.google.com/books?id=wE9FAAA
AcAAJ&pg=PA1
2. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ Davy, Humphry. "The Bakerian
Lecture: On Some Chemical Agencies of
Electricity." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 97 (1807):
1-56. books.google.com/books?id=wE9FAAA
AcAAJ&pg=PA1
5. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1806)
6. ^ "Sir Humphry Davy
Baronet". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet (1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England3  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
194 YBN
[1806 AD] 6 		2346) Asparagine {e-SPAR-e-JEN3 }, the
first amino acid, is isolated.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "asparagine." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 18
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asparagine
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
3. ^ "asparagine."
The American Heritage� Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/asparagine
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253.
5. ^ "Nicolas Louis
Vauquelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
4920/Nicolas-Louis-Vauquelin
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp252-253. (1806)
(1806)

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Nicol
as_Vauquelin
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Louis+Nicolas+Vau
quelin+?cat=technology
Paris, France5  
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg

[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
193 YBN
[1807 AD] 3 		2313) Streets are lit with gas
lighting; in London.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p245.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p245. (1807) (1807)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Murdock".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
4338/William-Murdock
[2] "William Murdock". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mur
dock
London, England2  
[1] Scientist: Murdock, William (1754
- 1834) Discipline(s):
Engineering Original Artist: Grahma
Gilbert Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 14 x
8.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M

[2] William Murdock, bust by an
unknown artist; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33699/William-Murdock-bust-by-an-unknow
n-artist-in-the-Science?articleTypeId=1
192 YBN
[1808 AD] 5 		2428) The phenomenon of light
"polarization" is observed:2 an image
of sun light reflected from a window
that passes through calcite is found to
produce only one image instead of the
usual two images from double
refraction.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Étienne Louis Malus". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276.
4. ^ "Étienne Louis
Malus". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/%C3%89tienne+Loui
s+Malus+?cat=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp275-276. (1808)
(1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne Louis Malus".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Louis_Malus
Paris, France4  
[1] Etienne-Louis Malus (1775-1812),
French officer, engineer, physicist,
and mathematician. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Etienne-Louis_Malus.jpg

[2] Scientist: Malus, Etienne Louis
(1775 - 1812) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Arago Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10.3 x 7.7 cm /
Sheet: 23.8 x 15 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=M
191 YBN
[11/15/1809 AD] 4 		6606) Electric arc welding and an
electric arc furnace: a metal
(aluminum) is melted using
electricity.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Borchers, W., and H.G. Solomon.
Electric Furnaces: The Production of
Heat from Electrical Energy and the
Construction of Electric Furnaces.
Longmans, Green, and Co., 1908,
p5. books.google.com/books?id=hLpPAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA5
2. ^ Humphry Davy, "The Bakerian
Lecture for 1809 On some new
Electrochemical Researches on various
Objects particularly the metallic
Bodies the Alkalies and Earths and on
some Combinations of Hydrogene",
Philosophical Transactions of London,
Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16
3. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ Humphry Davy, "The Bakerian
Lecture for 1809 On some new
Electrochemical Researches on various
Objects particularly the metallic
Bodies the Alkalies and Earths and on
some Combinations of Hydrogene",
Philosophical Transactions of London,
Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet (1813)
[4] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286. (1813)
(1813)
London, England3  
[1] Fig l The apparatus for electrizing
potassium in gasses A the glass tube B
the wire negatively electrified C and D
the cup and wire positively electrified
Fig 2 The apparatus for decomposing
water out of the contact of air page 4
1 AA the cones containing the water BBB
the tubes for conveying the gas C and D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 3 The
apparatus for decomposing and
recomposing water under oil CC the
wires for communicating the Voltaic
electricity DD the wires for producing
the explosion B the tube A the vessel
containing it a.d.c. the level of the
different fluids Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75

[2] Plate 2 Fig 4 The apparatus for
exposing water to the action of ignited
potash and charcoal out of the contact
of air A the tube for water B the iron
tube C the receiver for the ammonia D
the pneumatic apparatus Fig 5 The
apparatus for the decomposition of
ammonia Fig 6 A Voltaic apparatus
being one of the 200 which compose the
new Voltaic battery of the Royal
Institution For the construction of
this battery and of other instruments
applicable to new researches a fund of
upwards 1000 has been raised by
subscription from members of the Royal
Institution As yet the whole
combination has not been put into
action but reasoning from the effects
of that part of it which have been used
some important phaenomena may be
expected from so great an accumulation
of electrical power Humphry Davy,
''The Bakerian Lecture for 1809 On some
new Electrochemical Researches on
various Objects particularly the
metallic Bodies the Alkalies and Earths
and on some Combinations of
Hydrogene'', Philosophical Transactions
of London, Volume 100, 1810,
p16-74. books.google.com/books?id=nVBFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA16 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=nVBFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA75
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 9 10 		2466) Gases are shown to combine in
small whole number ratios by volume and
not by mass (as long as temperature and
pressure are constant).5 6 For
example, two parts of hydrogen unite
with one part nitrogen to form
ammonia.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
5. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284.
8. ^ "Joseph
Louis Gay Lussac". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp282-284. (1809)
(1809)
10. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph%20Louis%20
Gay-Lussac (1808)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
Paris, France8 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
191 YBN
[1809 AD] 12 		2481) The first electric light; the arc
lamp.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
4. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
6. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
8. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
10. ^ "Humphry Davy".
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
11. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
12. ^ "Humphry Davy". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
London, England11  
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
190 YBN
[1810 AD] 4 		2480) Chlorine is shown to support
combustion like oxygen does, and
Hydrogen is shown to be characteristic
of acids.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286.
3. ^ "Humphry
Davy". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
4. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology (1810)

MORE INFO
[1] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
[4] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. "Sir
Humphry Davy Baronet". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
London, England3  
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg

[2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry
Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn
and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about
1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas
Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 6 7 8 9 10 		2380) "Fourier's theorem": that any
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple sinusoidal waves.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Théorie du mouvement de la
chaleur dans les corps solides (suite)
p.1-94 Mémoires de l'Académie royale
des sciences de l'Institut de France,
années 1821 et 1822, t. V, p. 153 à
246; 1826. Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
3. ^ Théorie du
mouvement de la chaleur dans les corps
solides (suite) p.1-94 Mémoires de
l'Académie royale des sciences de
l'Institut de France, années 1821 et
1822, t. V, p. 153 à 246; 1826.
Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263.
5. ^ "Joseph Baron
Fourier". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5044/Joseph-Baron-Fourier
6. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1811)
7. ^ George A. Gibson, "On the History
of the Fourier Series", Edinburgh
Mathematical Society. Proceedings of
the Edinburgh Mathematical Society.
Scottish Academic Press, (5/12/1893)
1893,
p146. http://books.google.com/books?id=
2uoKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146
8. ^ Carslaw, H.S. Introduction to the
Theory of Fourier’s Series and
Integrals and the Mathematical Theory
of the Conduction of Heat. Macmillan
and Company, Limited, 1906.
Introduction to the Theory of
Fourier’s Series and Integrals and
the Mathematical Theory of the
Conduction of
Heat. http://books.google.com/books?id=
RIs9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp262-263. (1807)
(1807)
10. ^ Merriman, M. et al. Higher
Mathematics: A Text-book for Classical
and Engineering Colleges. J. Wiley &
Sons, 1902.
http://books.google.com/books?id=TS4PT
_tpjBYC&pg=PA542

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Joseph_Fourier
[2] "Fourier transform". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5045/Fourier-transform
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+transform
?cat=technology
[4]
http://www.answers.com/Fourier+integrals
?cat=technology
[5] Fourier, J. "Sine and Cosine Series
for an Arbitrary Function in Joseph
Fourier 1768-1830 Ed. and annotated by
I." Grattan-Guinness The MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA (1807)
Grenoble, France5  
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC AND Fourier
Series general form and example from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_ser
ies GNU AND Théorie du mouvement
de la chaleur dans les corps solides
(suite) p.1-94 Mémoires de
l'Académie royale des sciences de
l'Institut de France, années 1821 et
1822, t. V, p. 153 à 246; 1826.
Imprimerie
royale http://books.google.com/books?id
=EpfgAAAAMAAJ
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k33707/f6
AND http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/cgi
-bin/oetoc?id=OE_FOURIER__2 {Fourier_18
21.pdf} English translation: Fourier,
J.B.J., and A. Freeman. The Analytical
Theory of Heat. At the University
Press,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-N8EAAAAYAAJ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/Fourier_serieshttp://books.google.co
m/books?id=-N8EAAAAYAAJhttp://books.goog
le.com/books?id=EpfgAAAAMAAJ

[2]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 7 		2432) The concept of molecules, and the
method to determine correct atomic mass
and molecular formula.3 By presuming
that the distance between molecules
does not vary4 , equal volumes of all
gases at the same temperature and
pressure must contain the same number
of molecules.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp277-278.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
4. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekl
y/aa111602a.htm
5. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
6. ^ "Amedeo Avogadro". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
4090/Amedeo-Avogadro
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp277-278.
(1811)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Vercelli, Italy6  
[1] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1

[2] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
189 YBN
[1811 AD] 3 4 5 		2564) That fats are combinations of
glycerol and fatty acids is recognized1
.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology
2. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul
3. ^ "Michel Eugene Chevreul".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
3910/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul (starts in
1811)
4. ^ "Michel Eugéne Chevreul". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Michel+Eug%C3%A9n
e+Chevreul+?cat=technology (starts in
1810)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp301-302. (1809)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michel Eugène Chevreul".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Chevreul
[2]
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/work0
003.htm
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-1889), French chemist. Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL
14-C3-10a.jpg Scientist: Chevreul,
Michel Eugène (1786 -
1889) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Medicine Print Artist: C. Cook
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Maurir Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.4 x 12 cm / Sheet: 23.5 x
16.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul.jpg

[2] Michel Eugène Chevreul
(1786-08-31-1889-04-09). Tagged as
retouched by source. Cropped by
uploader. Source Ministère de la
culture - La Médiathèque de
l'Architecture et du Patrimoine - Base
Mémoire >
http://www.mediatheque-patrimoine.cultur
e.gouv.fr/fr/archives_photo/fonds_photo/
nadar.html > [1] >
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/me
moire/0071/sap01_v1-17878_t.jpg Date
1886 Author Félix Nadar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chevreul_by_Nadar_1886.jpg
186 YBN
[1814 AD] 15 		2571) The spectroscope. That substances
emit specific spectral lines is known.9
10 11 The spectrum of planet Venus is
found to have the same absorption lines
as the Sun, and the spectrum of other
stars are found to have absorption
lines that are different from those of
the Sun.12 13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
4. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
5. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
6. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
7. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
8. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. http://rstl.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/154/413.full.pdf+html
 {Huggins_William_1864.pdf}
9. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
10. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
11. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
12. ^ Joseph, Fraunhofer, "Bestimmung
des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.", Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 This work is
translated from German into English in
the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal",
(1823) vol IX,
pp288-299 http://books.google.com/books
?id=Py87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA288 and
"Edinburgh Philosophical Journal"
(1824), vol X,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
S87AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 In addition this
is printed in: Vol. 56, pp. 264-313.
Gilberts Annalen der Physik.
(1817) (Apparently the figures are not
included) {Fraunhofer_1817_1814.pdf} O
riginal in German:
{Fraunhofer_Joseph_1814.pdf} Another
English translation: Excerpts in
English translation "DETERMINATION OF
THE REFRACTIVE AND THE DISPERSIVE POWER
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS WITH
REFERENCE TO THE PERFECTING OF
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.": J. S. Ames
(ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 1-10.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id
=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Diffracti
on+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von+Fraun
hofer&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots
=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErIWZX5pL
tn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=resu
lt#PPA1,M1
13. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. http://rstl.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/154/413.full.pdf+html
 {Huggins_William_1864.pdf}
14. ^ "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp303-304. (1814)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany14
 
[1] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND Figure 1
from: Joseph, Fraunhofer,
''Bestimmung des Brechungs- und
Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD AND circa 1820
- 01 Jan 1820 Email this image Rate
this image Joseph von
Fraunhofer (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203http://www.viewima
ges.com/Search.aspx?mid=3270856&epmid=1&
partner=Google

[2] Figure 3 from: Joseph,
Fraunhofer, ''Bestimmung des Brechungs-
und Farbenzerstreuungs-Vermögens
verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf
die Vervollkommnung achromatischer
Fernrohre.'', Akademie Der
Wissenschaften zu München, (1814), 15
Band v, pp 193-226.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2-AAA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA203 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=2-AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203
185 YBN
[11/??/1815 AD] 6 7 8 		2544) The theory that all atomic masses
are multiples of the atomic mass of
hydrogen.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298.
5. ^ "William
Prout". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Prout?cat
=technology
6. ^ William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp297-298. (1815)
(1815)
8. ^ "William Prout". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
1643/William-Prout (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Prout". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pro
ut
[2]
http://www.chem.yale.edu/~chem125/125/hi
story99/4RadicalsTypes/Analysis/Liebigan
al.html
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] William Prout (published
anonymously), On the Relation between
the Specific Gravities of Bodies in
their Gaseous State and the Weights of
their Atoms. Annals of Philosophy 6,
p321-330
(1815). books.google.com/books?id=tDowA
AAAYAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=tDowAAAAYAA

[2] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 5 6 		2419) Optical isomers are discovered:1
2 chemically identical molecules that
rotate polarized light in different
directions because of differences in
their shape.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "enantiomorph." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 05
Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/enantiomorp
h
2. ^ "optical isomerism."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 05 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/430441/optical-isomerism>.
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
9276/Jean-Baptiste-Biot
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp272-273. (1815)
(1815)
6. ^ "Jean Baptiste Biot". History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Biot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Biot
[2] "Jean Baptiste Biot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Biot
[3] J. B. Biot, 'Me'moire sur les
rotations que certaines substances
impriment aux axes de polarisation des
rayons lumineux', ~ k m o i r e s de
I'Acadeinie des Sciences, Vol. I1
(1818), 41-136
[4] "Jean Baptiste Biot". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+Bio
t?cat=technology
[5] , p152.
http://www.jstor.org/view/03063127/ap010
006/01a00020/11?frame=noframe&userID=80c
3da37@uci.edu/01c0a8346b00501cfaa39&dpi=
3&config=jstor Corpuscular Optics and
the Wave Theory of Light: The Science
and Politics of a Revolution in
Physics, by Eugene Frankel Social
Studies of Science © 1976 Sage
Publications,
Ltd. Corpuscular_Wave_Frankel_1976.pdf
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Jean-Baptiste Biot PD/COPYRIGHTED

source: http://mek.oszk.hu/03500/03574/h
tml/cz5.htm

[2] Jean Baptiste Biot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jbiot.jpg
185 YBN
[1815 AD] 4 		2469) Chemical radicals are recognized:
a group of atoms that take part in most
chemical reactions as a single unit1 ,
usually passing from one compound to
another but incapable of existing
freely for a long time2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radical." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2013.
Answers.com 01 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-che
mistry
2. ^ "radical." The American Heritage
Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2002. Answers.com 01
Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radical-che
mistry
3. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
4. ^ "Joseph Louis Gay Lussac".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6247/Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac (1815)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Loui
s_Gay-Lussac
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg

[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
184 YBN
[1816 AD] 2 3 		2384) That strata layers can be
recognized by the kinds of fossils in
them is understood.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264.
2. ^ "William Smith".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
8306/William-Smith (1815)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp263-264. (1816)
(1816)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Smith (geologist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smi
th_%28geologist%29
 
[1] William Smith, from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W Sci
entist: Smith, William (1769 -
1839) Discipline(s):
Geology Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.2 x 10.3 cm / [t looks
like early photo in history of
photography - first photo in 1816 and
not permanent until 1822 and 1826
(oldest existing photo. Smith dies in
1839, it shows that photography spread
fast within 13 years.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Smith.g.jpg
183 YBN
[01/12/1817 AD] 10 11 12 		2408) The theory that light is a
transverse wave (oscillates at a right
angle to the direction of travel)4 in
an aether medium5 .6 This theory is
used to explain light polarization as
the alignment of light waves
oscillating in the same plane.7
But
polarization can also be explained as
"planarization", in which light is
filtered into parallel planes when
reflected.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
2. ^ Young, Thomas. "The Bakerian
lecture: On the theory of light and
colours." Philosophical transactions of
the Royal Society of London, v92, 1802,
p12-48,
p14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.230
7/107113
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c
9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Thomas_
1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.
pdf}
3. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young,
T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
4. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
5. ^ Young, Thomas. "The Bakerian
lecture: On the theory of light and
colours." Philosophical transactions of
the Royal Society of London, v92, 1802,
p12-48,
p14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.230
7/107113
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c
9a974a16d595c628d0&pi=24 {Young_Thomas_
1802_on_the_theory_of_light_and_colours.
pdf}
6. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young,
T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
7. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ "thomas young". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-youn
g?cat=health
10. ^ "Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago", Jan. 12, 1817, found in: Young,
T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
11. ^ "Thomas Young". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8063/Thomas-Young {1817}
12. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
{1809}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Young (scientist)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Youn
g_%28scientist%29
[2] The History and Present State of
Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light
and Colours, Joseph Priestley, 1772,
kraus reprint 1978
[3] "astigmatism".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
9975/astigmatism
[4] "Miscellaneous Works of the Late
Thomas Young", Thomas Young, George
peacocl, 1855 John Murray
[5] "Color".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color
[6] # ^ Craig F. Bohren (2006).
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation:
An Introduction with 400 Problems.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3527405038
[7] Opticks, Isaac
Newton, Cohen, Dover, 1979
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/r83rgl3147706v03/?p=2c2209e43a82481a8fe
7ab25edbdf256&pi=1 The Bakerian
Lecture: Experiments and Calculations
Relative to Physical
Optics Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 94 -
1804 Pages 1-16 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1804.
0001 Young_Thomas_1804_Experiments_and_
Calculations.pdf
[9] Great Experiments in Physics,
Shamos, 1959,1987
[10] Thomas Young, Philip
Kelland, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts", Taylor and Walton, 1845.
{Contains the lectures which form vol.
I of the 1807
edition.} http://books.google.com/books
?id=fGMSAAAAIAAJ
London, England9  
[1] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD AND Portrait
of Thomas Young in color PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380http://ugadayki.ru/i
mages/sv/133163204157_full.jpg

[2] ''Letter from Dr. Young to M.
Arago'', Jan. 12, 1817, found in:
Young, T., G. Peacock, and J. Leitch.
Miscellaneous Works: Scientific
Memoirs. Murray,
1855. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-XAXAQAAMAAJ&pg=380
183 YBN
[1817 AD] 6 7 8 		2600) The theory that chemicals contain
light.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p213-214.
2. ^ Gmelin, L. Handbuch
Der Theoretischen Chemie.
Springer-Verlag, 1817. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ
3. ^ E. Newton Harvey, "History of
Luminescence From the Earliest Times
Until 1900", American Philosophical
Society, 1957, p213-214.
4. ^ Gmelin, L. Handbuch
Der Theoretischen Chemie.
Springer-Verlag, 1817. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ
5. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp307-308. (1817)
(1817)
7. ^ "Leopold Gmelin". The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Leopold+Gmelin?ca
t=technology (1817)
8. ^ "Gmelin (1817)".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
"Gmelin". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gmelin
(1817) (1817)

MORE INFO
[1] "Leopold Gmelin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Gme
lin
Heidelberg, Germany5  
[1] Gmelin, L. Handbuch Der
Theoretischen Chemie. Springer-Verlag,
1817. Handbuch Der Theoretischen
Chemie. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ohUoAQAAIAAJ PD AND Scientist:
Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ohUoAQAAIAAJhttp://www.sil.si.edu/digit
alcollections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/
CF/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G

[2] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788
- 1853) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: George Cook,
1793-1849 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: J. Woelfyle
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x
12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x 18.4 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
182 YBN
[1818 AD] 4 		2790) That fungi originate from spores
is proven.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p329.
3. ^ "Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2099/Christian-Gottfried-Ehrenberg
4. ^, p2.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/y0w6
w64010355260/ Gone with the wind
â€" a second blow against spontaneous
generation In memoriam, Christian
Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf (1818) (1818)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_G
ottfried_Ehrenberg
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/christian-g
ottfried-ehrenberg?cat=technology
[3] "Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christia
n_Gottfried_Ehrenberg
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Portrait of Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876) PD/Corel
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/y0w6w64010355260/ Gone with the
wind â€" a second blow against
spontaneous generation In memoriam,
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795â€"1876) Journal Aerobiologia P
ublisher Springer
Netherlands ISSN 0393-5965 (Print)
1573-3025 (Online) Issue Volume 11,
Number 3 / September,
1995 Category Historial
Biography DOI 10.1007/BF02450041 Pages
205-211 Subject Collection Earth and
Environmental Science SpringerLink
Date Tuesday, August 01,
2006 Ehrenberg.pdf

[2] Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
(1795-1876) German naturalist,
zoologist, comparative anatomist,
geologist, and microscopist PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Ehren
berg_Christian_Gottfried_1795-1876.png
180 YBN
[04/21/1820 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 13 		2454) Electricity is understood to
cause magnetism, and the first
electromagnet; electric current running
through a wire causes a magnetic
compass needle to move.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
2. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
3. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
4. ^ Hans Christian Oersted, (title in
Latin?), "Experiments on the Effect of
a Current of Electricity on the
Magnetic Needle.", Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. 16, pp. 274-75,
October 1820. Translated from a printed
account drawn up in Latin by the author
and transmitted by hum to the Editor of
the Annals of Philosophy. reprint is
in: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
5. ^ "Hans Christian Orsted".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282.
7. ^ Hans Christian
Oersted, (title in Latin?),
"Experiments on the Effect of a Current
of Electricity on the Magnetic
Needle.", Annals of Philosophy, Vol.
16, pp. 274-75, October 1820.
Translated from a printed account drawn
up in Latin by the author and
transmitted by hum to the Editor of the
Annals of Philosophy. reprint is in:
Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p113-117.
8. ^ "Hans Christian Ørsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christ
ian_%C3%98rsted (04/21/1820)
9. ^ "Hans Christian
Orsted". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7470/Hans-Christian-Orsted (04/1820)
10. ^ "hans
christian rsted". History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
11. ^ "hans
christian rsted". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1820)
12. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp281-282. (1819)
(1819)
13. ^ "hans christian rsted". The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (1819)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[2] "electromagnetic radiation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-113
56/electromagnetic-radiation
Copenhagen, Denmark7  
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg

[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
180 YBN
[09/18/1820 AD] 11 12 13 14 15 		2423) The direction of electric current
in a wire is related to magnetic
force.5 6 7 8

If the right hand holds a wire with the
thumb pointing from positive to
negative, the fingers indicate the
direction the north pole of a magnet
will be deflected.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
2. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
3. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
5. ^ "Analyse des
Memoires lus par M. Ampere a l'Academie
des sciences, dans les seances des
18 et 25 septembre, des 9 et 30
octobre 1820," Annales générales des
sciences physiques (published only
1819-1821), 1820, 6:238-257
("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
6. ^ "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
7. ^ L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
11. ^ "Hans Christian Oersted."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology (within one
week of Oersted's report: 07/21)
12. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm (but this source has
09/04 in Paris)
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982). (so by: 09/11/1820
according to this source)
14. ^ "1820)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)
15. ^ "1820)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "1820)". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Andre_Ma
rie_Ampere (hears 9/11
reports:)09/18/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "André Marie Ampère".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Andr%C3%A9+Marie+
Amp%C3%A8re?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] http://gallica.bnf.fr/
Paris, France10  
[1] Ampere and Arago, French
physicists UNKNOWN
source: http://static.greatbigcanvas.com
/images/print_rolled_photoluster/science
-photo-library/1153189.jpg?max=540

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[09/25/1820 AD] 8 9 10 		2424) Magnetism is identified as
electricity;3 that electric current
runs through a permanent magnet.4 5 In
addition two parallel wires are found
to attract each other when carrying
current in the same direction, and
repel each other when carrying current
in opposite directions.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
2. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
3. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
4. ^ R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154.
5. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. Mémoire
présenté é l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, oé se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu é la méme Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp274-275.
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm
8. ^ AMPERE, André-Marie. "Mémoire
présenté à l'Académie royale des
Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820, où se
trouve compris le résumé de ce qui
avait été lu à la même Académie
les 18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans électriques.",
Annales de chimie et de physique, 1820,
vol. 15, p. 59-74,
p.170-218. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ic
e/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&
bdd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&ty
peofbookId=1 partial translation to
English in: R. A. R. Tricker, "Early
Electrodynamics", Pergamum Press, 1965,
p140-154. http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/ice
/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&b
dd=ampere&table=ampere_text&bookId=2&typ
eofbookId=1 {1820) 10/02/1820}
9. ^ R. A. R.
Tricker, "Early Electrodynamics",
Pergamum Press, 1965, p140-154.
{10/20/1820 (mistake}
10. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/ampere.htm c09/30/1820) (before
the end of September) c09/30/1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Andre Marie Ampere".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7234/Andre-Marie-Ampere
[2] "André Marie Ampère". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_
Marie_Amp%C3%A8re
[3]
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-christ
ian-rsted?cat=technology
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=3XEc5xk
Wxi4C&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22The+mutual+
action+of+two+electric+currents%22&sourc
e=web&ots=RDi1vlMrpC&sig=gi8URXRfofk0H64
F6rtiHIYWarw&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=4&ct=result#PPA70,M1
[5] L. Pearce Williams, "What Were
Ampere's Earliest Discoveries in
Electrodynamics?", Isis , Vol. 74, No.
4 (Dec., 1983), pp.
492-508 http://www.jstor.org/stable/232
209
[6] "Analyse des Memoires lus par M.
Ampere a l'Academie des sciences, dans
les seances des 18 et 25 septembre,
des 9 et 30 octobre 1820," Annales
générales des sciences physiques
(published only 1819-1821), 1820,
6:238-257 ("Analyse");
p241-257. http://books.google.com/books
?id=3ugrAQAAMAAJ
[7] "Memoire presente a l'Academie
royale des Sciences, le 2 octobre 1820,
oiu se trouve compris le resume de ce
qui avait ete lu a la meme Academie les
18 et 25 septembre 1820, sur les
effets des courans electriques.","
Ann. chim. phys., 1820, 15:59-76;
"Suite du Mémoire," ibid.,
pp. 170-218. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=YezNlOSC2pcC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q
&f=false
Paris, France7  
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg

[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 5 		2486) The electric current meter: a
needle is deflected to measure a
current;2 wrapping a wire several
turns around the needle is found to
increase the effect3 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p286.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p286.
3. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
4. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger
5. ^ "Johann Salomo Christoph
Schweigger". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Salo
mo_Christoph_Schweigger (1820)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/schwei
gger.html
[2]
http://www.answers.com/galvanometer?cat=
technology
Halle, Germany4  
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm

[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 3 		2505) The continent of Antarctica is
discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp289-290. (1820)
(1820)

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Gott
lieb_von_Bellingshausen
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Fabian%20Gottlieb
%20von%20Bellingshausen
Antarctica2  
[1] Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
. Source Can be downloaded from
e.g.
http://www.70south.com/resources/antarct
ic-history/explorers/bellingshausen The
portrait was also on a British postal
stamp (see
http://www.ivki.ru/kapustin/expedition/a
ntarctida/antarctida.htm) Date 19th
century portrait PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen.jp
g
180 YBN
[1820 AD] 8 		3374) The first gas combustion engine.
This engine uses hydrogen gas
combustion to create a vacuum.5
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
4. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
5. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
6. ^ Cambridge Philosophical Society,
"Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society", University
Press, 1822, p217-239.
http://books.google.com/books?id=hgYFA
AAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA217,M1
7. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
8. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1820}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
(Magdalen College6 ) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg

[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
179 YBN
[07/05/1821 AD] 3 		2883) Electrical current in air and in
a vacuum is moved by a magnet.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Humphry Davy, "Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 111, 1821, p427.
books.google.com/books?id=nYpJAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA425 AND http://journals.royalsoc
iety.org/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a82
2388f3bd34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 {Dav
y_magnetic_full.pdf}
2. ^ "Humphry Davy". Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.

http://www.answers.com/Humphry+Davy+?cat
=technology
3. ^ Humphry Davy, "Farther Researches
on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by
Electricity; With Some New Experiments
on the Properties of Electrified Bodies
in Their Relations to Conducting Powers
and Temperature", Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 111, 1821, p427.
books.google.com/books?id=nYpJAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA425 AND http://journals.royalsoc
iety.org/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a82
2388f3bd34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 {Dav
y_magnetic_full.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Humphry Davy Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
9535/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet
[2] "Humphry Davy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Dav
y
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp284-286
London, England2  
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74

[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
179 YBN
[09/11/1821 AD] 9 10 		2701) The dynamic electric motor.5
This electric motor creates sustained
mechanical motion from electricity,6
and is based on the principle that like
poles of a magnet repel one another.7
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
2. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
3. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
4. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
5. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p50.
8. ^ "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
9. ^ Michael Faraday, "On some new
Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on the
Theory of Magnetism", Royal Institution
Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts.
Volume XII, (1822), pp74-96.
http://books.google.com/books?id=lCUCA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22on+some
+new+electro-magnetical+motions%22&sourc
e=web&ots=VKIy3FqaNj&sig=YybSGqm9Q6m-Wqj
9LSQTTX8JGDk&hl=en {Faraday_1821_motor.
pdf} (09/11/1821)
10. ^
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10] Institution of Engineering and
Technology, London Archives, Michael
Faraday
(Royal Institution in) London, England8
 
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
179 YBN
[1821 AD] 20 		2397) Thermoelectricity (or the Seebeck
(ZABeK10 ) effect) is discovered: that
an electric current flows between
different conductive materials that are
kept at different temperatures.11 12 13
14 15
This is the basis of the
thermocouple {tr-mO-KuPL16 } and
thermopile {tR-mu-PIL17 }.18
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
2. ^ "Thomas Johann
Seebeck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
3. ^ T. SEEBECK, "Ueber den Magnetismus
der Galvanischen Kette", Abhandlungen
der Koenigliche Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1821, pp.
289-346. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G-JYAAAAYAAJ
4. ^ Seebeck, T.J., Magnetische
polarisation der metalle und erze durck
temperatur-differenz, Abhandlungen der
Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, Berlin, 265, 1823. also
printed in: Seebeck, T. J. "Ueber die
magnetische Polarisation der Metalle
und Erze durch Temperaturdifferenz."
Annalen der Physik 82.3 (1826):
253-286. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RWQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253
5. ^
http://thermoelectrics.caltech.edu/therm
oelectrics/history.html
6. ^ Rev. J. Cummings, "On the
Development of Electro-Magnetism by
Heat," Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society (1823), vol. 2,
pp.
47-76. books.google.com/books?id=uv8IAA
AAIAAJ&pg=PA47
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
couple&submit=Submit
8. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
pile&submit=Submit
9. ^ Meijer, G. Smart Sensor Systems.
Wiley, 2008,
p165. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Y1ZdqQc4UiUC&pg=PA165
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268.
11. ^ "Thomas Johann
Seebeck". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6564/Thomas-Johann-Seebeck
12. ^ T. SEEBECK, "Ueber den
Magnetismus der Galvanischen Kette",
Abhandlungen der Koenigliche Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1821, pp.
289-346. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G-JYAAAAYAAJ
13. ^ Seebeck, T.J., Magnetische
polarisation der metalle und erze durck
temperatur-differenz, Abhandlungen der
Koenigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, Berlin, 265, 1823. also
printed in: Seebeck, T. J. "Ueber die
magnetische Polarisation der Metalle
und Erze durch Temperaturdifferenz."
Annalen der Physik 82.3 (1826):
253-286. http://books.google.com/books?
id=RWQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253
14. ^
http://thermoelectrics.caltech.edu/therm
oelectrics/history.html
15. ^ Rev. J. Cummings, "On the
Development of Electro-Magnetism by
Heat," Transactions of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society (1823), vol. 2,
pp.
47-76. books.google.com/books?id=uv8IAA
AAIAAJ&pg=PA47
16. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
couple&submit=Submit
17. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=thermo
pile&submit=Submit
18. ^ Meijer, G. Smart Sensor Systems.
Wiley, 2008,
p165. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Y1ZdqQc4UiUC&pg=PA165
19. ^ "Thomas Johann Seebeck". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Thomas+Johann+See
beck?cat=technology
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp267-268. (1821)
(1821)

MORE INFO
[1] Magnetic polatization of
metals and minerals
[2]
http://www.dea.icai.upco.es/romano/sp4/t
pares_all.pdf
Berlin, Germany19  
[1] the experimental use of Seebeck's
instrument COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/seebeck.html

[2] Thomas Seebeck Source
Originally from de.wikipedia; Hans
Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und
seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932
S.204 Date early 19th century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ThomasSeebeck.jpg
177 YBN
[06/14/1823 AD] 8 		3297) The grating equation, nλ=Dsinθ
is established. This equation equates
wavelength (or particle interval) of
light to the grating groove spacing and
the angle between the spectral line and
the perpendicular to the grating. This
equation is then used to calculate
wavelengths of light from a diffraction
grating for the first time.4 5 6
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Fraunhofer, Jos., "Kurzer Bericht
von den Resultaten neurer Versuche
über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", Annalen der Physik,
v74, i8, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA337
AND http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/andp.1823
0740802 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
2. ^ Howard-Duff, I., "Joseph
Fraunhofer (1787-1826)", Journal of the
British Astronomical Association,
vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
3. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ast
rophysics.html
4. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
5. ^ Howard-Duff, I., "Joseph
Fraunhofer (1787-1826)", Journal of the
British Astronomical Association,
vol.97, no.6, p.339-347.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//fu
ll/1987JBAA...97..339H/0000343.000.html
6. ^
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/ast
rophysics.html
7. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben", "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf}
8. ^ Fraunhofer, "Kurzer Bericht von
den Resultaten neurer Versuche über
die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die
Theorie derselben, "Annalen der
Physik", LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378.
http://books.google.com/books?id=OAMAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=337 Excerpts in English
translation "SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS
OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY" : J. S.
Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction
Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von
Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} {06/14/1823}

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_
Fraunhofer
[2] "Joseph von Fraunhofer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[3] "josef von fraunhofer". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/josef-von-f
raunhofer?cat=technology (1821)
[4] "Joseph
von Fraunhofer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
5214/Joseph-von-Fraunhofer
[5] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1
Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany7
(presumably) 
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD AND English:
Joseph von Fraunhofer was a German
physicist. Quelle: Engraving in the
Small Portraits collection, History of
Science Collections, University of
Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1http://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Image:Fraunhofer_2.jpg

[2] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
175 YBN
[1825 AD] 6 7 8 		2526) The first practical electromagnet
(also known as an inductor2 ).3 This
electromagnet can support more than
it's own weight.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295.
4. ^ "William
Sturgeon". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
5. ^ "William Sturgeon". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/sturge
on.html (1825)
7. ^ "William Sturgeon".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
0045/William-Sturgeon (1825)
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p295. (1823) (1823)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Sturgeon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stu
rgeon
Surrey, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Sturgeon's electromagnet.
From Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of the Arts 43
(1824), Plate 3, Fig. 13. Smithsonian
neg. no. 46,761-D. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/sturgeon.jpg

[2] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
174 YBN
[03/??/1826 AD] 3 4 		3454) That the spectrum of a flame can
be used to detect the presence of
chemical compounds is understood.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some
Experiments on Coloured Flames,"
Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
2. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
3. ^ W. H. F. Talbot, "Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames," Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1
{03/1826}
4. ^ William Allen Miller, "Elements of
chemistry", s.n., 1863,
p167. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OWUDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1835+
wheatstone+on+the+prismatic+electric+lig
ht&source=web&ots=uNEuKxvNh4&sig=8ctnmGV
BA1QA07Gk8nX14MpIid4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_
result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA167,M1
{1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Fox_Talbot
[2] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot
[3] Philosophical Magazine, series 3,
volume 14, number 88, March 1839,
pp196-209. {talbot001.pdf}
[4]
http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewOb
jectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c5f82409b3e
d94e5f0845e8bb80da92736af390?fileid=0000
070503:000006275588&reqid=978
[5]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/talbot.htm
[6] "William Henry Fox Talbot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
1034/William-Henry-Fox-Talbot (1835)
[7]
"William Henry Fox Talbot". The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/William+Henry+Fox
+Talbot?cat=entertainment
London, England2  
[1] W. H. F. Talbot, ''Some Experiments
on Coloured Flames,'' Edinburgh Journal
of Science, 1826,
5:77-81. http://books.google.com/books?
id=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e
ditions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1 PD
AND Description William Henry Fox
Talbot, by John Moffat, 1864. Date
1864 Source Fox Talbot, Lifelines
38, Shire publications Ltd, Princes
Risborough, 3rd Edition 1997. Author
MichaelMaggs PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=FCEAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:09ag5pOefph1Cw5vrXy#PPA77,M1http:/
/upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/3/39/William_Henry_Fox_Talbot%2C_b
y_John_Moffat%2C_1864.jpg/810px-William_
Henry_Fox_Talbot%2C_by_John_Moffat%2C_18
64.jpg

[2] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
174 YBN
[07/31/1826 AD] 9 10 		3440) The phenomenon of electrical
oscillation is discovered (the basis of
alternating current and radio
communication4 ).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Thomas K. Simpson,
"Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966),
pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
3. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Thomas K. Simpson,
"Maxwell and the Direct Experimental
Test of His Electromagnetic Theory",
Isis, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 1966),
pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?seq=7
{Electrical_Oscillation_1966.pdf}
6. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
7. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Savary.html
8. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}
9. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf} {07/05/1826}
10. ^ Félix Savary, "Mémoire
sur l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie
et de Physique, 1827, V34,
p5-57;p54-56. http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 {Savary_182
7.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Biographies/Savart.html
[2] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1928,
p271
[3] The Rise of Modern Physics, Henry
Crew, Williams & Wilkens Company, 1935,
p270
[4] Tapan K. Sarkar, "History of
Wireless",
p12. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
BLEAA6QKYkC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=felix+sa
vary+france+academy&source=web&ots=1G-Qe
rT8pr&sig=svebXMDBkxIt9XuFntMm0NDttMU&hl
=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=resu
lt
(Bureau des Longitudes7 ) Paris,
France8 (presumably) 

source: Félix Savary, "Mémoire sur
l'alimentation", Annales de Chimie et
de Physique, 1827, 34.
:54-56. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=QaQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 9 10 11 		2355) The first permanent photograph6
and photograph reproduction process. A
pewter plate is coated with asphalt
which hardens on exposure to light, the
unhardened areas are removed with oil
of lavender mixed with petroleum jelly.
Prints of the image can then be made on
a press.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
2. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
3. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
4. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
5. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
6. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html
7. ^ "photoengraving." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 02 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457873/photoengraving>.
8. ^ "Nicephore Niepce". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce
9. ^ "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Nic%C3%A9p
hore+Niepce?cat=technology (1826)
10. ^
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/pe
rmanent/wfp/7.html (1826/7)
11. ^ "Nicephore
Niepce". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
5791/Nicephore-Niepce (1826/7)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Nicéphore Niepce".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nic%
C3%A9phore_Niepce
[2] "lithography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8518/lithography
Chalon-sur-Saône, France8  
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg

[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
174 YBN
[1826 AD] 5 		3384) A gas combustion vacuum engine
car and boat.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
2. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
3. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
4. ^
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.
aspx?compid=50019
5. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1826}

MORE INFO
[1] "Samuel Brown (engineer)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Brow
n_(engineer)
[2]
http://inventors.about.com/library/weekl
y/aacarsgasa.htm
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911
London, England3 4  
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
173 YBN
[05/01/1827 AD] 4 5 		2606) The concept of electrical
resistance, and "Ohm's law": that
current is equal to voltage divided by
resistance.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and technology;
the lives and achievements of 1195
great scientists from ancient times to
the present, chronologically arranged",
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1982),
pp309-310.
3. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
4. ^ Georg Simon Ohm, "Die Galvanische
Kette mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr.
G. S. Ohm", Berlin,
1827. http://www.google.com/books?id=yR
0AAAAAQAAJ&dq=Die+Galvanische+Kette+math
ematisch+bearbeitet+von+Dr.+G.+S.+Ohm&pg
=PP1&ots=RNXZ5VQkE0&source=bn&sig=tUP0wc
3OFtbSTUIaXPvLz1pZbS0 Translated from
German by William Frances, Student in
Philosophy in the University of Berlin
as: "The Galvanic Circuit investigated
Mathematically.", Scientific Memoirs,
v. 2, 1841,
p401-506. {Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf}
{05/01/1827}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp309-310.
(1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Simon Ohm". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simon
_Ohm
Berlin, Germany3 (written in
Cologne?) 
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf

[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 5 		2724) The mammal egg, the ovum, is
discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
2. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer
3. ^ "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Karl+Ernst+von+Ba
er?cat=technology
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp321-322. (1827)
(1827)
5. ^ "Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1720/Karl-Ernst-Ritter-von-Baer (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ernst von Baer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ernst_
von_Baer
[2] "Karl Ernst Von Baer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Karl_Ern
st_Von_Baer
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Königsberg now) Kaliningrad, Russia2
3  
[1] Subject : Karl von Baer
(1792-1876) German biologist, father
of embryology. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Baer_Karl_von_1792-1876.jpg

[2] Karl Ernst von
Baer http://www.zbi.ee/baer/vonbaer.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vonbaer.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 4 5 		2774) That the wavelength (or particle
interval) of light of a given spectral
line can be used as a standard of
length is realized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jacques Babinet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology
2. ^ "02178b.htm". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02178b.h
tm
3. ^ "Collège Louis le Grand".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8g
e_Louis_le_Grand
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p327. (1827) (1827)
5. ^
"Jacques Babinet". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jacques+Babinet?c
at=technology (1827)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jacques Babinet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Bab
inet
Paris, France2 3  
[1] Description French physicist
Jacques Babinet (1794-1872) Source
[1]http://www.molecularexpressions.com/
optics/timeline/people/babinet.html Dat
e 19th century Author Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Babinet.jpg
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 5 		3591) The earliest electric printer. A
spark is passed through a rotating
strip of litmus paper which, by the
formation of nitric acid, leaves a red
dot.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
2. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
3. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA
5. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837",
E. & F. N. Spon,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0Mo3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Hi
story+of+Electric+Telegraphy+to+the+year
+1837&ei=esfUSJWpC6K-tgOhnYWOBA {1827}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy: Including Some
Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous
Telegraphs", Dodd, Mead,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
alIXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=john
+j+fahie&ei=8xfYSLjYNKGutgP_lpXeDg
[2] "Old Time Telegraphic History",
Electrical World and Engineer,
01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
New York City NY4 (presumably) 
[1] Text from: ''Old Time Telegraphic
History'', Electrical World and
Engineer, 01/17/1903,
p113. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hbZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115
173 YBN
[1827 AD] 5 6 7 8 		6599) Roads are paved with asphalt.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ The Roads and Railroads,
Vehicles, and Modes of Travelling, of
Ancient and Modern Countries: With
Accounts of Bridges, Tunnels, and
Canals, in Various Parts of the World
... Parker, 1839,
p91. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
PUHAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA91
2. ^ Gwilt, J. An Encyclop�dia of
Architecture: Historical, Theoretical,
and Practical. Longman, Brown, Green,
and Longmans, 1842,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511
3. ^ Baynes, T.S. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica: a Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and General Literature. A.
and C. Black, 1898. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and General Literature,
p716. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LdxTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA716
4. ^ The Roads and Railroads, Vehicles,
and Modes of Travelling, of Ancient and
Modern Countries: With Accounts of
Bridges, Tunnels, and Canals, in
Various Parts of the World ... Parker,
1839,
p91. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
PUHAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA91
5. ^ Gwilt, J. An Encyclop�dia of
Architecture: Historical, Theoretical,
and Practical. Longman, Brown, Green,
and Longmans, 1842,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511
6. ^ Haydn, J., and B. Vincent.
Haydn�s Dictionary of Dates Relating
to All Ages and Nations: For Universal
Reference. E. Moxon and Company, 1883,
p50. http://books.google.com/books?id=K
il72tKqDo0C&pg=PA50
7. ^ Baynes, T.S. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica: a Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and General Literature. A.
and C. Black, 1898. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and General Literature,
p716. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LdxTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA716
8. ^ The Roads and Railroads, Vehicles,
and Modes of Travelling, of Ancient and
Modern Countries: With Accounts of
Bridges, Tunnels, and Canals, in
Various Parts of the World ... Parker,
1839,
p91. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
PUHAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA91
(Pont Moraud Bridge) Lyons, France2
|France3 |(A bridge in) Paris, France4
 
[1] Gwilt, J. An Encyclop�dia of
Architecture: Historical, Theoretical,
and Practical. Longman, Brown, Green,
and Longmans, 1842,
p511. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511 PD AND LYON -
LE PONT MORAUD - LE QUAI DE RETZ ET LE
COTEAU DE FOURVIERE (Circulada en
1919) Postal de los primeros años
del siglo XX Inscrita con el número:
41 LYON - LE PONT MORAUD - LE QUAI DE
RETZ ET LE COTEAU DE FOURVIERE
Circulada sin sello (ha sido despegado)
con fecha del 22-9-1919 y en perfecto
estado. Ahorre gastos de envio
adquiriendo varios lotes. Adquiere
lotes hasta un valor de 30 euros y los
gastos de envio correrán de mi cuenta
por correo certificado. No acumulable a
varias subastas. Acepto pago por
transferencia bancaria o giro postal.
Envio por correo ordinario a España
1,00 euros, para Europa 1,50 euros,
sean las postales que sean. Si el envio
se prefiere certificado el coste es de
3,00 euros a España, y para envios a
Europa 3,50 euros UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6-1LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511http://pictures2.t
odocoleccion.net/tc/2009/12/30/16664597.
jpg
172 YBN
[02/??/1828 AD] 8 9 		2857) The first "organic" molecule
(urea) is produced from inorganic
sources.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wöhler, Friedrich. "Ueber
künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs"
Annalen der physik und chemie V12 p253
(1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
3. ^ Wöhler,
Friedrich. "Ueber künstliche Bildung
des Harnstoffs" Annalen der physik und
chemie V12 p253 (1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
5. ^ Wöhler,
Friedrich. "Ueber künstliche Bildung
des Harnstoffs" Annalen der physik und
chemie V12 p253 (1828):
1828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
n5OZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA253 English
translation: "On the artificial
formation of
urea." http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Wohler-article.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343.
7. ^ "Friedrich
Wohler". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler
8. ^ "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
7322/Friedrich-Wohler (02/1828)
9. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp342-343. (1828)
(1828)

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich Wöhler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W
%C3%B6hler
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Friedrich+W%C3%B6
hler?cat=technology
[3] "Friedrich Wohler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Friedric
h_Wohler
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school))
Berlin, Germany7  
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg

[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
172 YBN
[06/??/1828 AD] 4 5 6 		2805) Insulated electric wire.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
4. ^
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph20.htm (06/1828)
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1829)
(1829)
6. ^
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
(published: 01/1931) (published:
01/1931)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[4]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[5]
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles
/magazine/ah/1963/1/1963_1_24.shtml
[6]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/5/31245/
01454584.pdf The Electric Motor, the
Telegraph, and Joseph Henry‘s Theory
of Technological Progress ARTHUR P.
MOLELLA Henry_Motor_Telegraph_01454584.
pdf
Albany, NY, USA2 3  
[1] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD AND In 1846, the
Smithsonian Board of Regents chose
Joseph Henry as the Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gifhttp://www.150.si.edu/chap
2/2man.htm

[2] Henry's Albany magnet. Image
copied from old photograph, N.M.A.H.
Cat. No. 181,451c. Smithsonian neg.
no. 39,040. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/39040.gif
171 YBN
[03/27/1829 AD] 15 		2844) Electric current is produced by
moving a wire near a magnet;10 11 12
the phenomenon of dynamic electrical
induction.13
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
2. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
3. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
4. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
5. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
6. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
7. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
8. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
9. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
10. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402
{Zantedeschi_1829.pdf}
11. ^ Stewart, I. In Pursuit of the
Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the
World. Basic Books, 2012,
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ezzWkITecN8C&pg=PT169
12. ^ Herbermann, C.G. et al. The
Catholic Encyclopedia: An International
Work of Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton
Company, 1912. The Catholic
Encyclopedia: An International Work of
Reference on the Constitution,
Doctrine, Discipline, and History of
the Catholic Church,
p750. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9sZAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA750
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o
sia Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf
15. ^ Biblioteca Italiana, o sia
Giornale di letteratura, scienze ed
arti,1829,vol 53,pp398-402, p402.
Zantedeschi_1829.pdf (03/27/1829)

MORE INFO
[1] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantedeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[2] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantedeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[3]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
[5] http://www.wordreference.com/
Pavia, Italy14  
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html

[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 5 		2735) The terms "kinetic energy" (as
E=½mv²1 ) and "work" (as W=Fd2 ) are
introduced.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Gustave
Gaspard Coriolis". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
4. ^ "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp322-323. (1829)
(1829)

MORE INFO
[1] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Gustave+Gaspard+d
e+Coriolis+?cat=technology
[3] "Coriolis force". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6305/Coriolis-force
[4] "Coriolis Effect". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_Ef
fect "Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
"Gustave Gaspard Coriolis".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
6304/Gustave-Gaspard-Coriolis
Paris, France4  
[1] Gustave Coriolis [Coriolis, detail
of a portrait by Zéphirin Belliard,
19th century, after a painting by Jean
Roller; in the Académie des Sciences,
Paris Courtesy of the Archives de
l'Academie des Sciences de Paris;
photograph, J. Colomb-Gerard, Paris
[2]] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gustave_coriolis.jpg
171 YBN
[1829 AD] 11 12 		2767) The theory that space in the
universe might be curved while only
appearing to be straight. The start of
"Non-Euclidean" geometry; a geometry
where one or more of Euclid's
postulates is supposed to be false.4 5
6 That angles in a triangle made of
curved lines may not add to pi as one
of Euclid's postulates requires7 is
demonstrated.8 9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
2. ^ NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) "On the
foundations of geometry", Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, "Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
3. ^ Lobachevski, tr:
Halsted "The Theory of the Parallels",
1914, p3.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326.
5. ^ NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) "On the
foundations of geometry", Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, "Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.
6. ^ Lobachevski, tr:
Halsted "The Theory of the Parallels",
1914, p3.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ A History
of Non-Euclidean Geometry, Evolution of
the Concept of a Geometric Space, B. A.
Rosenfeld, 1988, p208.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp325-326. (1829)
11. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1826 announces) (1829)
12. ^ "Lobachevsky".
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
Oxford University Press, 1994, 1996,
2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Lobachevsky+?cat=
technology (1826 announces)

MORE INFO
[1] "Lobachevsky". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobachevsky

[2] "Kazan State University".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_State
_University
[3]
http://www.answers.com/parallel+postulat
e?cat=technology
[4] "Euclid's Elements". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_
Elements
[5] "Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 06 Oct.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/345382/Nikolay-Ivanovich-Lobache
vsky>
[6] Alexander Vucinich, "Nikolai
Ivanovich Lobachevskii: The Man behind
the First Non-Euclidean Geometry", Isis
, Vol. 53, No. 4 (Dec., 1962), pp.
465-481 Published by: The University
of Chicago Press on behalf of The
History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/227
721
Kazan, Russia10  
[1] Figure 8, p19. From German
translation of: NI Lobachevsky,
(translated from Russian) ''On the
foundations of geometry'', Kazan
Messenger, 1829. reprinted in: Kagan
V.F.(ed.): N.I.Lobachevsky - Complete
Collected Works, Vols I-IV (Russian),
Moscow-Leningrad (GITTL)
1946-51 German translation: N I
Lobachevskii; Friedrich Engel, ''Zwei
geometrische Abhandlungen''
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972. PD
source: N I Lobachevskii; Friedrich
Engel, "Zwei geometrische Abhandlungen"
,Leipzig,1898-99, 1972.

[2] Description Pic of a 19th
century painting. Public domain, from
en wiki image Source
en:Image:Nikolay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsk
y.jpeg Date 19th century PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Nikol
ay_Ivanovich_Lobachevsky.jpeg
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 3 		2624) The practice of blood-letting is
denounced.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
2. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall
3. ^ "Marshall Hall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8918/Marshall-Hall (1830)

MORE INFO
[1] "Marshall Hall
(physiologist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Ha
ll_%28physiologist%29
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Marshall Hall ([2]:Marshall Hall,
detail of an engraving by J. Holl,
1839, after a portrait by J.Z.
Bell Reproduced by courtesy of the
trustees of the British Museum;
photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co.
Ltd.) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/940/0
00101637/
170 YBN
[1830 AD] 32 33 34 35 		4003) The first sound recordings. Sound
vibrations are recorded by a tuning
fork moving an attached whisker onto a
sooted glass plate.25 26 27 28 29 30
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
3. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
4. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
5. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
6. ^ Schilling musikalisches
Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830, I. Band,
Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm Weber. (in
English:) Schilling musical lexicon,
Stuttgart, 1830, Volume I, Article
Acoustics by William Weber.
7. ^ Franz Josef
Pisko, "Die neueren apparate der
akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
8. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
9. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
10. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
11. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
12. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
13. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
14. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
15. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
16. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
17. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
18. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
19. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
20. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
21. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
22. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
23. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
24. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
25. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false
26. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
27. ^ edited by Clarence John Blake,
"The American journal of otology,
Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
28. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
29. ^ Dr. Franz Melde, Lehre von den
Schwingungscurven. Leipzig, Barth 1864,
pag. 83, §. 17.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ymj_c
6z3kfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lehre+von
+den+Schwingungscurven+date:1864-1864#v=
onepage&q=weber&f=false (in
English:) Dr. Franz Melde, "theory of
Vibration-Curves". Leipzig, Barth 1864,
p. 83, §. 17.
30. ^ Schilling
musikalisches Lexicon, Stuttgart 1830,
I. Band, Artikel Akustik von Wilhelm
Weber. (in English:) Schilling
musical lexicon, Stuttgart, 1830,
Volume I, Article Acoustics by William
Weber.
31. ^ Friedrich A. Kittler,
"Gramophone, film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false
32. ^ Franz Josef Pisko, "Die neueren
apparate der akustik: Für freunde der
naturwissenschaft und der ...",
1865. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fvs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238&dq=wilhelm+weber+v
ibrograph#v=onepage&q=&f=false {1830}
33. ^
Friedrich A. Kittler, "Gramophone,
film, typewriter", 1999,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
Srte54_9ZwC&pg=PA26&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+gla
ss+cylinder#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20glass%20cylinder&f=false {1830}
34. ^ edited
by Clarence John Blake, "The American
journal of otology, Volume 1", 1879,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=aI
pXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Wilhelm+Weber+tunin
g+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%20Weber%
20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false
35. ^ edited by Juan C. Abel, Thomas
Harrison Cummings, Wilfred A. French,
A. H. Beardsley, "Photo-era magazine,
Volume 29",
p229-230. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DR3OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA229&dq=Wilhelm+Web
er+tuning+fork+1830#v=onepage&q=Wilhelm%
20Weber%20tuning%20fork%201830&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber (1837)
(University of) Göttingen, Germany31
 
[1] Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1804-1891) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber_II.jpg
169 YBN
[02/17/1831 AD] 9 		2702) The electrical transformer5 : a
device used to transfer electricity
from one circuit to another, in
particular a pair of wire coils that
can be used to transfer electricity
with a change in voltage, current, or
phase6 .

A primary coil is found to cause
current in an unconnected secondary
coil, but only when the primary current
is switched on or off, and not during a
constant current.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
4. ^ "transformer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transformer

5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9
109756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^ "transformer." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/transformer

7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
8. ^
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism (02/17/1831
{more full account published:}
08/29/1831)
9. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (02/17/1831 {more
full account published:} 08/29/1831)
{02/17/1831 (more full account
published:) 08/29/1831}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[6]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[7]
http://www.rigb.org/heritage/faradaypage
.jsp
[8]
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15750b.h
tm
[9] The Contribution of Fracesco
Zantedeschi at the Development of the
Experimental Laboratory of Physics
Faculty of the Padua University,
Massimo Tinazzi,
http://www.brera.unimi.it/SISFA/atti/199
9/Tinazzi.pdf Zantadeschi_Tinazzi.pdf
[10] La Electricidad,
http://www2.ubu.es/ingelec/ingelect/Hist
II.pdf Zantadeschi_HistII.pdf
(apparently text identical to
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fngtAAA
AMAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PRA2-PA398,M1
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAA
AQAAJ&pg=RA6-PA44&lpg=RA6-PA44&dq=lebail
lif+scope&source=web&ots=36wpS-5ksg&sig=
A7KVLfh8fg1hdDtoB5Kr81UzNAw&hl=en#PRA6-P
A43,M1 (for a description of a
sideroscope of M Lebaillid)
[13] "Faradays law of
induction". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
3718/Faradays-law-of-induction
[14] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf, p243.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[15] "calico". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v
1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[16] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. "Charles Darwin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[17]
http://books.google.com/books?id=yUYEAAA
AYAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA76,M1
(Royal Institution in) London, England8
 
[1] Michael Faraday, ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, 1832. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf} PD
source: Faraday_1832_Experimental_Resear
ches_in_Electricity_1.pdf

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
169 YBN
[09/??/1831 AD] 13 		2705) The (dynamic) electric generator
(or "dynamo"). By mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet, a constant
electric current is produced.9 10

Now a steam engine or water power can
be used to produce electricity. The
generator creates a large and low cost
supply of electric current.11
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
2. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
3. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
5. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
6. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
7. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
8. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
9. ^ Michael Faraday, "Experimental
Researches in Electricity",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
122, (1832),
p146. DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006.
{Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_
in_Electricity_1.pdf}
10. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
12. ^ "Michael
Faraday". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
13. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm (09/??/1831)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
(Royal Institution in) London,
England12  
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
169 YBN
[10/??/1831 AD] 6 		6601) A heat sensor that can detect
heat from a person 7 meters (or 25
feet) away.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "New instruments for measuring
heat", American Journal of Science and
Arts, Volume 22, 1832,
p370- books.google.com/books?id=i-zRAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA370
2. ^ The American Journal of Science
and Arts. S. Converse, Volume 23, 1833,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nDYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA185
3. ^ Forbes, J.D. A Review of the
Progress of Mathematical and Physical
Science in More Recent Times: And
Particulary Between the Years 1775 and
1850 ; Being One of the Dissertations
to the Eighth Edition of the
Encyclopeadia Britannica. Adam and
Black, 1858,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iiJRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157
4. ^ Nobili, Leopoldo. "Description
d'un thermo-multiplicateur ou
thermoscope electrique." Biblioth�que
Universelle. Science et Arts 30 (1830):
225-230. books.google.com/books?id=yIZC
AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA225
5. ^
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Thermodynamics/Differential_Thermopile/
Differential_Thermopile.html
6. ^ The American Journal of Science
and Arts. S. Converse, Volume 23, 1833,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nDYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA185

MORE INFO
[1] "Macedonio Melloni".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonio_M
elloni
[2]
http://www.answers.com/topic/macedonio-m
elloni?cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V70-4HF5KMF-4&_user=4
422&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&v
iew=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=1658db485facb9e
3bce968dbdb29340e
[4] Cornell, 1938 E.S. Cornell, The
radiant heat spectrum from herschel to
Melloni-I. The Work of Herschel and his
contemporaries, Annals of Science 3
(1938), pp. 119-137. Full Text via
CrossRef http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/content?content=10.1080/0003379380020
0801 Infrared_Herschel_Melloni.pdf
[5] Melloni, 1848 Melloni, M. (1848).
Researches on the radiations of
incandescent bodies, and on the
elementary colours of the solar
spectrum. Philosophical Magazine, 3rd
series, 32, 262-276. (First published
as Ricerche sulle irradiazioni de"
corpi roventi, e sui colori elementari
dello spettro solare, Museo di Napoli,
12 1847, 17-38; also reprinted in
Rendiconto R. Accademia di Napoli, 6,
1847, 83-106)
[6] Melloni, 1994 Melloni, M.
(1994). Carteggio (1819-1854), (E.
Schettino, Ed.). Firenze: Olschki
[7]
Philosophical magazine, 1848, series 3,
vol
32 Melloni_1848_philosophical_magazine_
series_3_vol32.pdf
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp337-338. (1850)
(1850)
Naples, Italy5  
[1] Nobili, Leopoldo. ''Description
d'un thermo-multiplicateur ou
thermoscope electrique.'' Bibliothèque
Universelle. Science et Arts 30 (1830):
225-230. books.google.com/books?id=yIZC
AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA225 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=yIZCAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA225

[2] Setting: Room XVI
Inventor: Leopoldo Nobili,
Macedonio Melloni Maker:
Giuseppe Caldini Place:
Florence Date:
ca. 1880 Materials:
brass, cast iron, bismuth, antimony
Dimensions: total height
430 mm, base diameter 131 mm
Inventory: 3758
Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile
(Inv. 3758) Nobili-Melloni
radiant-heat thermopile (Inv.
3758) Radiant-heat thermopile,
Nobili - Melloni pattern. Comprises a
brass box with 120 elements and a large
brass cone hinged to an adjustable
support with cast-iron base. The back
cover is missing. Made by Giuseppe
Caldini, about whom we have no
information. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/oggetti_944/0554_3253_2145-0
16_944.jpg
169 YBN
[1831 AD] 4 		2496) The occurrence of different
compounds with the same chemical
composition is named "isomerism"
{I-SoM-e-riZM1 }.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "isomerism." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/isomerism
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1831)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
[7] "article 9072236". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
2236
[8] "Thorium". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
[9]
http://www.answers.com/thorium?cat=healt
h
Stokholm, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 17 		2514) The first plastic materials, made
of nitrocellulose, are created by
treating starch, sawdust, and cotton
with nitric acid.12 13 14 15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
2. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
3. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
4. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
5. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
6. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
7. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
8. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
9. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
10. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
11. ^ "nitrocellulose."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 18 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
12. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
13. ^ "major industrial polymers".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
71/major-industrial-polymers
14. ^ "Henri Braconnot", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p130.
15. ^ "nitrocellulose."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 18 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
16. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm
17. ^
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Braconnot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Braco
nnot
[2]
http://www.answers.com/saponification?ca
t=health
Nancy, France16  
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg

[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
168 YBN
[1832 AD] 4 		2717) The alternating electric current
(or AC) generator.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hellemans and Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", 1988, p299.
2. ^
Hellemans and Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", 1988, p299.
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html
4. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/pixii.
html (1832)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Pixii". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolyte_P
ixii
Paris, France3  
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html

[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
166 YBN
[01/01/1834 AD] 		1247) A mechanical reaper; a machine
that cuts grain.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
2. ^ "reaper." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p47.
4. ^
"reaper." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 21 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493183/reaper>.
5. ^ "Robert Hall McCormick".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hall
_McCormick

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus McCormick". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_McCor
mick
Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA5
 
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg

[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
166 YBN
[01/09/1834 AD] 6 7 8 9 		2704) The laws of electrolysis: the
mass of a substance deposited on an
electrode is in proportion to the
quantity of electricity, and to the
atomic mass of the element liberated.1
2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Faraday, Michael. "Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series." Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
2. ^ "Michael Faraday." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 08 May. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/201705/Michael-Faraday>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320.
4. ^ Ehl, Rosemary
Gene, and Aaron J. Ihde. �Faraday�s
Electrochemical Laws and the
Determination of Equivalent Weights.�
Journal of Chemical Education 31.5
(1954): 226. Web. 8 May
2013. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ed031p226
5. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
6. ^ Faraday, Michael. "Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series." Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
7. ^ Ehl, Rosemary Gene, and Aaron J.
Ihde. �Faraday�s Electrochemical
Laws and the Determination of
Equivalent Weights.� Journal of
Chemical Education 31.5 (1954): 226.
Web. 8 May
2013. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ed031p226
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp315-320. (1832)
9. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834 {in seventh series})

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[4] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[5]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[6] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[7] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[8]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[9]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[10]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[11] Faraday_e7_electrolysis.pdf
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Seventh Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0008 htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/52
6145013443q040/?p=8083e5a3390d443eb3a9fe
1efa3140ab&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London, England5
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips The
portrait shown here was painted by
Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on
canvas, The National Portrait Gallery,
London. PD AND Faraday, Michael.
''Experimental Researches in
Electricity.--Seventh Series.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: Faraday, Michael. "Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series." Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127http://en.wikiped
ia.org/wiki/Image:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_
oil_1842.jpg

[2] Faraday, Michael. ''Experimental
Researches in Electricity.--Seventh
Series.'' Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London 124 (1834):
77-122. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/108055
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZG5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127
166 YBN
[06/19/1834 AD] 8 9 		2899) The speed of electricity in wire
is measured using a rotating mirror.5 6

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
2. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
4. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
6. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
7. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone
8. ^ Charles Wheatstone, "An Account of
Some Experiments to Measure the
Velocity of Electricity and the
Duration of Electric Light",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 124, (1834),
pp.
583-591. http://books.google.com/books?
id=G09FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA583 AND http://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/108080 {Wheatstone_v
elocity.pdf}
9. ^ "Sir Charles Wheatstone".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6748/Sir-Charles-Wheatstone (1834)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Charles+Wheatston
e?cat=entertainment
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/wheats
tone.html
[4]
http://books.google.com/books?id=5iw5AAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=faraday+velo
city+of+electricity&source=web&ots=5NZWU
d1EhA&sig=NK0D0pm5FFvHZpV7lB3JamIKhoo&hl
=en#PPA311,M1
[5]
http://books.google.com/books?id=0qSDQld
RTFMC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=velocity+of+
electricity&source=web&ots=HZUnerxDqB&si
g=XJ1gYT3wGhkgfzjTLNa99vSFNrQ&hl=en#PPA1
32,M1
(King's College) London, England7
 
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591

[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 3 		2741) A programmable mechanical
calculating machine that uses punch
card programs, with looping, iteration,
and conditional branching is designed.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Norman, J.M. From Gutenberg to
the Internet: A Sourcebook on the
History of Information Technology: With
an Introductory Essay Comparing and
Contrasting the Impact of Gutenberg�s
Introduction of Printing with the
Impact of the Internet and an Annotated
Timeline on the History of Information
Technology. Historyofscience.com, 2005.
From Gutenberg to the Internet: A
Sourcebook on the History of
Information Technology,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=e
mmitTbOoFgC&pg=PA52
2. ^ "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
1590/Charles-Babbage
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
Cambridge, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Charles Babbage, circa
1843 PD/COREL
source: http://robroy.dyndns.info/Babbag
e/Images/babbage-1843.jpg

[2] Scientist: Babbage, Charles (1791
- 1871) Discipline(s):
Mathematics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 10.8 x 8.8 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x
22.8 cm PD/COREL
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=b
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 4 		2758) The first computer program.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Norman, J.M. From Gutenberg to
the Internet: A Sourcebook on the
History of Information Technology: With
an Introductory Essay Comparing and
Contrasting the Impact of Gutenberg�s
Introduction of Printing with the
Impact of the Internet and an Annotated
Timeline on the History of Information
Technology. Historyofscience.com, 2005.
From Gutenberg to the Internet: A
Sourcebook on the History of
Information Technology, p.
244. http://books.google.com/books?id=e
mmitTbOoFgC&pg=PA244
2. ^ "Ada King countess of Lovelace".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
9130/Ada-King-countess-of-Lovelace
3. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1834)
4. ^ Ted Huntington. (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Babbage". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bab
bage
[2] "Charles Babbage". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Charles_
Babbage
Cambridge, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Español: Ada King, Condesa de
Lovelace (1838) From The Ada Picture
Gallery. Evelyn Silva scanned this
from a picture she found ''in the
trash'' in Lousianna, USA, and
submitted it to the Ada Picture Gallery
in October 2000. She wrote: On the
bottom of the picture it says ''LONDON
PUBLISHED NOV 1 1838 FOR THE
PROPRIETORS, No 18 & 19 SOUTHAMPTON
PLACE, EUSTON SQUARE, NEW ROAD''. In
the lower left corner it says
''Printered by Mc Queen''. On the lower
right of the picture its ''Engraved By
W. H. Mote''. On the left ''Drawn by
A.E. Chaton R.A.''. There was also a
page with a bio on it. This was not in
a book when I found it, it was loose
along with some other Ladies of the
Queens court. So I don't have any other
info on it. It is an orginal print from
its time, not a reproduction. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace_1838.jpg

[2] Español: Ada Augusta Byron
King Ada Lovelace, 19th century
British mathematician. Source:
National Physical Gallery,
Teddington. Copied from
en:Image:Ada_Lovelace.jpg. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ada_Lovelace.jpg
166 YBN
[1834 AD] 4 		2851) Methyl alcohol (methanol)1 is
discovered by distilling wood2 .
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
1426/Jean-Baptiste-Andre-Dumas
3. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
4. ^ "Jean Baptiste André Dumas". The
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology (1834)

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste André Dumas".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas
[2] "Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Bap
tiste_Andre_Dumas
[3] "Methanol". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France3
(presumably) 
[1] Methanol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met
hanol

[2] French chemist Jean Baptiste
André Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
165 YBN
[01/19/1835 AD] 7 8 9 		3459) That infrared light (or "heat
rays") can be reflected and polarized
is proven.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
2. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
3. ^ Forbes, James D. "XI. On the
Refraction and Polarization of Heat."
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh 13.01 (1835):
131-168. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=8363661
4. ^ Forbes, James D. "XXII. On the
refraction and polarization of heat."
The London and Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 6.32
(1835):
134-142. books.google.com/books?id=c2vk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA205
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA284 AND
books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ
&pg=PA366
5. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
6. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
7. ^ Forbes, James D. "XI. On the
Refraction and Polarization of Heat."
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh 13.01 (1835):
131-168. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=8363661
8. ^ Forbes, James D. "XXII. On the
refraction and polarization of heat."
The London and Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 6.32
(1835):
134-142. books.google.com/books?id=c2vk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA205
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA284 AND
books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ
&pg=PA366
9. ^ Records of General Science,
"Abstract of a Paper on the Refraction
and Polarization of Heat. By Professor
Forbes.".
p.394. http://books.google.com/books?id
=RVcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=%22O
n+the+Refraction+and+Polarization+of+Hea
t%22&source=web&ots=Ssxgizc13b&sig=aStch
RDJCXwSmEk_7OHFpBm9hF8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA394,M1
{01/29/1835}
(University of Edinburgh5 ) Edinburgh,
Scotland6  
[1] Forbes, James D. ''XXII. On the
refraction and polarization of heat.''
The London and Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 6.32
(1835):
134-142. books.google.com/books?id=c2vk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA205
AND books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAM
AAJ&pg=PA284 AND
books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ
&pg=PA366 PD AND Description
English: James David Forbes Date
2011-06-27 00:22 (UTC) Source
James_David_Forbes.jpg Author
James_David_Forbes.jpg: Unknown
derivative work: Quibik (talk) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=c2vkAA
AAMAAJ&pg=PA134books.google.com/books?id
=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA205books.google.com/b
ooks?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA284books.googl
e.com/books?id=c2vkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA366http
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/2/2b/James_David_Forbes.png

[2] Description English: James
David Forbes Date 2011-06-27 00:22
(UTC) Source
James_David_Forbes.jpg Author
James_David_Forbes.jpg: Unknown
derivative work: Quibik (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/James_David_Forbes.pn
g
165 YBN
[02/06/1835 AD] 5 6 		2810) The electrical relay, a device
that allows the electric current of
telegraph signals to be carried over
long distances.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ "Joseph Henry".
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
5. ^, p1.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00659746/ap030
013/03a00120/0 "Contributions to
Electricity and Magnetism. By Joseph
Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the College of New Jersey,
Princeton, Late of the Albany Academy.
No. II. On the Influence of a Spiral
Conductor in Increasing the Intensity
of Electricity from a Galvanic
Arrangement of a Single Pair, &c."
Joseph Henry Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society, New
Ser., Vol. 5. (1837), pp. 223-231.
Henry_1835_relay.pdf (02/06/1835)
(02/06/1835)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1835)
(1835)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0056/Joseph-Henry
[2] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[3] "Joseph Henry". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Joseph_H
enry
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[6]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[7]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[8]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[9]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[10] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Princeton, NJ, USA3 4  
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm

[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
165 YBN
[1835 AD] 4 5 		3300) The process of silvering objects
(like mirrors) by chemical reduction of
a silver nitrate solution with an
aldehyde.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p201,325.
2. ^ Leibig,
J., (1835) Annalem der Pharmacie, 14,
131-67.
3. ^ "Liebig, Justus Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p543-544.
4. ^ William Tobin, "The life
and science of Léon Foucault: the man
who proved the earth rotates",
Cambridge University Press, 2003,
p201,325. {1835}
5. ^ Leibig, J., (1835)
Annalem der Pharmacie, 14, 131-67.

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "University of Giessen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany3  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
164 YBN
[02/09/1836 AD] 5 6 		6602) The nerve cell, or neuron, is
first identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jeremy D. Schmahmann, M.D., and
M.D. Deepak N. Pandya. Fiber Pathways
of the Brain. OUP USA, 2009,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
IZ668QEH0wC&pg=PA26
2. ^ Valentin, G. G. "�ber den
Verlauf und die letzten Enden der
Nerven.", Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad.
Nat. Curios 18.51,541
(1836). books.google.com/books?id=--IxA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA51
3. ^ "VALENTIN, GABRIEL GUSTAV",
JewishEncyclopedia.com, (2002).
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view
.jsp?artid=6&letter=V
4. ^ "Wroclaw." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wroclaw
5. ^ Valentin, G. G. "�ber den
Verlauf und die letzten Enden der
Nerven.", Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad.
Nat. Curios 18.51,541
(1836). books.google.com/books?id=--IxA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA51
6. ^ Jeremy D. Schmahmann, M.D., and
M.D. Deepak N. Pandya. Fiber Pathways
of the Brain. OUP USA, 2009,
p26. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q
IZ668QEH0wC&pg=PA26

MORE INFO
[1] "Gabriel Gustav Valentin",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp896-897
[2] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp304-305
[3] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp370-371. (1834)
(Breslau now:) Wrocław, Poland3 4
(presumably) 
[1] Valentin, G. G. ''Über den Verlauf
und die letzten Enden der Nerven.'',
Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad. Nat. Curios
18.51,541
(1836). books.google.com/books?id=--IxA
QAAMAAJ&pg=PA241 PD AND Description
English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=--IxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA241http://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Gabriel
_G._Valentin.jpg

[2] Description English: Gabriel G.
Valentin Polski: Gabriel G.
Valentin Date before 1880 Source
IHM Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) The National Library of
Medicine believes this item to be in
the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Gabriel_G._Valentin.j
pg
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 7 		2813) A high voltage induction coil2
that can reach 600,000 volts3 , far
above any voltage that can be generated
with a voltaic pile4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
2. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html
6. ^ "Maynooth". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth
7. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/callan.html (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "Nicholas Callan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Ca
llan
[2]
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus
/Electricity/Induction_Coil/Induction_Co
il.html
[3]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/page.html
Maynooth5 , Ireland6  
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html

[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
164 YBN
[1836 AD] 3 4 		2926) A screw propeller that replaces
the paddle wheel.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353.
2. ^ "John Ericsson".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp352-353. (1836)
(1836)
4. ^ "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2896/John-Ericsson (1836)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ericsson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ericss
on
[2] "John Ericsson". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Eri
csson
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] John Ericsson (1803 - 1889),
Swedish-born inventor. Original print
in possession of National Archives. PD

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Ericsson_2.jpg

[2] Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=97184&articleTypeId=0
163 YBN
[07/??/1837 AD] 6 7 8 		3995) The principle of the electric
speaker;1 that an iron bar emits
sounds that correspond to the number of
currents that rapidly magnetize and
demagnetize it.2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ "The Production of
Galvanic Music", The American journal
of science and arts, Volume 32, Number
2, July, 1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=%22galvanic+music%22
#v=onepage&q=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=fa
lse
3. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879,p3,11. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+mic
rophone#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone
&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties", 1878,
p110. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22ga
lvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1
&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&e
i=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22g
alvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Dr. Charles G. Page, "Experiments
in Electro-Magnetism", American Journal
of Science and Arts, Vol 33,
p118. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xj0PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
American+journal+of+science+and+arts+dat
e:1838-1838#v=onepage&q=page&f=false
6. ^ "The Production of Galvanic
Music", The American journal of science
and arts, Volume 32, Number 2, July,
1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=%22galvanic+music%22
#v=onepage&q=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=fa
lse {07/1837}
7. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties", 1878,
p110. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22ga
lvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX1
&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&e
i=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22g
alvanic%20music%22&f=false {07/1837}
8. ^
Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel, "The
telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879,p3,11. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+mic
rophone#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone
&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false {1837}

MORE INFO
[1] Charles Grafton Page,
"Psychomancy: Spirit-rappings and
table-tippings exposed",
1853. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kQFTqlVjfhUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=char
les+grafton+page&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[2] "Charles Grafton Page". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gra
fton_Page
[3]
http://www.americanartifacts.com/smma/pa
ge/page.htm
[4]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/page.html
[5]
http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/291.h
tml
[6] Charles Grafton Page, "History of
induction: The American claim to the
induction coil and its ...",
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lrzn9ZX79jAC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=charles
+grafton+page+1837+electromagnet&source=
bl&ots=ZLXiJtW6Fe&sig=hAiExWZPt8GnGhnTGy
xCOCIDnhc&hl=en&ei=M8aeSp61L43atgO0gfEs&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
Salem, Massachusetts, USA5  
[1] ''The Production of Galvanic
Music'', The American journal of
science and arts, Volume 32, Number 2,
July, 1837, p396-397.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gT0PA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA396 PD AND [1]
Description English: Charles Grafton
Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gT0PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA396http://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/CGPagep
ortrait.jpg

[2] Description English: Charles
Grafton Page Date c. 1860 Source
Smithsonian file Transferred from
en.wikipedia to Commons by
User:Wdwd.. Author Charles Grafton
Page. Anemonella at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain due to its age;
PD-OLD-100. (Original text :
Smithsonian negative 73-5100) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/CGPageportrait.jpg
162 YBN
[12/??/1838 AD] 4 5 6 7 		3103) The basis of the fuel-cell
battery: the chemical union of hydrogen
and oxygen gas in acidified water
caused by platinum that generates
electricity.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm
2. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC
&pg=PA43 {schoenbein004.pdf}
3. ^ "Christian Friedrich Schonbein".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6197/Christian-Friedrich-Schonbein
4. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC
&pg=PA43 {schoenbein004.pdf}
5. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/grove.htm (01/1839)
6. ^ William Robert
Grove, "On Voltaic Series and the
Combination of Gases by Platinum.",
Philosophical Magazine, Series 3,
Volume 14, Number 86, Feb 1839,
pp127-129.
http://books.google.com/books?id=dF1Ki
X7MbSMC&pg=PA127 {Grove_PM_1839.pdf}
7. ^ C. F. Shoenbein, "On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances", "Philosophical Magazine",
ser3, vol14, (1839).
{schoenbein004.pdf} (01/1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Friedrich
Schönbein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_F
riedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] "Nitrocellulose". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellul
ose
[4] "nitrocellulose". The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrocellul
ose?cat=technology
[5]
http://www.answers.com/topic/esterificat
ion?cat=technology&method=26&initiator=W
ANS
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp339-340. (1840)
(1840)
(University of Basel) Basel,
Switzerland3  
[1] C. F. Shoenbein, ''On the Voltaic
Properties of certain Solid and Fluid
Substances'', ''Philosophical
Magazine'', ser3, vol14, (1839).
books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC
&pg=PA43 {schoenbein004.pdf} PD
AND 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX
7MbSMC&pg=PA43http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Image:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg

[2] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 4 		2500) The occurrence of different forms
of the same element is named
"allotropy" {u-lo-Tro-PE1 }.2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "allotropy." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 15 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
llotropy>.
2. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
3. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/berzelius.htm
4. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982)
[2] "Jons Jacob Berzelius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8919/Jons-Jacob-Berzelius
[3] "Jöns Jakob Berzelius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_J
akob_Berzelius
[4]
http://www.answers.com/J%C3%B6ns+Jakob+B
erzelius+?cat=technology
[5] "Karolinska Institute". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karolinska_
Institute
[6] Jöns Jacob Berzelius A Guide to
the Perplexed Chemist Journal The
Chemical Educator Publisher Springer
Berlin /
Heidelberg ISSN 1430-4171 Issue Volume
5, Number 6 / December,
2000 Category Chemistry and
History DOI 10.1007/s00897000430a Page
s 343-350 Subject Collection Chemistry
and Materials Science SpringerLink
Date Monday, April 04,
2005 berzelius_2000_chem_educator.pdf
Stokholm, Sweden3 (presumably) 
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg

[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 9 		2540) The parallax of a different star
is measured, by comparing the position
of 61 Cygni {SiG-nI6 }, to two other
more distant stars during the course of
a year. After correcting for the proper
motion, the star appears to move in an
ellipse every year which is due to
parallax.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
2. ^ "parallax."
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
1994-2010. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
4. ^ "cygni."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 15 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ygni>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297.
6. ^ "cygni."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 15 Jun. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
ygni>.
7. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
8. ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
3/Friedrich-Wilhelm-Bessel
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp296-297. (1838)
(1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "popup?va=parallax".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/mwu/popup?va=p
arallax
Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany8
 
[1] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg

[2] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 7 		2934) The first cell theory: that all
plants are made of cells.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
2. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355.
4. ^ "Cell theory."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 18
Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
5. ^ "Cell theory." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 18 Jun. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cell-theory
-1
6. ^ "Mathias Jacob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6147/Mathias-Jacob-Schleiden
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp354-355. (1838)

MORE INFO
[1] "Matthias Jakob Schleiden".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Matthias
_Jakob_Schleiden
[2] Trisha Creekmore. The Science
Channel :: 100 Greatest Discoveries:
Biology. Discovery Communications.
http://science.discovery.com/convergence
/100discoveries/big100/biology.html
[3] "University of Jena". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Jena
(University of Jena) Jena, Germany6
 
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology

[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
162 YBN
[1838 AD] 5 6 7 		3386) The direct-acting gas combustion
engine; a cylinder is directly moved by
the explosion.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas,
Oil and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited, 1896,
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23
2. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
3. ^ Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil
and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited, 1896,
p23. http://books.google.com/books?id=8
d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23
4. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
5. ^ "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne {1838}
6. ^ Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3 {1838}
7. ^
William Robinson, "Gas and Petroleum
Engines: A Practical Treatise on the
Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1 {1838}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
?, England 
[1] Donkin, B. A Text-book on Gas, Oil
and Air Engines: Or, Internal
Combustion Motors Without Boiler. C.
Griffin and company, limited,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8d03AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22

[2] Barnett's ignition cock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA219,M1
161 YBN
[07/29/1839 AD] 25 		3308) Light is converted into
electricity (the photoelectric or
photovoltaic effect).16 17 18 This is
the first photovoltaic (or "solar")
cell.19 20 21 Sunlight contacting
metal electrodes that are immersed in a
liquid electrolyte (such as ferric
chloride mixed with ether) produces a
very small electric current.22 23
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
2. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
3. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
4. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
5. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
6. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
7. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
8. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
9. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
10. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
11. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
12. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
13. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
14. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
15. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
16. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
17. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
18. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
19. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
20. ^ Becquerel, A. E. "M�moire sur
les effets �lectriques produits sous
l�influence des rayons solaires."
Comptes Rendus 9.567 (1839): 1839,
p561-567. English: "Note on the
electric effects produces under the
influence of
sunlight" http://books.google.com/books
?id=zmZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA561
21. ^ "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552875/solar-cell>.
22. ^ Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumi�re
solaire, au moyen des courants
�lectriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: "Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents" books.google.com/books?id=zmZ
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145
23. ^ Knopfel, T., and E.S. Boyden.
Optogenetics: Tools for Controlling and
Monitoring Neuronal Activity. Elsevier
Science, 2012. Progress in Brain
Research,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WokkW1YSGKUC&pg=PA226
24. ^ "Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p72.
25. ^
Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
"Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques." CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149; 561. also Annalen der Physick
und Chemie, Vol. 54, pp. 18-34,
1841. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2968&M=chemindefer
English: "Research on the effects of
the chemical radiation of solar light
by means of the electric
currents" {Becquerel_Edmond_1839.pdf}
{07/29/1839}

MORE INFO
[1] "thermionic power converter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6050>
[2] "A. E. Becquerel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Becqu
erel
[3] "Becquerel". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Becquere
l
[4] Edmond Becquerel, "Des effets
chimiques et électriques produits sous
l'influence de la lumière solaire",
1840. http://jubil.upmc.fr/sdx/pl/doc-t
dm.xsp?id=TH_000231_001_page1&fmt=upmc&b
ase=fa&root=&n=&qid=&ss=&as=&ai=#page1
[5] "solar cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-458
72>
[6]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biograph
y/BecquerelEdmond.html
[7]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isd9IEnR4
bw {video of liquid oxygen
paramagnetism}
(University of Paris) Paris, France24
 
[1] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD AND [2]
Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond
(1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145http://www.sil.si.edu/dig
italcollections/hst/scientific-identity/
fullsize/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg

[2] Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond.
''Recherches sur les effets de la
radiation chimique de la lumière
solaire, au moyen des courants
électriques.'' CR Acad. Sci 9 (1839):
145-149. English: ''Studies of the
effect of actinitic radiation of
sunlight by means of electric
currents'' books.google.com/books?id=zm
ZFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA145 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=zmZFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA145
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 3 4 		3072) Cell theory is extended to all
animals and plants.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373.
2. ^ "Schwann,
Theodor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>.
3. ^ "Schwann, Theodor." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6255>. (1839)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp372-373. (1839)

MORE INFO
[1] "cell." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6125>
[2] Schwann, Theodor and Schleyden, M.
J. 1847. "Microscopical researches into
the accordance in the structure and
growth of animals and plants". London:
Printed for the Sydenham Society.
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/library/d
ata/lit28715?
[3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Sch
wann
[4]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per136
(University of Louvain) Louvain,
Belgium2  
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg

[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
161 YBN
[1839 AD] 8 9 10 11 12 13 		3137) The plastic polystyrene
{Po-lE-STI-rEN1 } is discovered;2 the
first recorded polymerization
{Pu-liMR-u-ZA-suN3 }.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "polystyrene." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 15 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
olystyrene>.
2. ^ "Polystyrene and Styrofoam", Mary
Bellis, About.com.
http://inventors.about.com/library/inv
entors/blpolystyrene.htm
3. ^ "polymerization." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 15 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
olymerization>.
4. ^ Simon, E. "Ueber den flussingen
Storax (Styrax liquidus)." Annalen der
Pharmacie, Volume 31, 1839,
p265-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
5. ^ Boundy, R.H., R.F. Boyer, and S.M.
Stoesser. Styrene: Its Polymers,
Copolymers, and Derivatives. Hafner
Pub. Co., 1952. Monograph Series,
Volume 1,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?ei=S-
LAUaL9FoWSiAKIq4DAAw {Styrene_1970.pdf}

6. ^ John Scheirs, Duane Priddy, Inc
NetLibrary, "Modern Styrenic Polymers:
Polystyrenes and Styrenic Copolymers",
John Wiley & Sons, 2003,
p3. http://books.google.com/books?id=FR
GoFxKels4C&pg=PA3&dq=Eduard+Simon+polyst
yrene&sig=vqLFWFTDE9icvea19zFUn87yesY
7. ^ "Polystyrene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene

8. ^ "industrial polymers, major."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
37>, p4. (1839)
9. ^ "Polystyrene and
Styrofoam", Mary Bellis, About.com.
http://inventors.about.com/library/inv
entors/blpolystyrene.htm (1839)
10. ^ Simon,
E. "Ueber den flussingen Storax (Styrax
liquidus)." Annalen der Pharmacie,
Volume 31, 1839,
p265-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265
11. ^ Boundy, R.H., R.F. Boyer, and
S.M. Stoesser. Styrene: Its Polymers,
Copolymers, and Derivatives. Hafner
Pub. Co., 1952. Monograph Series,
Volume 1,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?ei=S-
LAUaL9FoWSiAKIq4DAAw {Styrene_1970.pdf}

12. ^ Boundy, R.H., R.F. Boyer, and
S.M. Stoesser. Styrene: Its Polymers,
Copolymers, and Derivatives. Hafner
Pub. Co., 1952. Monograph Series,
Volume 1,
p2-3. http://books.google.com/books?ei=
S-LAUaL9FoWSiAKIq4DAAw {Styrene_1970.pd
f}
13. ^ Neumann, C., and C.H. Kessel.
Chymia Medica
Dogmatico-experimentalis... Oder Die
Gr�ndliche Und Mit Experimenten
Erwiesene Medicinische Chymie: In Sich
Fassend Die Lehre Von Nassen Chymischen
Arzneyen, Wie Solche Aufs Ordentlichste
Und Vorz�glichste Zu Verfertigen
Seyn. Dendeler, 1749. Chymia Medica
Dogmatico-experimentalis... Oder Die
Gr�ndliche Und Mit Experimenten
Erwiesene Medicinische Chymie: In Sich
Fassend Die Lehre Von Nassen Chymischen
Arzneyen, Wie Solche Aufs Ordentlichste
Und Vorz�glichste Zu Verfertigen
Seyn,
p373. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hhVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA373
Berlin, Germany7  
[1] Description Polystyrene
packaging material Date Source Own
work Author User:Acdx GNU AND
Simon, E. ''Ueber den flussingen Storax
(Styrax liquidus).'' Annalen der
Pharmacie, Volume 31, 1839,
p265-277. http://books.google.com/books
?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA265 PD AND CD
case made from general purpose
polystyrene (GPPS) and high impact
polystyrene (HIPS) Description
Español: Caja de CD hecha de
poliestireno cristal y poliestireno
choque English: CD box made of GPPS
and HIPS Français : Boîte de CD
faite en polystyrène crystal et
choc Date 2007 Source Own
work Author Hispalois GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polyst
yrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/1135px-Expanded_p
olystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpghttp://books.
google.com/books?id=7Bc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA26
5http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/9/90/Caja_de_CD.jpg

[2] Description Polystyrene
packaging material Date Source Own
work Author User:Acdx GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expanded_polyst
yrene_foam_dunnage.jpg/1135px-Expanded_p
olystyrene_foam_dunnage.jpg
160 YBN
[03/12/1840 AD] 3 		3875) Infrared spectral lines are
identified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf}
2. ^ "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
3. ^ John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11 {Herschel_Jo
hn_infrared_1840.pdf} {03/12/1840}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Herschel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hersch
el
[2] "Sir John Frederick William, Bart
Herschel". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_John
_Frederick_William,_Bart_Herschel
[3] "Herschel, John Frederick William",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p416-417
[4] "John
Herschel". Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/John+Herschel?cat
=technology
[5] "Sir John Herschel 1st Baronet".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
0234/Sir-John-Herschel-1st-Baronet
(1839)
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Thermographs from 1840 John
Herschel paper. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11

[2] John Herschel PD
source: "Herschel, John Frederick
William", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p417.
160 YBN
[12/17/1840 AD] 3 4 5 		3238) The heat created by electrical
current is found to equal the square of
the current multiplied by the
resistance.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400.
2. ^ James Prescott
Joule, William Scoresby, Lyon Playfair
Playfair, William Thomson, "The
Scientific Papers of James Prescott
Joule: (2 vol.)", The Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2
3. ^ James Prescott Joule, William
Scoresby, Lyon Playfair Playfair,
William Thomson, "The Scientific Papers
of James Prescott Joule: (2 vol.)", The
Society, 1884,
pp59-60. http://books.google.com/books?
id=UR5WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA59&dq=%22On+the+Pro
duction+of+Heat+by+Voltaic+Electricity%2
2 (12/17/1840)
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp398-400. (1840)
5. ^
"James Prescott Joule." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "James Prescott Joule." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[2] "James Prescott Joule." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 03 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-presc
ott-joule
[3] "James Joule". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joule

[4] "James Prescott Joule".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Pr
escott_Joule
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] "Joule, James Prescott."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
4024>
Broom Hill (near Manchester), England2
 
[1] Description Picture of James
Joule Source The Life & Experiences
of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe (Macmillan:
London and New York), p. 120 Date
1906 Author Henry Roscoe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.j
pg

[2] Description Engraving of James
Joule Source Nature, volume 26,
facing page 616 (October, 1882) Date
1882 Author C. H. Jeens PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_eng
raving.jpg
160 YBN
[1840 AD] 4 		2921) The first chemical fertilizers.
That loss of soil fertility is caused
by the consumption by plants of the
minerals necessary for life such as
sodium, potassium, calcium, and
phosphorus is recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp351-352.
2. ^ "Justus baron
von Liebig". Encyclopedia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig
3. ^ "University of Giessen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_
of_Giessen
4. ^ "Justus baron von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8177/Justus-baron-von-Liebig (1840)

MORE INFO
[1] "Justus von Liebig".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_von_
Liebig
[2] "Baron Justus Von Liebig".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Baron_Ju
stus_Von_Liebig
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(University of Giessen), Giessen,
Germany2 3  
[1] Source:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/jliebig.jpg A
rtist & subject dies >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JustusLiebig.jpg

[2] Deutsch: Justus Liebig 1821 als
junger Student mit Burschenschaftsband,
Zeichnung von 1843 Source
http://www.liebig-museum.de/Tafeln/se
ite_02.pdf Date 1843 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Young-Justus-Liebig.jpg
159 YBN
[01/11/1841 AD] 3 		3600) An electric clock.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
2. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ
3. ^ John Munro, Heroes of the
Telegraph, "The Religious tract
society",
1891. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lM4LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Alexander+Bain+
telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwO
GrAQ {01/11/1841}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bain.html
[2] "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>
[3] "Alexander Bain" (obituary),
Nature, Jan 11, 1877,
218. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
38CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218&dq=Alexander+Bain+t
elegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQOKwOG
rAQ
[4] Iconographic Encyclopaedia of the
Arts and Sciences, Iconographic
publishing co., 1890,
p376. http://books.google.com/books?id=
JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+B
ain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajitQ
OKwOGrAQ
London, England2  
[1] Bain's clock PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=JkcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA376&dq=Alexander+
Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM_PEajit
QOKwOGrAQ#PRA2-PA126-IA1,M1

[2] [t Bain's clock - not clear what
year] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-PQDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ale
xander+Bain+telegraph&as_brr=1&ei=OFTYSM
_PEajitQOKwOGrAQ#PPA36,M1
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 7 		3158) Cell division is described.3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
2. ^ (presumably this is the paper)
Remak, "Teilung roter Blutzellen beim
Embryo." Medizinische Vereinszeitung
(1841). English: Remak, Robert
"Division of red blood cells in the
embryo"
3. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
4. ^ (presumably this is the paper)
Remak, "Teilung roter Blutzellen beim
Embryo." Medizinische Vereinszeitung
(1841). English: Remak, Robert
"Division of red blood cells in the
embryo"
5. ^ "Robert Remak." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k
6. ^ Record ID2886. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Robert
Remak." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 23 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-rema
k (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Remak, Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p740
[2] "Remak, Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
3146>
[3]
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/Adrenergic+fibers
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
6 (presumably) 
[1] Robert Remak PD/Corel
source: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n
17/history/remak2.JPG

[2] Robert Remak PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Robert_Remak.gif
159 YBN
[1841 AD] 3 		3190) The theory that the nucleus
transmits inherited characteristics1 .
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495.
2. ^
"Koelliker, Rudolf Albert Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p495.
3. ^ "Koelliker, Rudolf Albert
Von", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p495. (1841)

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert von Kölliker." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[2] "Albert von Kölliker." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-von-
kolliker
[3] "Rudolf Albert von Kölliker".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Albe
rt_von_K%C3%B6lliker
[4] "Rudolph Albert Von Kolliker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolph_
Albert_Von_Kolliker
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland2  
[1] Kölliker, Albert von PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/kolliker.jpg

[2] Rudolph Albert von Kölliker
(1857–1905) from portrait Left:
Photograph showing Brown-Séquard.
Right: Portrait of Von
Kölliker. PD/Corel
source: http://www.medscape.com/content/
2004/00/46/84/468471/art-nf468471.fig7.j
pg
158 YBN
[03/30/1842 AD] 7 		3171) The first use of an anesthetic
for surgery;3 a person is made to lose
consciousness by inhaling ether before
surgery in which a neck tumor is
removed.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
2. ^ "anesthesia." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1507634/anesthesia>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p389.
5. ^ "Crawford
Long." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 26 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/crawford-lo
ng
6. ^ "Long, Crawford Williamson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
8846>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p389. (03/30/1842)
Jefferson, Georgia6  
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
158 YBN
[07/04/1842 AD] 3 		5837) The "light fountain"; the basis
of fiber optic communication.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Daniel Colladon, "Sur les
réflexions d'un rayon de lumière à
l'intérieur d'une veine liquide
parabolique", Comptes Rendus, 15,
p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream"
2. ^ Daniel Colladon,
"Sur les réflexions d'un rayon de
lumière à l'intérieur d'une veine
liquide parabolique", Comptes Rendus,
15, p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream"
3. ^ Daniel Colladon,
"Sur les réflexions d'un rayon de
lumière à l'intérieur d'une veine
liquide parabolique", Comptes Rendus,
15, p800-802,
(1842). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k2974q/f800.image {Colladon_Danie
l_18420704.pdf} English: "On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream" {07/04/1842}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fiberoptic". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberoptic
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] Daniel Colladon first described
this ''light fountain'' or ''light
pipe'' in an 1842 article titled On the
reflections of a ray of light inside a
parabolic liquid stream. This
particular illustration comes from a
later article by Colladon, in
1884. Author: Jean-Daniel Colladon
(1802-1893). Source: This illustration
appears in ''La Nature'' magazine in
1884 and it is reproduced in modern-day
accounts of the history of fiber optics
including Jeff Hecht's book Story of
Fiber Optics and i-fiberoptics.com.
Collodon first described the system in
an article in ''Comptes Rendus'' 1842,
and described it again in 1884 in ''La
Nature''. In the above illustration,
water comes out of a short spout on the
watertank and then falls through open
air, as in a fountain. The device on
the illustration's lefthand side
produces light and directs a beam of
light into the watertank. The
demonstration of this ''light
fountain'' needs to be done in a
darkened room to see the effect. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/DanielColladon%27s_Li
ghtfountain_or_Lightpipe%2CLaNature%28ma
gazine%29%2C1884.JPG

[2] Jean Daniel COLLADON (1802-1893)
PD
source: http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1
/IMG/jpg/Colladon-Jean-Daniel-prtrt.jpg
158 YBN
[1842 AD] 6 7 8 		2929) The Doppler effect: that
frequency of light and sound is
affected by the relative motion of the
source and observer.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell.
Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ
2. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
3. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell.
Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ "Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler
5. ^
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Doppler.html
6. ^ Doppler, "Ueber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer
Gestirne des Himmels," Böhm. Gesell.
Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42 s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p353. (1842) (1842)
8. ^
"Christian Doppler". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0954/Christian-Doppler (1842)

MORE INFO
[1] "Christian Johann Doppler".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_J
ohann_Doppler
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
(Prague Polytechnic, now Czech
Technical University)Prague, Czech
Republic5  
[1] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD AND Doppler, ''Ueber
das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und
einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels,''
Böhm. Gesell. Abbandlungen ii. 1841-42
s.
465. http://books.google.com/books?id=z
l5RAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg
http://books.google.com/books?id=zl5RAAA
AcAAJ

[2] Description English:
Photographic portrait of Christian
Doppler (1803-1853) Date unknown, but
subject died in 1853 Source
http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physic
s/Biographies/images/CDoppler2.jpg Auth
or unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/Christian_Doppler.jpg

157 YBN
[1843 AD] 6 		6240) The first remote controlled wired
explosive.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
2. ^ Colby, F.M., and T. Williams. The
New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd,
Mead and company, 1918. The New
International Encyclopaedia,
p352. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WnANAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA352
3. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
4. ^ Colby, F.M., and T. Williams. The
New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd,
Mead and company, 1918. The New
International Encyclopaedia,
p352. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WnANAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA352
5. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>.
6. ^ "Samuel Colt." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/126860/Samuel-Colt>. {1843}
Paterson, New Jersey, USA5
(presumably) 
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
156 YBN
[1844 AD] 4 		3093) The first photographs from a
microscope.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp403-405.
3. ^ "John William
Draper". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
4. ^
http://photography.si.edu/SearchImage.as
px?t=3&ex=STC_26&id=691# (1844)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[2] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[3] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
[4]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm (1840)
[5] "John Draper."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper
 (1840)
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] Photomicrograph of Frog Blood John
William
Draper Daguerreotype 1844 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 201 How to
locate or purchase this image A
multitalented scientist and inventor,
John William Draper worked as a
chemistry professor at the University
of New York, where he conducted
research in numerous fields, ranging
from medicine and philosophy to
spectrum analysis and photography. This
photograph displaying the physiological
characteristics of frog blood was taken
after Draper developed a method for
attaching a camera to his microscope.
His photomicrography enabled him to see
and photograph the previously unseen.
PD/Corel
source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/778_Image_201.jpg

[2] [t note that date in
1840] Spectrograph John William
Draper Daguerreotype 1840 National
Museum of American History, Behring
Center, Division of Information
Technology and
Communications Photographic History
Collection Image ID: AFS 138 PD/Corel

source: http://photography.si.edu/upload
/Images/691_Image_138.jpg
155 YBN
[01/04/1845 AD] 5 6 		2811) Sunspots are shown to be cooler
than the rest of the Sun.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ American Philosophical Society.
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful
Knowledge. American Philosophical
Society., 1847. Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful
Knowledge.
p174. books.google.com/books?id=X8AAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA174
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337.
4. ^ "Joseph
Henry". The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Joseph+Henry?cat=
technology
5. ^ American Philosophical Society.
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful
Knowledge. American Philosophical
Society., 1847. Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful
Knowledge.
p174. books.google.com/books?id=X8AAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA174
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp335-337. (1848)
(1848)

MORE INFO
[1] "Joseph Henry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henr
y
[2]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[3] http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/two.htm
[4]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bljosephhenry.htm
[5]
http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/jos
eph21.htm
[6]
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=0&
did=338986411&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&VI
nst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=
1204938559&clientId=48051&aid=1 Henry_J
oseph_1832_ajs.pdf American Journal of
Science and Arts (1820-1879); Jan 3,
1832; 22, 2; APS Online pg. 403 On
the Production of Current and Sparks of
Electricity from Magnetism
[7]
Henry_1831_electromagnet_silk_insulate.p
df APPENDIX.; On the application of
the principle of the galvanic
multiplier to electro-magnetic
apparatus, and also to the developement
of great magnetic power in soft Iron,
with a small galvanic element; JOSEPH
HENRY. American Journal of Science and
Arts (1820-1879). New Haven: Jan 2,
1831. Vol. 19, Iss. 2; p. 400 (9 pages)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=338949441&SrchMode=3&sid=7&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1205045477&clientId=1568&aid=1
[8] "armature". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
rmature
Princeton, NJ, USA3 4  
[1] Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp.
173-176 Stated Meeting, June 20, pp.
170-181 http://www.jstor.org/view/00030
49x/ap030007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&user
ID=a9eaf18d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&
dpi=3&config=jstor AND
books.google.com/books?id=X8AAAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA174 {Henry_sunspot.pdf} PD AND
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/view/000304
9x/ap030007/03a00020/0?frame=frame&userI
D=a9eaf18d@uci.edu/01c0a848750050a13c3&d
pi=3&config=jstorbooks.google.com/books?
id=X8AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA174 http://www.150
.si.edu/chap2/2man.htm

[2] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
155 YBN
[04/??/1845 AD] 13 14 15 		2839) The spiral shape of other
galaxies is recognized.9 10 11
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
3. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
5. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
7. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
9. ^ The Earl of
Rosse. "Observations on the Nebulae."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342.
11. ^ "William
Parsons 3rd earl of Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
4148/William-Parsons-3rd-earl-of-Rosse
12. ^
http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/
Galaxies.html
13. ^ The Earl of Rosse. "Observations
on the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://books.google.com/books?
id=BlFFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA499
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/108449
14. ^
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/Artik
el/birr/birr_e.htm (04/1845)
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp341-342. (1845)
(1845)

MORE INFO
[1] "William Parsons, 3rd Earl of
Rosse". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Par
sons%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse
[2] "William Parsons Rosse".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Parsons_Rosse
[3]
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~trw/telescopes.
html
[4]
http://seds.org/MESSIER/more/m-rosse.htm
l
[5]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/unive
rse/scientists/william_parsons_3rd_earl_
of_rosse#default
[6] Rosse, Earl of. "Observations on
Some of the Nebulae." Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 134 (1844):
321-324. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108366
(Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland12
 
[1] The Earl of Rosse. ''Observations
on the Nebulae.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1850):
499-514. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108449 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108449

[2] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
155 YBN
[09/18/1845 AD] 3 4 		2713) Plane polarized light is found to
rotate when passing through glass
subjected to an electromagnetic field.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Michael Faraday".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "1845 )". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911. "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday (09/18/1845 (received
11/06/1845 ) (09/18/1845 (received
11/06/1845)
4. ^ Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf, 1.
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
(09/18/1845 (received 11/06/1845)
(09/18/1845 (received 11/06/1845 )

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[5] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[6]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[7] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[8] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[9]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[11]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[12] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1b&pi=1
(Royal Institution in) London, England2
 
[1] Figure 1 from [16
4] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf ht
tp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/?
k=michael+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001 4

[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
155 YBN
[1845 AD] 3 4 		3401) The air filled tire.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "tire." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>.
2. ^
http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Sco
tland-History/RobertWilliamThomson.htm
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p417. {1845}
4. ^ "tire."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/596799/tire>. {1845}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert William Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Will
iam_Thomson
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] US Patent 5104 PD/Corel
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?
DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5104&F=0&QPN=US5104

[2] Obituary of Robert William
Thomson, Scottish engineer and inventor
of the locomotive traction steam
engine. The text above his obituary is
the end of Lord Ossington (John Evelyn
Denison)'s obituary. Source
Illustrated London News Date
March 29, 1873 Author Engraving
by R & E Taylor, after a photograph by
a Mr. Peterson of Copenhagen. Author of
the obituary unknown. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Robert_William_Thomso
n_-_Illustrated_London_News_March_29_187
3.png
154 YBN
[09/23/1846 AD] 23 24 25 		3073) Planet Neptune is first
observed.16 17 18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
2. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
4. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
5. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
7. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
8. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
9. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
10. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
12. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
13. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
14. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
15. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp378-379.
17. ^ Galle, J. G.,
"Account of the discovery of Le
Verrier's planet Neptune, at Berlin,
Sept. 23, 1846", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
18. ^ "Obituary Notices : Associates :
Galle, Johann Gottfried". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.
19. ^ Encke, M. "XXXII. On the newly
discovered planet." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 30.200
(1847):
181-185. http://books.google.com/books?
id=iB9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181
20. ^ Bericht �ber die zur
Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen
der K�nigl. preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Oct 22 1846,
p279 http://books.google.com/books?id=H
q0EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279
21. ^ "Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/urbain-jean
-joseph-leverrier
22. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>.
23. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp373-374.
(09/23/1846)
24. ^ "Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
7487>. (09/23/1846)
25. ^ "Obituary Notices :
Associates : Galle, Johann Gottfried".
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society 71: 275. 1911.
Bibcode:1911MNRAS..71R.275. http://adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1911MNRAS..71R.275.

MORE INFO
[1] "Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le
Verrier", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p538
[2] "celestial mechanics."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-774
32>
Berlin, Germany21 (and Paris, France22
) 
[1] Galle, J. G., ''Account of the
discovery of Le Verrier's planet
Neptune, at Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 7,
p.153. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf PD
AND [1] Scientist: Le Verrier,
Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel AND Galle, Johann
Gottfried (1812-1910) PD/Corel
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1846MNRAS.
..7..153G&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper
=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdfhttp://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8
9/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpghttp://www.davidd
arling.info/images/Galle.jpg

[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium:
Lithograph Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x
17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg

154 YBN
[10/??/1846 AD] 3 		3022) Mathematical equations are used
to represent logical statements.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p361.
2. ^ "Augustus De
Morgan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan
3. ^ "Augustus De Morgan". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Augustus
_De_Morgan (10/1846)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
_Morgan#External_links (for a list of
De Morgan's works)
(University College) London, England2
 
[1] Augustus De Morgan PD/Corel
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/437/0
00097146/augustus-de-morgan-2-sized.jpg

[2] Beschreibung: Augustus De
Morgan Quelle: Fotografie aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/AugustusDeMorgan.png
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 3 		2716) The theory that gravity
propagates with a finite velocity.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Darrel T. Emerson ,"The Stage Is
Set: Developments before 1900 Leading
to Practical Wireless Communication",
p.
http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/sset
q.pdf
2. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday
3. ^ "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9756/Michael-Faraday (1846)

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Faraday". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Far
aday
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Michael+Faraday+?
cat=technology
[3] "Michael Faraday". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Michael_
Faraday
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/farada
y.htm
[6] Faraday_referee_1831.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/n5776546166232n5/fulltext.pdf The
Referees' Assessment of Faraday's
Electromagnetic Induction Paper of
1831 Journal Notes and Records of the
Royal Society of London
(1938-1996) Issue Volume 47, Number 2
/
1993 Pages 243-256 DOI 10.1098/rsnr.19
93.0031
[7]
Faraday_1832_Experimental_Researches_in_
Electricity_1.pdf Experimental
Researches in
Electricity Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 122 -
1832 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1832.0006
[8] "calico". Dictionary.com Unabridged
(v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
alico
[9] "Charles Darwin". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642/Charles-Darwin
[10]
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/MagMa
terials.html
[11]
http://books.google.com/books?id=KgMUAAA
AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+science
+of+everyday+life#PPA341,M1
[12]
http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM
[13] The Bakerian Lecture: On the
Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 120 -
1830 Pages 1-57 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1830.
0002 http://journals.royalsociety.org/c
ontent/f155428w87055468/?p=2f7f52c8e0d34
1ab877621b12a9cbd1bπ=1
[14]
Faraday_e19_polarization.pdf http://jou
rnals.royalsociety.org/content/?k=michae
l+faraday+ninetenth+series
Experimental Researches in Electricity.
Nineteenth
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0001
[15]
Faraday_e21_Diamagnetism.pdf Experiment
al Researches in Electricity.
Twenty-First
Series Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 136 -
1846 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rstl.1846.0004 htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/q1
m6r722146m4t00/?p=fb8be4dd0be44bb78e3d96
70c7c2bea0π=0
[16] Faraday_e20_diamagnetism.pdf
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/75x2r22450097812/?p=c9cf323da7564bdd8
c3412936085483bπ=0 Experimental
Researches in Electricity. And
Twentieth Series. Section 26th. On New
Magnetic Actions; and on the Magnetic
Condition of All
Matter. Journal Abstracts of the
Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London
(1843-1854) Issue Volume 5 -
1843/1850 Author Michael
Faraday DOI 10.1098/rspl.1843.0066
[17]
http://www.padrak.com/ine/FARADAY1.html
(Royal Institution in) London, England2
 
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg

[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
154 YBN
[1846 AD] 4 5 6 		2828) The liquid explosive
nitroglycerine is created by slowly
adding glycerine to a mixture of nitric
and sulfuric acids.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp379.
3. ^ Icilio
Guareschi (1913). "Ascanio Sobrero nel
centenario della sua nascita". Isis 1
(3):
351-358. http://links.jstor.org/sici?si
ci=0021-1753%281913%291%3A3%3C351%3AASNC
DS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U {Sobrero_Ascanio_2241
37.pdf}
4. ^ "explosive." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-823
67>. (1846)
5. ^ "Ascanio Sobrero." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ascanio-sob
rero (1846)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp379. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ascanio Sobrero". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascanio_Sob
rero
[2] Ascanio Sobrero, "Memorie scelte di
Ascanio Sobrero pubblicate
dall'Associazione chimica industriale
di Torino con discorso storico-critico
ed annotazioni di I. Guareschi",
pp42-53.
http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/s/
sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_ascanio_sobrer
o_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/pdf/memori_
p.pdf "Sopra alcuni nuovi composti
fulminanti ottenuti col mezzo
dell'azione dell'acido nitrico sulle
sostanze organiche vegetali" in
"Memorie della Reale accademia delle
scienze di Torino", series 2, volume
10,
02/21/1847 http://www.liberliber.it/bib
lioteca/s/sobrero/memorie_scelte_di_asca
nio_sobrero_pubblicate_dall_associ_etc/p
df/memori_p.pdf {Sobrero_1847_memori_p.
pdf}
Torino, Italy3 (presumably) 
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png

[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 3 		3094) That all substances become
incandescent (start to glow red) at the
same temperature (around 525ºC or
977ºF) is recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John William Draper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p211.
2. ^ "John William Draper".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Draper
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/hist
ory/draper.htm
[2]
http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/researc
h/arch/175/pages/draper.htm
[3] "John Draper." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[4] "John Draper." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 10 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[5] "John Draper." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-draper

[6] "John William Draper". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Willia
m_Draper
(New York University) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] [t note that this photo appears to
be an 1845 photo] Daguerreotype of the
Moon taken by John William Draper in
1845. In 1840, the American doctor and
chemist John William Draper produced a
daguerreotype of the Moon: the first
astronomical photograph ever created in
North America. New York University
Archives PD/Corel
source: http://astro-canada.ca/_photos/a
4306_lune1845_g.jpg

[2] Dorothy Catherine Draper, taken by
John W. Draper The earliest American
attempts in duplicating the
photographic experiments of the
Frenchman Louis Daguerre occurred at
NYU in 1839. John W. Draper, professor
of chemistry, built his own camera and
made what may be the first human
portrait taken in the United States,
after a 65-second exposure. The sitter,
his sister Dorothy Catherine Draper,
had her face powdered with flour in an
early attempt to accentuate contrasts.
PD/Corel
source: http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst
/research/arch/175/images/drapL.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 5 		3213) Antisepsis {aNTi-SeP-SiS1 }
(washing hands in strong chemicals2 )
is introduced into the health
practice.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "antisepsis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 15
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antisepsis
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396.
3. ^ "Semmelweis,
Ignaz Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
6723>.
4. ^ "Semmelweis, Ignaz Phillipp",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p796.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp395-396. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Ignaz Semmelweis." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 28
May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[2] "Ignaz Semmelweis." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 28 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ignaz-semme
lweis
[3] "Ignaz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Phili
pp_Semmelweiss
[4] "Ignatz Philipp Semmelweiss".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Ignatz_P
hilipp_Semmelweiss
(Vienna General Hospital) Vienna,
(Austria now:) Germany4  
[1] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis01.jpg

[2] Semmelweis, Ignaz PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/semmelweis02.jpg
153 YBN
[1847 AD] 6 		3225) The percussion gun cartridge, a
casing containing an explosive charge
and a bullet or shot3 .4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cartridge." The Oxford Essential
Dictionary of the U.S. Military. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cartridge
2. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
3. ^ "cartridge." The Oxford Essential
Dictionary of the U.S. Military. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cartridge
4. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
5. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>.
6. ^ "cartridge." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
0562>. (1847)

MORE INFO
[1] "Cartridge (firearms)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_%
28firearms%29
[2] "Bullet". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet
Paris, France5  
[1] A modern cartridge consists of the
following: 1. the bullet itself, which
serves as the projectile; 2. the case,
which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or
cordite; 4. the rim, part of the
casing used for loading; 5. the
primer, which ignites the
propellant. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bul
let

[2] Rifle cartridges - L to R: .50
BMG, 300 Win Mag, .308 Winchester, 7.62
Russian Short, 5.56 NATO, .22
LR Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ri
fle_cartridge_comparison.jpg Date
25 February 2006 Author Richard
C. Wysong II GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Rifle_cartridge_compa
rison.jpg
152 YBN
[06/05/1848 AD] 6 7 		3477) The absolute temperature scale is
created, with -273°C as absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.3 4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
2. ^ Thomson,
William. "On an absolute thermometric
scale founded on Carnot's theory of the
motive power of heat and calculated
from Regnaut's observations.",
Cambridge Philosophical Society
Proceedings for June 5, 1848. also
in: THOMSON, W. MATHEMATICAL AND
PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433.
4. ^ Thomson,
William. "On an absolute thermometric
scale founded on Carnot's theory of the
motive power of heat and calculated
from Regnaut's observations.",
Cambridge Philosophical Society
Proceedings for June 5, 1848. also
in: THOMSON, W. MATHEMATICAL AND
PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
5. ^ "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 14 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
6. ^ Thomson, William. "On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.", Cambridge Philosophical
Society Proceedings for June 5,
1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp431-433. {1848}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 14 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[2] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 14
Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-tho
mson-1st-baron-kelvin
[3] "William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tho
mson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin
[4] "William Thomson, Baron Kelvin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Thomson,_Baron_Kelvin
[5] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p873-874
[6] "William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
14 Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314541/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin>.
{1842}
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p315
[8]
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Ke
lvin_online/introduction.htm
[9] Andrew Gray, "Lord Kelvin", E. P.
Dutton & co.,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hc6ipW7Vkk0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life
+of+Lord+Kelvin#PPA1,M1
[10] Magnus Maclean, "Lord Kelvin"
(obituary), Proceedings of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
1908. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TwkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Life+of+Lord+Kel
vin&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA60,M1
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland5  
[1] Thomson, William. ''On an absolute
thermometric scale founded on Carnot's
theory of the motive power of heat and
calculated from Regnaut's
observations.'', Cambridge
Philosophical Society Proceedings for
June 5, 1848. also in: THOMSON, W.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS. 1882,
p100. http://www.google.com/books?id=NG
GOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100 PD AND [1] Baron
Kelvin, William Thomson Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.google.com/books?id=N
GGOnRx4aakC&pg=PA100http://content.answe
rs.com/main/content/img/scitech/HSbaronk
.jpg

[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
152 YBN
[08/10/1848 AD] 6 7 		2880) A constant high voltage from an
induction coil is applied through
evacuated tubes filled with various
gases3 .4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
2. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology; the lives and
achievements of 1195 great scientists
from ancient times to the present,
chronologically arranged", (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1982), pp376-377.
4. ^ Grove,
William Robert. "On the Effect of
Surrounding Media on Voltaic Ignition."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London V139, 1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
5. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
6. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
Effect of Surrounding Media on Voltaic
Ignition." Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London V139,
1849,
p49-59. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=WVBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA49 Grove_W_R_1849.p
df
7. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ntithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view
/article/10439
[4] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[5] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852): 87-101;
89-90. http://books.google.com/books?id
=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[6]
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf
/10.1046/j.1440-1622.2000.01745.x?cookie
Set=1
[7] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;95. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[8] Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;97. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96
[9] "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
[10] "William Robert Grove". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
[11] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
151 YBN
[01/20/1849 AD] 3 		3280) That two yellow lines missing in
the spectrum of sunlight are emitted
from and also absorbed by an electric
arc between coal electrodes is
observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
2. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
3. ^ L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
(01/20/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] Collected
Works Volume One - Recueil des travaux
scientifiques de Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[8] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[9] Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+des+tra
vaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Foucault
&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France2 (presumably) 
[1] L'Institut Feb 7 1849. Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, ''Recueil des
travaux scientifiques'',
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170 Translated
by Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA170

[2] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg
151 YBN
[07/23/1849 AD] 5 6 		3290) The speed of light is measured
using a terrestrial method. Light
passes between the teeth of a rapidly
turning toothed disc on one hilltop,
and reflects off a mirror on another, 8
km2 (or 5 miles) away. If the disc
turns fast enough the reflected light
passes through the next gap.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
2. ^ Fizeau,
Hippolyte 1849a: "Sur une expérience
relative à la vitesse de propagation
de la lumière", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des Sciences de
l’Institut de France 29,
90–92. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-2986&M=chemindef
er {Fizeau_1849.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
4. ^ William Tobin,
"The Life and Science of Léon
Foucault", Cambridge University Press,
2003, p122-124.
5. ^ William Tobin, "The Life and
Science of Léon Foucault", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p122-124.
{07/23/1849}
6. ^ "Hippolyte Fizeau." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau (09/1849)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p254
[6] "Fizeau,
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>

Paris, France4  
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?

source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
151 YBN
[11/05/1849 AD] 7 8 		3488) The first "organo-metallic" (or
hydrocarbon-metallic1 ) compounds. This
is the first time a metal atom is added
to a hydrocarbon molecule: the new
compound zincmethyl is created when
zinc and methyl are joined.2 3 4 5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ E. Frankland, "On a New
Series of Organic Bodies Containing
Metals", Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. books.google.com/books?id=CE9
FAAAAcAAJ&pg=pa417 http://journals.roya
lsociety.org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p
=55e3df04be284120b8404167191430abπ=19
and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
3. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
4. ^ Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,
Bd. LXXI, s. 213, and Frankland, E.
"XXIX.—On a new series of organic
bodies containing metals and
phosphorus." Quarterly Journal of the
Chemical Society of London 2.4 (1850):
297-299. books.google.com/books?id=oKAw
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
6. ^ "Sir Edward
Frankland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
7. ^ Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,
Bd. LXXI, s. 213, and Frankland, E.
"XXIX.—On a new series of organic
bodies containing metals and
phosphorus." Quarterly Journal of the
Chemical Society of London 2.4 (1850):
297-299. books.google.com/books?id=oKAw
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {1850}

MORE INFO
[1] "Edward Frankland." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[2] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[3] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[4]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England6
 
[1] Frankland, E. ''XXIX.—On a new
series of organic bodies containing
metals and phosphorus.'' Quarterly
Journal of the Chemical Society of
London 2.4 (1850):
297-299. books.google.com/books?id=oKAw
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297 PD AND Scanned
from the frontispiece of Sketches from
the life of Edward Frankland, published
in 1902 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=oKAwAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA297http://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26
.jpg

[2] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg
150 YBN
[05/06/1850 AD] 5 		3281) Light is shown to move more
slowly in water than in air, and the
speed of light is shown to be inversely
proportional to the index of refraction
of the medium.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
2. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
3. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1
4. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
5. ^ Léon Foucault, Charles Marie
Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp173-184. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 (05/06/1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>

[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[4] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[5] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[6] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[7] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[8] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[9] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[10] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[11]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[12]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003

[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 3 		3019) Ocean depths are mapped and the
Atlantic ridge is discovered.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Atlantic Ocean." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 2006. Answers.com 28
Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/atlantic-oc
ean
2. ^ "Matthew Fontaine Maury". A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Apr. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/matthew-fon
taine-maury
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp360-361. (1850)

MORE INFO
[1] "Maury, Matthew Fontaine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 28 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
1517>. (1848)
Washington, DC, USA2  
[1] Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg‎
(259 � 366 pixels, file size: 21
KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Credit:
U.S. Naval Observatory Library Matthew
Fontaine Maury, founder of the United
States Naval Observatory Source *
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/
*
http://www.usno.navy.mil/library/photo/s
up23d.html Source incorrectly shows as
''Matthew W. F. Maury'' whereas it
should be Commander ''Matthew Fontaine
Maury''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a8/Matthew_F_Maury_sup23d.jpg


[2] PD [2] Commander Matthew Fontaine
MAURY (NOT ''MURRAY'')
http://www.civil-war.net/searchphotos.as
p?searchphotos=Confederate%20States%20Na
vy%20Officers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/CMFMurray.jpg
150 YBN
[1850 AD] 6 7 		3332) The speed of electricity in
nerves is measured as 27 meters (or 90
feet) per second.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
2. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von. "Messungen
über den zeitlichen Verlauf der
Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und die
Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.d
e/library/data/lit1862? {Helmholtz_Herm
ann_1850_lit1862_Lo.pdf} "Of the
methods of measuring very small
intervals of time and their application
to physiological purposes", Phil. Mag.,
6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
3. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>.
4. ^ Helmholtz, Hermann von. "Messungen
über den zeitlichen Verlauf der
Zuckung animalischer Muskeln und die
Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der
Reizung in den Nerven.", Archiv für
Anatomie, Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1850,
p276-364. http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.d
e/library/data/lit1862? {Helmholtz_Herm
ann_1850_lit1862_Lo.pdf} "Of the
methods of measuring very small
intervals of time and their application
to physiological purposes", Phil. Mag.,
6, 1853, 313-325.
{Helmholtz_Herman_Measuring_1850.pdf}
5. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p408-410.
6. ^ "Helmholtz, Hermann von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
6281>. {1850}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p411-413. {1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann von Helmholtz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[2] "Hermann von Helmholtz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[3] "Hermann von Helmholtz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 23 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-von
-helmholtz
[4] "Helmholtz". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz
[5] "Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von
Helmholtz". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hermann_
Ludwig_Ferdinand_Von_Helmholtz
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "body heat." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-908
0373>
[8] "hermann helmholtz". The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/herman
n-helmholtz/
[9] Leo Koenigsberger, Frances Alice
Welby, "Hermann Von Helmholtz",
Clarendon Press,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
u-0HAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=%22Of+t
he+methods+of+measuring+very+small+inter
vals+of+time+and+their+application+to+ph
ysiological+purposes%22&source=web&ots=7
g1i7bepqW&sig=MpMdlYaKd32Fcv9d_Md2RJpxXE
U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPR1,M1 {includes photos}
(University of Königsberg)
Königsberg, Germany5  
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf

[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
149 YBN
[02/03/1851 AD] 5 6 		3282) The rotation of the Earth around
its own axis is proven experimentally
with a pendulum.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
2. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
3. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
.
4. ^ "Jean Bernard Leon Foucault".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ber
nard_Leon_Foucault
5. ^ Léon Foucault, "Demonstration
physique du mouvement de rotation de la
terre au moyen du pendule", Comptes
Rendus de l'Acad. de Sciences de Paris.
tome XXXII, 3 Fevrier, 1851,
p435. English translation: "Physical
Demonstration of the Rotation of the
Earth by Means of the Pendulum"
http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pendulum/
foucault_paper_page_one.html Léon
Foucault, Charles Marie Gariel, Jules
Antoine Lissajous, "Recueil des travaux
scientifiques", Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp378-384. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPP13,M1 {Foucault_Recue
il_des_travaux_scientifiques.pdf}
(02/03/1851)
6. ^ "Foucault, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035012>
. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Foucault, Jean Bernard
Léon." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[2] "Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 15 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/l-on-foucau
lt
[3] "Jean Bernard Léon Foucault".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bernar
d_L%C3%A9on_Foucault
[4] "Foucault, Jean-Bertrand-Léon",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p259
[5] L'Institut
Feb 7 1849. Léon Foucault, Charles
Marie Gariel, Jules Antoine Lissajous,
"Recueil des travaux scientifiques",
Gauthier-Villars, 1878,
pp170-171. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Kc0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA593&dq=Recueil+de
s+travaux+scientifiques+de+L%C3%A9on+Fou
cault&as_brr=1#PPA170,M1 Translated by
Professor Stokes in Phil Mag vol xix
(1860) p194.
{stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.pdf}
[6] Collected Works Volume One -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault 1878.
http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/5
13/
[7] Collected Works Volume Two -
Recueil des travaux scientifiques de
Léon Foucault
1878. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8
080/527/
[8] Fox, William. "Jean-Bertrand-Léon
Foucault." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1909. 14 Jun. 2008
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06156c.h
tm>
[9]
http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~nendwich/
Science/SoFi/portrait.html
[10]
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7oAAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA23&dq=foucault+sun+daguerreot
ype+features&as_brr=1
[11] "Foucault pendulum." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9035014>

[12] "Foucault pendulum". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pe
ndulum
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1

[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
149 YBN
[09/29/1851 AD] 4 5 		3292) The speed of light in water is
shown to change depending on the motion
of the water.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèses
relatives à l'éther lumineux et sur
une expérience qui parait démontrer
que le mouvement des corps change la
vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se
propage dans leur intérieur", Comptes
Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
{Fizeau_Comptes_Rendus_1851.pdf} Engl
ish: M. H. Fizeau, "On the Hypotheses
Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an
Experiment which Appears to Demonstrate
that the Motion of Bodies Alters the
Velocity with which Light Propagates
Itself in their Interior.",
Philosophical Magazine, Series 4,
number 14, Supplement Volume 2,
p568-573. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JbwdWbbM1KgC&pg=RA1-PA568 {fizeau_a
ether001.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p405.
3. ^ "Hippolyte
Fizeau." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
4. ^ H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèses
relatives à l'éther lumineux et sur
une expérience qui parait démontrer
que le mouvement des corps change la
vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se
propage dans leur intérieur", Comptes
Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
English: M. H. Fizeau, "On the
Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous
Aether, and an Experiment which Appears
to Demonstrate that the Motion of
Bodies Alters the Velocity with which
Light Propagates Itself in their
Interior.", Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, number 14, Supplement Volume
2,
p568-573. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JbwdWbbM1KgC&pg=RA1-PA568 {fizeau_a
ether001.pdf}
5. ^ "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034454>
. (1851)

MORE INFO
[1] "Hippolyte Fizeau." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[2] "Hippolyte Fizeau." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hippolyte-f
izeau
[3] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Hipp
olyte_Louis_Fizeau
[4] "Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Armand_H
ippolyte_Louis_Fizeau
[5] "Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p317
[6] A. A.
Michelson and E.W. Morley, "Influence
of motion of the medium on the motion
of light" Am. J. Science 31 377-386
(1886)
[7] Pieter Zeeman, "Fresnel's
coefficient for light of different
colours. (First part)" Proc. Kon. Acad.
van Weten. 17 445-451 (1914)
[8] Pieter
Zeeman, "Fresnel's coefficient for
light of different colours. (Second
part)" Proc. Kon. Acad. van Weten. 18
398-408 (1915)
[9]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t
Paris, France3 (presumably) 
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
AND [t Rareand early photo of
portrait not looking at camera. To me
it may possibly be a clue that hidden
cameras were in use, but also may
reflect a view that the camera is
unimportant, that cameras are
everywhere, and it is better to go on
with life...not to smile for the
camera, but to go about your life and
let the many cameras document
everything...its like ...the thrill is
over for the novelty of photography.
It's perhaps a person for the
transition to the more practical daily
business of the cameras, in particular
when robots walk and document
everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD AND [4] H. Fizeau, ''Sur
les hypothèses relatives à l'éther
lumineux et sur une expérience qui
parait démontrer que le mouvement des
corps change la vitesse avec laquelle
la lumière se propage dans leur
intérieur'', Comptes Rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie, vol 33, 1851, p349-355.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 57 385-404
(1859). http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k347981/f381.table (09/29/1851)
{Fizeau_Comptes_Rendus_1851.pdf} Engl
ish: M. H. Fizeau, ''On the Hypotheses
Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an
Experiment which Appears to Demonstrate
that the Motion of Bodies Alters the
Velocity with which Light Propagates
Itself in their Interior.'',
Philosophical Magazine, Series 4,
number 14, Supplement Volume 2,
p568-573. http://books.google.com/books
?id=JbwdWbbM1KgC&pg=RA1-PA568 {fizeau_a
ether001.pdf} PD [1] scheme of Fizo
experiment GNU
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k347981/f381.table http://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Fizo
_experiment_scheme_ru.PNGhttp://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Hipp
olyte_Fizeau.jpg

[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source:
148 YBN
[01/07/1852 AD] 3 		6505) Electrolysis is performed on
gases.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1852
_polarity.pdf}
2. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}
3. ^ Grove, William Robert. "On the
electro-chemical polarity of gases."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 142 (1852):
87-101;87. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CE9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA96 {Groves_W_R_1
852_polarity.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "On the Effect of Surrounding
Media on Voltaic Ignition",
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/rt1ug6668r7331x0/?p=8799fd4b7cc14bfd8
785b2ebc7cf84b9&pi=5 Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886)
[2] "antithetic". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
ntithetic
[3] Harrison, W. J. (2004) "Gassiot,
John Peter (1797-1877)", rev. Iwan Rhys
Morus, Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press,
accessed 5 August 2007 (subscription
required) http://www.oxforddnb.com/view
/article/10439
[4] "Sir William Robert Grove".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
8234/Sir-William-Robert-Grove
[5] "William Robert Grove". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rob
ert_Grove
London, England2 (presumably) 
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101

[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
148 YBN
[05/10/1852 AD] 6 		3489) The theory of "valence": that
each type of atom has a fixed capacity
for combining with other atoms is
created.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
2. ^ E. Frankland,
"On a New Series of Organic Bodies
Containing Metals", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=38cdc316
b887400e8b6f958d2d4a2d27π=1 {Frankland
_Edward_1852.pdf} and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434.
4. ^ E. Frankland,
"On a New Series of Organic Bodies
Containing Metals", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 142, 1852,
p417-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/e8816n27r1047213/?p=38cdc316
b887400e8b6f958d2d4a2d27π=1 {Frankland
_Edward_1852.pdf} and
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/frankland
.html
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p434. {05/10/1852}
6. ^
{05/10/1852}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "cacodyl." WordNet 1.7.1. Princeton
University, 2001. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cacodyl
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(Queenwood school) Hampshire, England5
 
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf

[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
148 YBN
[1852 AD] 4 5 		3104) A practical passenger elevator
with a safety device is invented.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
2. ^ "elevator." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>.
3. ^ "Otis, Elisha Graves."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-905
7648>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp377. (1852)
5. ^
"elevator." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
2371>. (1853)
Yonkers, NY, USA3  
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4

[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
147 YBN
[02/16/1853 AD] 6 7 		3143) The theory that a gas absorbs and
emits light of the same frequencies.1 2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
2. ^ Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co.,
(1887). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Optis
ka+Unders%C3%B6kning&source=web&ots=-3MJ
K404gq&sig=olTzkNwJOvCyEr6WNZ7qUXFW9XM&h
l=en {The_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
3. ^ "Optiska Undersökningar", Trans
Royal Aitukmy of Stockholm 1853.
Translated in Phil Mag Fourth Series
vol ix, 1857, p327.
4. ^ Anders Jonas
Ångström, Annalen der Physik, v94,
1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342. {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
5. ^ "Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
6. ^ Anders Jonas Ångström, Annalen
der Physik, v94, 1855,
p141-165 http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k15179x.image.r=angstrom.f161.la
ngEN English version: A. J.
Angström, "Optical Researches",
Philosophical Transactions, v9, 1857,
p327-342. {Angstrom_English_1857.pdf}
{02/16/1853}
7. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom (1853)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[2] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden5  
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
147 YBN
[1853 AD] 3 		3312) The concept of energy is
distinguished into "actual" and
"potential" energy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Rankine, William John Macquorn",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p736.
2. ^
http://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/bio
graphy/?id=WH0067&type=P
3. ^ "Rankine, William John Macquorn",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p736. {1853}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rankine, William John
Macquorn." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2685>
[2] "William John Macquorn Rankine."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-joh
n-macquorn-rankine
[3] "William John Macquorn Rankine".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
John_Macquorn_Rankine
[4] "Rankine cycle." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
2686>
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland, UK2  
[1] (William John) Macquorn Rankine
(1820-1872) was Regius Professor of
Civil and Engineering and Mechanics
from 1855 to 1872. U of
Glasglow PD/Corel
source: http://www.universitystory.gla.a
c.uk/images/UGSP00025_m.jpg

[2] William John Macquorn
Rankine PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/W_J_M_Rankine.JPG
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 4 5 		2945) The theory that an electrical
mass will not be influenced by the
electrical force if moving with a
velocity at least the speed of light.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
2. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
3. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html
4. ^ R. Kohlrausch, Wilhelm Weber,
"Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmungen
insbesondere Zurückführung der
Stromintensitäts-messungen auf
mechanisches Maass.", Abhandlungen der
Konigl Sachsischen Gesellschasft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1856. in: Wilhelm Weber's Werke By
Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Ernst Heinrich
Weber, Eduard Weber, Eduard Friedrich
Wilhelm Weber, Woldemar Voigt, Eduard
Riecke, Friedrich Siegmund Merkel, Otto
Fischer, Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen,
Königliche Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Göttingen Published
by J. Springer, 1893 Bund 3,
p609-676. http://books.google.com/books
?id=l9AEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimm
ungen&dq=Ueber+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmen
ge,+welche+bei+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+
durch+den+Querschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&
as_brr=1&source=gbs_search_s#PPA609,M1
There is an English translation of this
full work but it is unpublished (see
below) a summary is given
as: Wilhelm Weber, H. R. Kohlrausch,
"Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche
bei galvanischen Strömen durch den
Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 175, Issue 9,
(1856), p 10-25.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/sea
rch/allsearch?mode=viewselected&product=
journal&ID=112497888&view_selected.x=56&
view_selected.y=12&view_selected=view_se
lected English translation of
summary: Wilhelm Weber and Rudolf
Kohlrausch, translated by Susan P.
Johnson and edited by Laurence Hecht,
"On the Amount of Electricity which
Flows through the Cross-Section of the
Circuit in Galvanic Currents", (1856),
1996. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/
Weber-Kohlrausch(2003).pdf {Weber-Kohlr
ausch_2003_1854.pdf} {selectable text:
Weber_Kohlrausch_1854.pdf}
5. ^
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/weber.
html {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Edu
ard_Weber
[2] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wilhelm_
Eduard_Weber
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6390/Wilhelm-Eduard-Weber
[5] "Wilhelm Eduard Weber". The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Wilhelm+Eduard+We
ber+?cat=technology (1849)
[6] Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (obituary), Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
v.27 (1891-92),
p449-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=oLcAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=wilhelm+web
er&ei=3aP_SNOrKJH2sQPRr9S3DA#PPA449,M1
(University of) Göttingen, Germany3
 
[1] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel AND [t Another
form of the Weber equation with 1/cc
removed from parenthesis
expression] PD/Corel AND Wilhelm
Eduard Weber (1804-1891) PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112497888/PDFSTARTht
tp://books.google.com/books?id=l9AEAAAAY
AAJ&pg=PA25&vq=Maassbestimmungen&dq=Uebe
r+die+Elektricit%C3%A4tsmenge,+welche+be
i+galvanische+Str%C3%B6men+durch+den+Que
rschnitt+der+Kette+fliesst&as_brr=1&sour
ce=gbs_search_s#PPA628,M1http://en.wikip
edia.org/wiki/Image:Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber
_II.jpg

[2] [t Equation from Annalen paper:
apparently first use of letter ''c'' to
designate a constant, which will later
be identified with the speed of
light.] PD/Corel
source:
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 3 		3111) That an epidemic of cholera is
due to a transmittable agent in
drinking water is understood.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "John Snow." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
2. ^ "John Snow." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 17 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-snow
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp380-381. (1854)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Snow (physician)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_%
28physician%29
[2]
http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html
London, England2  
[1] During his career, Dr. John Snow
(1813-1858) anesthetized 77 obstetric
patients with chloroform. In addition
to pioneering anesthesia, Dr. Snow is
considered the father of epidemiology:
well before germ theory was formulated,
he studied an epidemic of cholera in S.
London in 1845, and reported (1849)
that the disease was transmitted
through a contaminated
water-supply. PD/Corel
source: http://www.joyceimages.com/image
s/John%20Snow.jpg

[2] Original map by Dr. John Snow
showing the clusters of cholera cases
in the London epidemic of
1854 Original map made by John Snow in
1854, copied from
http://matrix.msu.edu/~johnsnow/images/o
nline_companion/chapter_images/fig12-5.j
pg Author died in 1858, material is
public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jp
g
146 YBN
[1854 AD] 3 		3551) The first naturally occurring and
artificial fats are synthesized by
combining glycerol and fatty acids.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p443-444.
2. ^ "Marcellin
Pierre Eugene Berthelot". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marcelli
n_Pierre_Eugene_Berthelot
3. ^ "Pierre-Eugène-Marcellin
Berthelot." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
09 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/62792/Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin-Berthelo
t>. {1854}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marcellin Berthelot." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
[2] "Pierre Eugène Marcelin
Berthelot". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Eug%
C3%A8ne_Marcelin_Berthelot
[3] "Berthelot, Pierre Eugène
Marcellin", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p90-91
[4]
"Marcellin Berthelot." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marcellin-b
erthelot
(Collège de France) Paris, France2
 
[1] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/wp/en/thumb/1/1d/250px-Marcellin
_Berthelot.jpg

[2] Marcellin Berthelot PD/Corel
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/berthelot
_6.jpg
144 YBN
[04/21/1856 AD] 5 6 		3457) The bright D spectral lines in
flames of hydrocarbons are shown to be
attributed to sodium, and the
widespread occurrence of the D lines
due to the contamination of small
amounts of sodium.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Swan (1857). XXIX.�On
the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of
Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen.
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 21, pp 411-429.
doi:10.1017/S0080456800032233.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QyxFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA411
AND http://journals.cambridge.org/actio
n/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84
19263 German: Swan, William. "Ueber
die prismatischen Spectra der Flammen
von Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen."
Annalen der Physik 176.2 (1857):
306-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18571760212/abstract
2. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
3. ^ Swan, "Prismatic Spectra", pp.
413-414, 419-420; McGucken,
Spectroscopy, pp. 24-27.
4. ^ John Charles
Drury Brand, Raymond Bonnett, "Lines of
Light",
p60. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
O2U8OMfLVEC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=%22Willi
am+Swan%22+spectrum+1894&source=web&ots=
PeMo6WX9e_&sig=oTOacnc_bPqGzxEF7DcQ81kv5
UI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct
=result
5. ^ William Swan (1857). XXIX.�On
the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of
Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen.
Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 21, pp 411-429.
doi:10.1017/S0080456800032233.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QyxFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA411
AND http://journals.cambridge.org/actio
n/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84
19263 German: Swan, William. "Ueber
die prismatischen Spectra der Flammen
von Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen."
Annalen der Physik 176.2 (1857):
306-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18571760212/abstract
6. ^ Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {1856}
Edinburgh, Scotland4  
[1] part of p421 from: William Swan
(1857). XXIX.—On the Prismatic
Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of
Carbon and Hydrogen. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 21, pp
411-429. doi:10.1017/S0080456800032233.
http://books.google.com/books?id=QyxFA
AAAcAAJ&pg=PA411
AND http://journals.cambridge.org/actio
n/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=84
19263 German: Swan, William. ''Ueber
die prismatischen Spectra der Flammen
von Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen.''
Annalen der Physik 176.2 (1857):
306-335. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18571760212/abstract
PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=QyxFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA421
144 YBN
[1856 AD] 3 		3774) The first synthetic dyes are
produced.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
2. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p480-482. {1856}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[3] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[4] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695
(Royal College of Chemistry) London,
England2  
[1] Aniline Other names
Phenylamine Aminobenzene Benzenamine
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani
line

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
143 YBN
[03/24/1857 AD] 4 5 6 7 		3999) The earliest extant sound
recording.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
3. ^
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/arts/2
7soun.html
4. ^ Scott's March 24, 1857 patent - as
far as I know the first publically
known rotating cylinder sound recorder
- the
telautograph http://www.firstsounds.org
/public/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pd
f {Scott_Leon_patent_1857.pdf}
{03/24/1857}
5. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
6. ^ Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se {1855}
7. ^ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Volume 22, 1900,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=P
4Ms_U3Y6T8C&pg=PA78&dq=leon+scott&as_brr
=1#v=onepage&q=leon%20scott&f=false
{1856}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.usnews.com/articles/science/2
009/06/01/earliest-known-sound-recording
s-revealed.html
[2]
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recordin
g/scott.html
[3] "Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douar
d-L%C3%A9on_Scott_de_Martinville
[4] "acoustics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6405
0>
[5] edited by Clarence John Blake, The
American journal of otology, Volume 1,
1879,p4.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrogra
ph&f=false
[6]
http://www.archive.org/stream/talkingmac
hinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachinein00mitcu
oft_djvu.txt
[7]
http://books.google.com/books?id=aIpXAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA4&dq=duhamel+vibrograph&lr=&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=duhamel%20vibrograph
&f=false
[8]
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitst
ream/handle/2022/899/Archivist_4_4_graf.
pdf?sequence=1
[9] Édouard-Léon Scott de
Martinville, "Principes de
Phonautographie",
1957 http://www.firstsounds.org/public/
First-Sounds-Working-Paper-01.pdf
Paris, France3  
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf

[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
143 YBN
[12/27/1857 AD] 4 		2974) The luminescence of various gases
in vacuum tubes under a high voltage is
observed, determined to be from the
gases (not the electrodes), and the
spectrum of the light found to be
specific to each gas.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Pl�cker, J. "Ueber die
Einwirkung des Magneten auf die
elektrischen Entladungen in
verd�nnten Gasen." Poggendorffs
Annalen der Physik und Chemie 103
(1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
"On the Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Series
4, Volume 16, num 105, August 1858,
p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Pl�cker, M. "XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 16.109 (1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408
2. ^ "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911. "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Julius_P
lucker
3. ^ Pl�cker, J. "Ueber die
Einwirkung des Magneten auf die
elektrischen Entladungen in
verd�nnten Gasen." Poggendorffs
Annalen der Physik und Chemie 103
(1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
"On the Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Series
4, Volume 16, num 105, August 1858,
p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Pl�cker, M. "XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 16.109 (1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408
4. ^ Pl�cker, J. "Ueber die
Einwirkung des Magneten auf die
elektrischen Entladungen in
verd�nnten Gasen." Poggendorffs
Annalen der Physik und Chemie 103
(1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
"On the Action of the Magnet upon the
Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Series
4, Volume 16, num 105, August 1858,
p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Pl�cker, M. "XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases." The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 16.109 (1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plucker".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker
[2] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[3]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[6]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[7] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[8] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[9]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2&pi=5 Abstract of a
Series of Papers and Notes Concerning
the Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[10] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Volume
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
[11]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
1897/f140.table
[12] E. Newton Harvey, "A History of
Luminescence", The American
Philosophical Society, 1957, 353-354
(University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany2 3
 
[1] Plücker, J. ''Ueber die Einwirkung
des Magneten auf die elektrischen
Entladungen in verdünnten Gasen.''
Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und
Chemie 103 (1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
''On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.'', Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, Volume 16, num 105, August
1858, p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Plücker, M. ''XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 16.109
(1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408 AND from
here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/53789#page/133/mode/1uphttp://en
.pedia.org//Image:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jp
g

[2] Plücker, J. ''Ueber die
Einwirkung des Magneten auf die
elektrischen Entladungen in verdünnten
Gasen.'' Poggendorffs Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 103 (1858):
88-106. books.google.com/books?id=ihM4A
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA88 English translation:
''On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.'', Philosophical Magazine,
Series 4, Volume 16, num 105, August
1858, p119
http://books.google.com/books?id=aVEwA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA119
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/53789#page/133/mode/1up {plucker_1
858_english.pdf} AND followed
by: Plücker, M. ''XLVI. Observations
on the electrical discharge through
rarefied gases.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 16.109
(1858):
408-418. http://books.google.com/books?
id=vFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408 PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/53789#page/133/mode/1up
143 YBN
[1857 AD] 4 		3628) That mountain ranges are created
by horizontal movements of the Earth's
crust is realized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Eduard Suess." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Suess, Eduard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p848.
4. ^ "Eduard Suess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/571632/Eduard-Suess>. {1857}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eduard Suess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 01 Oct.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[2] "Eduard Suess." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eduard-sues
s
[3] "Eduard Suess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Sues
s
[4] "Eduard Suess". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Eduard_S
uess
(University of Vienna) Vienna, Austria
(now Germany2 )3  
[1] English: Eduard Suess (1831 –
1914), Austrian geologist Source
http://www.jamd.com/image/g/2638599
Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Eduard_Suess00.jpg
142 YBN
[07/01/1858 AD] 17 18 		3033) The theory of evolution is
popularized: the theory that life
descends from a single common
ancestor10 , that many more organisms
than can survive are born, each with
individual differences, and through a
process of natural selection, only the
best adapted can survive to reproduce
and pass on their successful traits,
while the less adapted die out11 .12 13


Many religious people are shocked that
humans and apes might have a common
ancestor.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
2. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
4. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
5. ^ Darwin, Charles, and
Alfred Wallace. "On the tendency of
species to form varieties; and on the
perpetuation of varieties and species
by natural means of selection." Journal
of the proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London. Zoology V3 N9
(1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
6. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "natural
selection."Answers.com 23 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/natural-sel
ection
8. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
9. ^ Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the origin
of species by means of natural
selection, or the preservation of
favoured races in the struggle for
life. London: John Murray. {1st
edition}
http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialI
ntroductions/Freeman_OntheOriginofSpecie
s.html http://darwin-online.org.uk/conv
erted/pdf/1859_Origin_F373.pdf
10. ^ Currently I am presuming Darwin
and or Wallace identified the idea of a
single common ancestor for all of life
on Earth-Ted Huntington.
11. ^ "natural
selection."Answers.com 23 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/natural-sel
ection
12. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
13. ^ Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the origin
of species by means of natural
selection, or the preservation of
favoured races in the struggle for
life. London: John Murray. {1st
edition}
http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialI
ntroductions/Freeman_OntheOriginofSpecie
s.html http://darwin-online.org.uk/conv
erted/pdf/1859_Origin_F373.pdf
14. ^ "Charles Robert Darwin", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp230-231
15. ^ "Darwin, Charles."
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 30 Apr.
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>.
16. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
17. ^ Darwin, Charles, and Alfred
Wallace. "On the tendency of species to
form varieties; and on the perpetuation
of varieties and species by natural
means of selection." Journal of the
proceedings of the Linnean Society of
London. Zoology V3 N9 (1858):
45-62. http://books.google.com/books?id
=lwRvy1WD5YkC&pg=PA45
18. ^ "Darwin, Charles." Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. 30 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-910
9642>. (07/01/1858)

MORE INFO
[1] The Complete Works of Charles
Darwin Online.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/
[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rob
ert_Darwin
(Linnean Society), London, England15 16
 
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg

[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
142 YBN
[08/16/1858 AD] 4 		3305) The first transatlantic cable.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field
2. ^ "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
3. ^ "Field, Cyrus W." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 18 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
4195>.
4. ^ "Cyrus West Field." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cyrus-west-
field {08/16/1858}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cyrus West Field".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_West_
Field
[2] "Cyrus West Field". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Cyrus_We
st_Field
(Newfoundland to Ireland2 ) Atlantic
Ocean3  
[1] Field, Cyrus West (1819 -
1892) Discipline(s): Science
Patron Original Dimensions: Graphic:
31 x 21.4 cm / Sheet: 32.8 x 25.9
cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-F002-06a.jpg

[2] Cyrus West Field. Imperial
salted-paper print by the Mathew Brady
Studio 1858, National Portrait Gallery,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. secondary source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cyrus
Field.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/CyrusField.jpg
141 YBN
[08/27/1859 AD] 4 5 		3264) The first modern oil well.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Drake, Edwin Laurentine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9031134>
.
2. ^ Tate, A.N. Petroleum and Its
Products: An Account of the History,
Origin, Composition, Properties, Uses,
and Commercial Value &c., of Petroleum,
the Methods Employed in Refining It and
the Properties, Uses, Etc., of Its
Products. John W. Davies, 1863,
4. http://books.google.com/books?id=PCx
IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4
3. ^ "Edwin Drake." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake

4. ^ "Edwin Drake." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake
 (08/27/1859)
5. ^ "Edwin Drake." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edwin-drake
 (08/27/1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Edwin Laurentine Drake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Laure
ntine_Drake
(near) Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA3
 
[1] Edwin Drake [r] and Peter Wilson
[l] in front of the engine house and
derrick for the well which began the
oil industry, 1866. John Mather,
photographer. Image from PHMC, Drake
Well Museum, Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Drake's
%20well%201.jpg

[2] Edwin Drake Image from PHMC,
Drake Well Museum,
Titusville PD/Corel
source: http://www.cbsd.org/pennsylvania
people/level2_biographies/images/Edwin%2
0Drake.jpg
141 YBN
[10/20/1859 AD] 12 13 14 15 		3087) The spectral lines emitted when a
substance is burned are used to
determine the atomic composition of the
substance. That each element emits and
absorbs light at the same specific
frequencies is recognized.7

The first element in the atmosphere of
the Sun, sodium, is identified from the
two dark "D" lines in the Sun's
spectrum, and the finding that a
spectral emission line can only be
reversed to an absorption line when the
absorber is colder than the emitter.8 9

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
2. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
3. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
4. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
5. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
6. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co., 1887,
p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?h
l=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54
7. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
8. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
9. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co., 1887,
p54-56. http://books.google.com/books?h
l=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54
10. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
11. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf}
12. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, {Kirchhoff's}
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pRJDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA193 {stokes_fou
cault_kirchhoff.pdf} {10/20/1859}
13. ^ Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law"', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
} {10/20/1859}
14. ^
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
15. ^ "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] (English translation of 1860 paper)
Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
"Chemical Analysis by Observation of
Spectra", Annalen der Physik und der
Chemie (Poggendorff), Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[8] "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff",
Obituary Notice. Proc. Roy, Soc. vol.
46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany10 11  
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel AND Kirchhoff
(left) and Bunsen (right) PD
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspo
t.com/-DmiBHx0pAXc/TZGos9g4_yI/AAAAAAAAA
Wk/eFxlDSws9zI/s1600/kirchoff_bunsen.jpg


[2] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
141 YBN
[1859 AD] 3 		3714) The first rechargeable battery;
which is based on lead plates immersed
in sulfuric acid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468.
2. ^ "Planté,
Gaston." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
26 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9060
320>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p468. {1859}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.answers.com/Gaston%20Plant%C3
%A9
[2] "Gaston Planté". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Plan
t%C3%A9
[3] "Lead-acid battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_b
attery
(Conservatory of Arts and Crafts)
Paris, France2  
[1] Plante battery COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_battery1.jpg

[2] Plante cell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/plante_cel.gif
140 YBN
[04/16/1860 AD] 6 7 8 9 		3088) The element cesium is identified,
the first element to be discovered
spectroscopically3 .4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cesium." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>.
2. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861).
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as
"Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22,
329-49, 498-510 (1861).
3. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>.
4. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen (1861).
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der
Physik und Chemie 189 (7): 337–381.
doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18611890702 htt
p://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
fulltext/112489837/PDFSTART and
free: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k151986 {Bunsen_Kirchhoff_1861_cesi
um.pdf} translated in English as
"Chemical Analysis by
spectrum-observations", Phil. Mag. 22,
329-49, 498-510 (1861).
5. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
6. ^ James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
{04/16/1860}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p428-429.
{05/10/1860}
8. ^ Klaus Hentschel, Mapping the
Spectrum,
p483. http://books.google.com/books?id=
WceRw3sr-rQC&pg=PA483&lpg=PA483&dq=bunse
n++ueber+ein+neues+dem+kalium&source=web
&ots=MyI0GGw5c3&sig=uUJ6C2djUKdMeVVp3eWm
wEjwe1g&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result {05/10/1860}
9. ^ "cesium."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-902
2171>. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>
[2] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[3] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[6] G.
Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen, "Chemische
Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 186, Issue
6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[7] "Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-904
5597>
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany5  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
.pdf

[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
140 YBN
[04/??/1860 AD] 5 		3458) The position of the spectral
emission lines are found to be the same
for a variety of metals, independent of
the molecular compound the metal is in,
and the heat source used.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
2. ^ "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
3. ^ Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, Kirchhoff's. ^
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
4. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
5. ^ G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
(Full English translation) Pierre
Prevost, Balfour Stewart, Gustav
Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, De Witt
Bristol Brace, "The Laws of Radiation
and Absorption: Memoirs", American Book
Company, 1901,
pp101-125. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=AfGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq
=brace+%22laws+of+radiation+and+absorpti
on%22#PPA101,M1 (partial English
translation)
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html {
Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html} {04/1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] "Robert Wilhelm Von Bunsen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[9]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[10] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[11] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[12] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[13] "Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff", Obituary Notice.
Proc. Roy, Soc. vol. 46, p. vi. (1889).
http://journals.royalsociety.org/conte
nt/cg61418590l307t2/?p=b6c499a7daa34dfb9
4680da0469118ebπ=1 {Kirchhoff_obituary
_PRS.pdf}
[14]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[15] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375
[16] Daniel M.
Siegel, "Balfour Stewart and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff: Two Independent
Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's Radiation
Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec.,
1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf}
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany2 3 4  
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf

[2] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf
140 YBN
[1860 AD] 3 		3124) The atomic masses of some
elements are found to be far from
integral values, which casts doubt on
the theory that all elements are made
of multiples of hydrogen.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p383.
2. ^ "Jean Baptiste
André Dumas". The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford University Press,
1994, 1996, 2005. Answers.com.
http://www.answers.com/Jean+Baptiste+And
r%C3%A9+Dumas?cat=technology
3. ^ "Researches on the Mutual
Relations of Atomic Weights", in the
Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de
Belgique v10, 1860,
pp208-336. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giun
ta/stas.html

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean-Servais Stas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p830
[2] "Jean Stas." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 19 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[3] "Jean Stas." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 19 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-stas
[4] "Jean Servais Stas". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Jean_Ser
vais_Stas
[5] "Jean Servais Stas". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Servai
s_Stas
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p342
[7]
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biog
raphies/MainBiographies/S/Stas/1.html
[8] "Aaron J. Ihde", The Development of
Modern Chemistry, Courier Dover
Publications, 1984, p155 (1840)
(Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France2
(presumably) 
[1] Scan of a picture of Belgian
scientist Jean Servais Stas (who died
in 1891) Source Journal of Chemical
Education, pages 353 – 357 Date
1938 Author Timmermans, Jean PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Stas_Jean_Servais.jpg


[2] Stas, Jean Servais 19th
Century Born: Leuven (Belgium),
1813 Died Brussels (Belgium),
1891 PD/Corel
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Stas_tcm23-29677.gif
139 YBN
[06/??/1861 AD] 4 		3462) By matching solar dark lines to
the bright lines emitted by elements,
various metals are found to be in the
atmosphere of the Sun, and others are
ruled out.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0038-567
0/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-id=8f1
884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
3. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf}
4. ^ G. Kirchhoff, "Untersuchungen
über das Sonnenspektrum und Spektren
der chemischen Elemente",
Abhandlungen der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1861, 63–95 1862, 227–240; 1863,
225–240 English translation: tr.
by Henry E. Roscoe, "Researches on the
solar spectrum, and the spectra of the
chemical elements",
1862 http://books.google.com/books?id=l
4MDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover {Kirchh
off_Researches_on_the_solar_spectrum_186
1.pdf} {06/1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Bunsen." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[2] "Robert Bunsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Buns
en
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp153-154
[5]
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ch
emach/periodic/bunsen-kirchhoff.html
[6] Norman Lockyer, The Chemistry of
the Sun, Macmillan and co., (1887).
http://books.google.com/books?id=tr8KA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Fraunhofer+1
814&source=web&ots=-3MHM347gt&sig=NeAo2-
HxUlNyC-wX6KRrM3pz_so&hl=en#PPA15,M1 {T
he_Chemistry_of_the_Sun.pdf}
[7] "spectroscopy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-805
89>
[8] ULSF id 2571
[9] "Robert Wilhelm Von
Bunsen". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Robert_W
ilhelm_Von_Bunsen
[10] G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen,
"Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 186, Issue 6, (1860), pp
161-189. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489676/issue and
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
151955 {Bunsen_Kirchhuff_1860.pdf}
[11] (English translation of 1860
paper) Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert
Bunsen, "Chemical Analysis by
Observation of Spectra", Annalen der
Physik und der Chemie (Poggendorff),
Vol. 110 (1860),
pp161-189. http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/
webdocs/Chem-History/Kirchhoff-Bunsen-18
60.html {Kirchhoff-Bunsen-1860.html}
[12]
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scient
ists/bunsen.html (1859)
[13] "Bunsen, Robert
Wilhelm." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8 May 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
8091>. (1859)
[14] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour
Stewart and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff:
Two Independent Approaches to
'Kirchhoff's Radiation Law"', Isis,
Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?seq=2
{Kirchhoff_Siegal_Isis_1976_230562.pdf
}
[15] William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p109-112
[16]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kirchh
off.htm
[17] James, Frank A. J. L. (1983) "The
establishment of spectro-chemical
analysis as a practical method of
qualitative analysis, 1854-1861",
Ambix, v30, pp30-53,
p51. {Ambix_1983.pdf}
[18] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp374-375
[19] "Gustav
Kirchhoff." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 07 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gustav-kirc
hhoff
[20] "Robert Bunsen." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 May.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-buns
en
[21] Gustav Kirchhoff, "Uber die
Fraunhofer'schen Linien,"
Monatsberichte der Koniglich
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1859, pp.
662-665 (presented Oct. 20, 1859).
http://books.google.com/books?id=AE0OA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA662,M1 Reprin
ted in Gustav Kirchhoff, Gesammelte
Abhandlungen (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius
Barth, 1882), pp. 564-566, as well as
in Kangro, [Kirchhoff's]
Untersuchungen, pp. 1-6. English
translation in George Gabriel Stokes,
"On the Simultaneous Emission and
Absorption of Rays of the same definite
Refrangibility; being a translation of
a portion of a paper by M. Leon
Foucault, and of a paper by Professor
Kirchhoff," Philosophical Magazine,
1860,
19:196-197. {stokes_foucault_kirchhoff.
pdf}
[22] Daniel M. Siegel, "Balfour Stewart
and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff: Two
Independent Approaches to 'Kirchhoff's
Radiation Law', Isis, Vol. 67, No. 4
(Dec., 1976), pp.
565-600. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0562?&Search=yes&term=kirchhoff&term=gus
tav&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBa
sicSearch%3FQuery%3Dgustav%2Bkirchhoff%2
6x%3D0%26y%3D0&item=1&ttl=378&returnArti
cleService=showArticle {Kirchhoff_Siega
l_Isis_1976_230562.pdf} {12/11/1859}
[23] Gustav
Kirchhoff, "Uber den Zusammenhang
zwischen Emission und Absorption von
Licht und Warme," Monatsber. Kon.
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1859, pp.
783-787 (presented Dec. 11, 1859).
Reprinted in Abhandlungen, pp. 566-571,
as well as in Kangro, [Kirchhoff'sl
Untersuchungen, pp.
7-13. http://books.google.com/books?id=
AE0OAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0opDDCnWdNSgTdMkKm&lr=#PPA783,M1 E
nglish translation: Pierre Prevost,
Balfour Stewart, Gustav Kirchhoff,
Robert Bunsen, De Witt Bristol Brace,
"The Laws of Radiation and Absorption:
Memoirs", American Book Company, 1901,
p73- http://books.google.com/books?id=A
fGOZ4Icu6wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=brace
+laws+of+radiation#PPA73,M1
{12/11/1859}
[24] G. R. Kirchhoff, "Ueber das
Verhältnis zwischen dem
Emissionsvermögen und dem.
Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für
Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der
Physik, 109, 1860, pp275-301.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112489606/issue {Kirchhoff_black_b
ody_1860_01.pdf} Translated into
English as "On the relation between the
radiating and absorbing powers of
different bodies for light and heat",
Phil. Mag. 20 (1860), 1-21. {01/1860}
[25] Norman
Lockyer, The Chemistry of the Sun,
Macmillan and co, 1887,
p74. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
r8KAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=chemi
stry+of+the+sun#PPA74,M1
(University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg,
Germany3  
[1] [t First page of solar
spectrum] PD/Corel
source: Kirchhoff_Researches_on_the_sola
r_spectrum_1861.pdf

[2] The great spectroscope of
kirchhoff for the study of the solar
spectrum (Abh. Berliner Akad. 1861, p.
63) PD/Corel
source: http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/00
38-5670/2/6/R08/PHU_2_6_R08.pdf?request-
id=8f1884a6-fd47-447b-a653-fe3cb7086b72
139 YBN
[10/26/1861 AD] 16 17 		3997) The first microphone, speaker,
and telephone is invented. Sound is
converted to electricity and back to
sound again.11 12

A microphone converts variations in
sound (air pressure) into variations in
electric current, which can be carried
over long distances in metal wire, and
then converted back into the air
vibrations of sound using a speaker.13


Sound can be sent farther as electric
current in a wire than mechanically in
air and travels silently.14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
2. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
3. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
4. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
5. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
6. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
9. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^ Silvanus Phillips
Thompson, "Philipp Reis: inventor of
the telephone: A biographical sketch,
with ...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
{Philipp_Reis__inventor_of_the_telepho
ne.pdf}
12. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p147. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=
%22galvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE
-YQX1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl
=en&ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q
=%22galvanic%20music%22&f=false
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ George
Bartlett Prescott, "The speaking
telephone, talking phonograph, and
other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
16. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {10/26/1861}
17. ^ George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] Herbert Newton Casson, "The
history of the telephone",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4iU1AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
History+of+the+Telephone&as_brr=1#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[2] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[3] W. F. Barrett, "The Telephone, Its
History and Its Recent Improvements",
Nature, vol19, 11/07/1878,
p12-14. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=oC0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=history+microp
hone&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20micr
ophone&f=false
[4] The Talking Machine
Industry http://www.archive.org/stream/
talkingmachinein00mitcuoft/talkingmachin
ein00mitcuoft_djvu.txt
(built in workshop behind Reis's house
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany15
 
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false

[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
139 YBN
[11/07/1861 AD] 3 		3493) That the spectrum of an element
may change with change in temperature
is proven by showing that at high
temperatures a blue line appears for
lithium.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
2. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
3. ^ Dictionary of National Biography
(1901) entry for Edward
Frankland http://books.google.com/books
?id=TCYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+fran
kland&as_brr=1#PPA238,M1 {11/07/1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[7] "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
(St. Bartholomew's Hospital) London,
England2  
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 3 		2651) The first transcontinental
telegraph line, connecting San
Francisco to the East Coast of the
USA.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
2. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1861)

MORE INFO
[1] "Western Union Corporation".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
6670/Western-Union-Corporation
USA2  
[1] Description The overland pony
express — Photographed by Savage,
Salt Lake City; from a painting by
George M. Ottinger. Date 2 November
1867 Source Illustration in Harper's
weekly, v. 11, no. 566 (1867 Nov. 2),
p. 693. Scan provided by The Library of
Congress: Wood engraving after George
M. Ottinger (d. 1919) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Overland_Po
ny_Express.jpg/1280px-The_Overland_Pony_
Express.jpg

[2] Logo of The Western Union
Company COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Western_Union_money_transfer.png
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 3 		3015) The process of dialysis to
separate different substances is
invented.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360.
2. ^ "Thomas Graham".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_G
raham
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1861)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Grah
am_%28chemist%29
[2]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html (1833)
[3]
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/chemistr
y/institutes/1992/Graham.html
[4] "Graham, Thomas". Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Apr. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
7612>. (1829)
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp359-360. (1833)
(Mint) London, England2  
[1] Scientist: Graham, Thomas (1805 -
1869) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: Attributed to
C. Cook Medium: Photograph
Original Artist: Cloudet Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 12.1 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-G003-03a.jpg

[2] Thomas Graham PD/Corel
source: http://www.frca.co.uk/images/gra
ham.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 4 		3417) That some microorganisms are
anaerobic (do not need oxygen) and
others are aerobic (need oxygen) is
established.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
2. ^ Pasteur, L. "Animalcules
infusoires vivant sans gaz oxygene
libre et determinant des
fermentations." Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci.
(Paris) 52:344-347, 1861
3. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p334. {1863} {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[6]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[7] Pasteur, Louis. "Influence de
l'oxyg�ne sur le d�veloppement de
la levure et la fermentation
alcoolique."
(1861). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=o4M5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA79
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France3  
[1] Aerobically different bacteria
behave differently when grown in liquid
culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in
order to absorb maximal amount of
oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen.
3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly
at the top, since aerobic respiration
is the most beneficial one; but as lack
of oxygen does not hurt them, they can
be found all along the test tube. 4:
Microaerophiles gather at the upper
part of the test tube but not at the
top. They require oxygen but at a low
concentration. 5: Aerotolerant
bacteria are not affected at all by
oxygen, and they are evenly spread
along the test tube. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Anaerobic.png

[2] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 3 		3582) Organic chemistry is defined as
merely the chemistry of carbon
compounds with no mention of living
organisms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448.
2. ^ "August Kekule
von Stradonitz." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 16 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314308/August-Kekule-von-Stradonitz>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p446-448. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." History of Science and
Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2004. Answers.com 16 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[2] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[3] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 16
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz
[4] "Friedrich August Kekulé von
Stradonitz." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-a
ugust-kekul-von-stradonitz-german-chemis
t
[5] "Kekule Von Stradonitz (Kekulé),
(Friedrich) August", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p480-481
[6] Ernst von Meyer, translated by
George McGowan, "A History of Chemistry
from Earliest Times to the Present
Day", Macmillan and co., 1898,
p328-329. http://books.google.com/books
?id=0mJDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA328&dq=Ueber+die+C
onstitution+und+die+Metamorphosen+der+ch
emischen+Verbindungen+und+%C3%BCber+die+
chemische+Natur+des+Kohlenstoffs&lr=&as_
brr=1&ei=VTTQSOOYDoPWsgO7w90z#PPA328,M1
[7] Aug. Kekulé (1857). "Ueber die s.
g. gepaarten Verbindungen und die
Theorie der mehratomigen Radicale".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 104
(2): 129–150.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18571040202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18571040202
[8] Aug. Kekulé (1858). "Ueber die
Constitution und die Metamorphosen der
chemischen Verbindungen und über die
chemische Natur des Kohlenstoffs".
Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 106
(2): 129–159.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18581060202. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.18581060202
[9] "Kekulé Memorial Lecture", Journal
of the Chemical Society, Chemical
Society (Great Britain), Royal Society
of Chemistry (Great Britain), v.73,
1898,
p97-138. http://books.google.com/books?
id=Tus4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Friedrich+Aug
ust+Kekule+obituary&ei=oj3QSNmcGoH-sQPwl
OHbAw#PPA97,M1
(University of Ghent) Ghent, Belgium2
 
[1] Friedrich August von Stradonitz
Kekulé Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSfrieda.jpg

[2] English: Friedrich August Kekulé
von Stradonitz, german chemist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Frkekul%C3%A9.jpg
139 YBN
[1861 AD] 4 		3645) The first color image is
projected.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
2. ^ C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
Codachrome Process of Color
Photography", Bulletin of Photography:
The Weekly Magazine for the
Professional Photographer, F.V.
Chambers, (18, 439-464), 1916,
p101. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YB0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=maxwell+color+p
rojection+glass+plate&as_brr=1&ei=GIzuSM
aoJ4PytQO1zpD2Bg
3. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell>.
4. ^ "Maxwell, James Clerk", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p586-588. {1861}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Clerk Maxwell."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
_Maxwell
[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/James_Cl
erk_Maxwell
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p331
[6]
Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With
Selections from His Correspondence and
Occasional Writings", Macmillan and
co.,
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
B7gEAAAAYAAJ&dq=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+
Maxwell&pg=PP1&ots=K2dcaxBEwW&sig=A5FFti
3pAlN9BLehmaOFNBQtrAc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book
_result&resnum=4&ct=result
[7] Richard Glazebrook, "James Clerk
Maxwell and Modern Physics", Macmillan,
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hbcEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage
[8]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
[9] James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D.
Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890. http://books.google.com/books?id=
d_6fGwAACAAJ&dq=The+Scientific+intitle:P
apers+of+James+Clerk+intitle:Maxwell&as_
brr=0&ei=b3XqSJumMpK6tQOy_MXRBg
[10]
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Maxwell.html
[11] "Daniel Bernoulli". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
8863/Daniel-Bernoulli
[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
Lines of Force.", Teansactions of the
Cambridge philosophical Society,
p27-83. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=HTY8AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0Dde3miu3aQ74y2y#PPA27,M1
[13]
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html

[14] J.C. Maxwell, On the theory of
three primary colours, Proc R Inst G B
3 (1861), pp. 370–374. From James
Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by W.D. Niven., "The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk
Maxwell", C.J. Clay, 1890, p445-450
[15] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p454-456
(King's College, exhibit at the Royal
Institution) London, England3  
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg

[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
138 YBN
[02/??/1862 AD] 6 7 		3743) The spectra of metallic compounds
are found to be different than the
spectra of the metals themselves.1 2 3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lockyer, N. Studies in Spectrum
Analysis. D. Appleton and Co., 1878,
p181-185. http://books.google.com/books
?id=aDsn9AKUQ5YC&pg=PA181
2. ^ Alexander Mitscherlich, "Beiträge
zur Spectral-Analyse", Annalen Der
Physik, Volume 192, Issue 7, p
499-507. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489887/issue In his PT
article Lockyer cites which I cannot
find: Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1862,
p. 175.
3. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches
in Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with
the Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf}
4. ^ Mitscherlich, A. "ber die
Spektren der Verbindungen und der
einfachen Krper. Pogg." Ann 121
(1864): 1864,
p459. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iik4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstract {Mits
cherlich_186402xx.pdf} English: Mitsch
erlich, Alexander. "XX. On the spectra
of compounds and of simple substances."
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of
Science 28.188 (1864):
169-189. http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169
AND http://booksnow2.scholarsportal.inf
o/ebooks/oca3/42/s4philosophicalm28lond/
s4philosophicalm28lond.pdf
5. ^ Alexander Mitcherlich,
(Poggendorf's) Annalen Der Physik, No.
3, 1864, translated by Dr. E. Atkinson:
"On the Spectra of Compounds and of
Simple Substances.", Philosophical
Magazine, September 1864,
p169-189 http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA57&dq=intitle:philo
sophical+intitle:magazine+date:1864-1864
&lr=&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=iDFYScnO
F4_2lATkntjSCA#PRA2-PA169,M1
6. ^ J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches in
Spectrum-Analysis in Connexion with the
Spectrum of the Sun. No. II",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
163, 1873,
p639-658. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/3705445864711085/?p=7ebcdcbd
06ee478f9a5a3c9bdb0a7b90π=18 {Lockyer_
Norman_2_1873.pdf} {1862}
7. ^ Alexander
Mitscherlich, "Beiträge zur
Spectral-Analyse", Annalen Der Physik,
Volume 192, Issue 7, p
499-507. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/journal/112489887/issue In his PT
article Lockyer cites which I cannot
find: Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1862,
p. 175.

MORE INFO
[1] Norman Lockyer, "The
Chemistry of the Sun", Macmillan and
co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany5  
[1] {ULSF: Note these spectra are from
1864 not 1862} Mitscherlich, A.
''Über die Spektren der Verbindungen
und der einfachen Körper. Pogg.'' Ann
121 (1864): 1864,
p459. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iik4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstract {Mits
cherlich_186402xx.pdf} English: Mitsch
erlich, Alexander. ''XX. On the spectra
of compounds and of simple
substances.'' The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 28.188 (1864):
169-189. http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169
AND http://booksnow2.scholarsportal.inf
o/ebooks/oca3/42/s4philosophicalm28lond/
s4philosophicalm28lond.pdf UNKNOWN AND
Description Deutsch: Alexander
Mitscherlich als Student in Göttingen,
Aufnahme von 1858. Quelle: Archiv der
Burschenschaft Hannovera Date 4 March
2012 Source Own work Author
RRichter CC
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstracthttp
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/0/08/Mitscherlich_Alexander_Chemiker.j
pg

[2] {ULSF: Note these spectra are from
1864 not 1862} Mitscherlich, A.
''Über die Spektren der Verbindungen
und der einfachen Körper. Pogg.'' Ann
121 (1864): 1864,
p459. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iik4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/andp.18641970308/abstract {Mits
cherlich_186402xx.pdf} English: Mitsch
erlich, Alexander. ''XX. On the spectra
of compounds and of simple
substances.'' The London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 28.188 (1864):
169-189. http://books.google.com/books?
id=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169
AND http://booksnow2.scholarsportal.inf
o/ebooks/oca3/42/s4philosophicalm28lond/
s4philosophicalm28lond.pdf PD AND Des
cription Deutsch: Alexander
Mitscherlich als Student in Göttingen,
Aufnahme von 1858. Quelle: Archiv der
Burschenschaft Hannovera Date 4 March
2012 Source Own work Author
RRichter CC
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=eZEOAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA169AND http://up
load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0
8/Mitscherlich_Alexander_Chemiker.jpg
138 YBN
[11/04/1862 AD] 5 6 7 		3219) The machine gun (or Gatling gun)
is invented2 and can fire 200 bullets
per minute (around 3 bullets a
second).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p396.
3. ^ Paul F. Wahl
and Donald R. Toppel, "The Gatling
Gun",Arco Publishing Company, New York,
NY, 1965. {According to
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm "The Gatling Gun" is the best and
possibly only definitive work that has
ever been written on the Gatling gun.}
4. ^
"Richard Jordan Gatling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling
5. ^ "Richard Jordan Gatling".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jor
dan_Gatling (11/04/1862)
6. ^
http://tri.army.mil/lc/CS/csa/aagatlin.h
tm (11/04/1862)
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p396. (11/1862)

MORE INFO
[1] "Gatling, Richard Jordan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 June
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
6194>
[2] "Richard Jordan Gatling." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/richard-jor
dan-gatling
[3]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7J2rbUFy
J8 {modern Gatling guns on helicopters}
[4]
"Machine-Gun". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Machine-
Gun
Indianapolis, Indiana4
(presumably) 
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel AND Dr. Gatling with
Model 1893 Bulldog [t Is 1893 year of
photo? This is kind of a funny picture,
like a civilized ''g'day'' chap, then
casually holding a machine
gun] PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+pagePaul F. Wahl and
Donald R. Toppel, "The Gatling
Gun",Arco Publishing Company, New York,
NY, 1965. UNKNOWN

[2] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 3 		3306) A periodic table of elements.1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
2. ^ "Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre-E
mile_B%C3%A9guyer_de_Chancourtois
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p406. {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "periodic law." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-911
0603>
[2] "Element". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Element
[3] "History of the periodic table".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
the_periodic_table
[4] "Béguyer de Chancourtois,
Alexandre-Émile", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition
2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p74
(École Nationale Supérieure des Mines
de Paris) Paris, France2  
[1] Vis tellurique method of organizing
the Periodic table in 1862. PD
AND [2] Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gifhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Alexandre-Emile_B%C3%
A9guyer_de_Chancourtois.jpg

[2] Vis tellurique method of
organizing the Periodic table in
1862. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/05/Vis_tellurique_de_Chancour
tois.gif
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 7 8 		3375) The first direct-acting internal
combustion gas engine car.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
2. ^ "Étienne
Lenoir." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416.
4. ^ "Étienne
Lenoir." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>.
5. ^ William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
6. ^
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/history.html
7. ^ "Étienne Lenoir." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 01 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/336021/Etienne-Lenoir>. {1862}
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p415-416. {1860}

MORE INFO
[1] "history of technology."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1350805/history-of-technology>
[2] "Étienne Lenoir". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienn
e_Lenoir
[3] "Gas Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Gas_Engi
ne
[4]
http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/pr
ojects/cecil/engine.html
Paris5 , France6 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: The
hippomobile, a car invented by Étienne
Lenoir in 1863 Date Dont know Source
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesand
fuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/2004_deer_
fairbanks.pdf Author EERE PD
source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehi
clesandfuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/200
4_deer_fairbanks.pdf

[2] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
138 YBN
[1862 AD] 4 		3521) The absorption spectrum of a
protein is described.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
introduction to the history of
medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p610. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LOwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT485&dq=lecithin+discov
ered&as_brr=1
2. ^ Rosenfeld, L. Four Centuries of
Clinical Chemistry. Gordon & Breach
Science,
1999. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KPX6Yvax9jkC&pg=PA190
3. ^ "Hoppe-Seyler, (Ernst) Felix
(Immanuel)", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p437.
4. ^
Fielding Hudson Garrison, "An
introduction to the history of
medicine", Saunders, 1921,
p610. http://books.google.com/books?id=
LOwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT485&dq=lecithin+discov
ered&as_brr=1 {1862}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernst Felix Hoppe-Seyler."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 02
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/271586/Ernst-Felix-Immanuel-Hoppe-Seyl
er>
[2] "Hoppe-Seyler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoppe-Seyle
r
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p332
(University of Tübingen) Tübingen,
Germany3  
[1] Hoppe-Seyler, Felix PD/Corel
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/hoppe-seyler.jpg
137 YBN
[02/19/1863 AD] 6 7 		3427) Spectral lines from elements are
matched to spectral lines from other
stars.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Huggins." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
2. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
3. ^ "William Huggins." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 15 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
5. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
6. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "Note on the Lines in the
Spectra of Some of the Fixed Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 12 -
1862/1863,
p444-445. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TzQyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA444 {Huggins_Will
iam_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
{02/18/1863}
7. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[4]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[5] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[6]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[7] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
(Tulse Hill) London, England5  
[1] ''The accompanying drawing shows
with considerable accuracy the
principal lines which the authors have
seen in Sirius, Betelgeux, and
Aldebaran, and their position
relatively to the chief solar
lines.'' ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf

[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
137 YBN
[1863 AD] 3 		3414) The process of pasteurization:
heating to kill microscopic organisms
is shown to stop fermented substances
like wine and beer from going sour1 .
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p334. {1863}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[6]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France2  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
136 YBN
[02/23/1864 AD] 4 		3466) Some substances are found to emit
different spectra, depending on how
they are excited; by flame or
electricity.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, The Rise of Modern
Physics, William and Wilkins Company,
1935, p350.
2. ^ Plucker and Hittorf, "On the
Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours,
with Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
3. ^ Plucker and Hittorf, "On the
Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours,
with Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
4. ^ Plucker and Hittorf, "On the
Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours,
with Especial Regard to the Different
Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous
Substance", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 155, 1865,
pp1-29. {Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf}
{02/23/1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Plücker". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C
3%BCcker
[2]
http://www.answers.com/Julius%20Pl%C3%BC
cker%20
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4]
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
188w pp88-106 Annalen der Physik
(Leipzig). 1799. 1858 (Bd. 179 = F. 2
/ Bd. 103)
[5]
http://www.google.com/translate_t?langpa
ir=deen
[6] The Discovery of X-Rays W. C.
Rontgen; George Sarton Isis, Vol.
26, No. 2. (Mar., 1937), pp. 349-369.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap0
10040/01a00110/0 XRays_Rontgen_Sarton.p
df
[7] "John Peter Gassiot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_
Gassiot
[8]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/u247483p64245816/?p=5586690922f1445d80f
82675725be8d2π=5 Abstract of a Series
of Papers and Notes Concerning the
Electric Discharge through Rarefied
Gases and Vapours. Journal Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905) Issue Volume 10 -
1859/1860 Pages 256-269 DOI 10.1098/rs
pl.1859.0051 Plucker_1859_PT_abstract.p
df
[9] "On the Action of the Magnet upon
the Electrical Discharge in Rarefied
Gases.", Philosophical Magazine, Volume
16, plucker_1858_english.pdf
[10] "Julius Plucker". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-906
0443/Julius-Plucker (1862)
(University of Bonn) Bonn (and
Münster), Germany3  
[1] Nitrogen first order spectrum PD
source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf

[2] Nitrogen second order spectrum PD

source: Plucker_Hittorf_1865.pdf
136 YBN
[08/05/1864 AD] 6 		3178) The spectrum of a comet is first
described.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Donati, Giovanni Battista."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>.
2. ^ Monthly Notices, Royal
Astronomical Society, V25, 1865,
p114 books.google.com/books?id=KcsRAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA114
3. ^ Huggins, "On the Spectrum of Comet
1, 1866", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, V15, 1867,
p5. http://books.google.com/books?id=w1
BJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA5
4. ^ G. B. Donati, Annali dell'Istituto
e Museo di Storia della Scienza di
Firenze per il 1865, Firenze (I think
this is the comet spectra paper)
5. ^ Royal
Astronomical Society, "Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society",
Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1863, pp100-107. (translated to
English from Giovan Battista Donati,
"Memorie Astronomiche", Annals of the
Museum at Florence, 1860)
http://books.google.com/books?id=1AsAA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Donati+Flo
rence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=P-e2Qh
Lbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFocn0&hl=
en#PPA103,M1
6. ^ "Donati, Giovanni Battista."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-903
0903>. (08/05/1864)

MORE INFO
[1] "Donati, Giovan Battista",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (1981), p209
[2] "Giovanni
Battista Donati". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ba
ttista_Donati
[3] "Giovanni Battista Donati".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Giovanni
_Battista_Donati
[4]
http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIt740303/
PDF/2003MmSAI..74..556R.pdf
Florence, Italy5  
[1] [t Donati's stellar spectra. These
are difficult to read because Donati
give accompanying references for alpha,
beta, etc for example Sirius alpha is
the Sun's F line - 15'' of arc, where
Vega's alpha is the Sun's F line + 40''
of arc.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=1AsAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=Dona
ti+Florence+1860+spectra&source=web&ots=
P-e2QhLbo9&sig=bK8ckOIpAkXlBWVp2j-mcNFoc
n0&hl=en#PPA103,M1

[2] Giovan Battista Donati PD/Corel
source: http://www.astropa.unipa.it/Libr
ary/Astronomi/cover/donati.jpg
136 YBN
[09/08/1864 AD] 7 8 		3428) The spectra of nebulae and
galaxies are seen. Unlike stars,
nebulae are shown to have no spectrum
except for a few emission lines, and
therefore to be composed of gas by
using spectral comparison.3 4

The spectrum of the Andromeda galaxy
and a globular cluster are both found
to have a continuous spectrum with
absorption lines, similar to that of a
star.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864, p437-444 (and plate
10). http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
VNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA437
AND http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/154/437.full.pdf+html {Hugg
ins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ William Huggins,
William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra
of Some of the Nebulae. By William
Huggins, F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the
Paper 'On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars William Huggins F.R.A.S.,
and W. A. Miller, M.D., LL.D., Treas.
and V.P.P.S."', Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p437-444 (and plate
10). http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
VNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA437
AND http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/154/437.full.pdf+html {Hugg
ins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
5. ^ William Huggins,
William Allen Miller, "On the Spectra
of Some of the Nebulae. By William
Huggins, F.R.A.S. A Supplement to the
Paper 'On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars William Huggins F.R.A.S.,
and W. A. Miller, M.D., LL.D., Treas.
and V.P.P.S."', Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p437-444. http://rstl.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/154/437.full.pdf+html
 {Huggins_Williams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
6. ^ "Sir William Huggins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
7. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf} {09/08/1864}
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1864}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
(Tulse Hill) London, England6  
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg

[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
136 YBN
[10/27/1864 AD] 4 		3657) The theory that light is an
electromagnetic transverse wave in a
surrounding aether medium is created.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
2. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I
3. ^ "James Clerk Maxwell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
4. ^ James Clerk Maxwell, "A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field",
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p.
459-512. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA459
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., "The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell", C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I {10/27/1864}

MORE INFO
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[2] "James Clerk Maxwell." The Columbia
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Answers.com 03 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-clerk
-maxwell
[3] "James Clerk Maxwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk
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[4] "James Clerk Maxwell". Encyclopedia
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[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
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Lewis Campbell, William Garnett, "The
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_result&resnum=4&ct=result
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[8]
http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/in
dex.html
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Niven., "The Scientific Papers of James
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[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "On Faraday's
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[14] C. E. Kenneth Mees, "The
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Professional Photographer, F.V.
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[17] J. C. Maxwell, "On the Theory of
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[18] J.C. Maxwell, Experiments on
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[19] Richard C. Dougal, Clive A.
Greated, Alan E. Marson, Then and now:
James Clerk Maxwell and colour, Optics
& Laser TechnologyVolume 38, Issues
4-6, , Colour and Design in the natural
and man-made worlds, June-September
2006, Pages
210-218. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/B6V4H-4GTVWX8-2/2/81ffa7
348827c54afe28f6131e8cd2c3)
[20] J.C. Maxwell, "On the theory of
compound colours and the relations of
the colours of the spectrum", Philos
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57–84.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=9b7
0a06143558daa16d2734319ed2f85
From James Clerk Maxwell, Ed. by
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[21] H. Helmholtz, "Ueber die Theorie
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rName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.o
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00059600&_version=1&_userid=4422&md5=2d0
a056b4714d1dc1edfe6f70b4039cd H.
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[22] "color." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia
of Science and Technology. The
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[23] "Tetrachromacy". Wikipedia.
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J.E. 1993. Zebrafish ultraviolet visual
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[25] J. Challis, "On
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[28] Andre Assis, "Weber's
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Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 21 (Part 1
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http://books.google.com/books?id=IFQwA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
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161-IA4,M1 http://books.google.com/book
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[30] "James Clerk Maxwell."
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[31] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
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[32] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "A
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74,M1
[33] Electrodynamische
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[34] "Explicare
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polarizationis per vires electricas vel
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[35] "On the Possible Density
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[39]
As, for instance, the composition of
glue, treacle, etc., of which small
plastic figures are made, which after
being distorted gradually recover their
shape
[40] James Clerk Maxwell, "A treatise
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8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1 2nd
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[42] (original footnote:) Leipzig
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[43] (original footnote:) Comptes
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[44]
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[45] (original
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[46]
(original footnote:) Transactions of
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("Mechanical Energies of the Solar
System")
[47] (original footnote:) The
horizontal magnetic force at Kew is
about 1.76 in metrical units
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AIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0w
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8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&as_brr=1 vol 2:
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[57] Henry Crew, "The
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[58]
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[59] Herbert Dingle,
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[60] Augusto Righi, tr: Augustus
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Phenomena", 1909, p12
(King's College) London, England3
 
[1] Fig. 66 from Maxwell's ''A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism'' which
shows the view that light is made of
two sine waves in an aether, one wihch
is an electric displacement and another
which is a magnetic force, both which
are 90 degrees to each other. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=gmQSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0w8AGC9HxP35YR6Uk9&lr=&as_brr=1#PP
A390,M1

[2] James Clerk Maxwell, ''A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field'',
Royal Society Transactions, Vol. 155,
1865, p. 459-512;
p497. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/yw7lx230g0h64637/?p=0677f1423d9744
10b4e2e6e25d052266π=8 {Maxwell_James_C
lerk_dynamical_theory_of_em_field_1864.p
df} also in James Clerk Maxwell, Ed.
by W.D. Niven., ''The Scientific Papers
of James Clerk Maxwell'', C.J. Clay,
1890, vol1, p526-597. and with
selectable
text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_D
ynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield/Part_I PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xVNFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA497 PD
135 YBN
[04/24/1865 AD] 4 		3370) The theory of "entropy": the
quantity of a body's energy that is
unavailable for work.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Clausius, R. (1865), "Ueber
verschiedene für die Anwendung bequeme
Formen der Hauptgleichungen der
mechanischen Wärmetheorie", Annalen
der Physik 125:
353-400. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k152107/f369.table English: Rud
olf Clausius, Thomas Archer Hirst, John
Tyndall, "The Mechanical Theory of
Heat: With Its Applications to the
Steam-engine and...", J. Van Voorst,
1867. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8LIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=On+Se
veral+Convenient+Forms+of+the+Fundamenta
l+Equations+of+the+Mechanical+Theory+of+
Heat&source=web&ots=3bCIaMfz8P&sig=kWc0A
-YS1UWhLHRKN7na4fA5zN8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&resnum=1&ct=result
2. ^ "entropy." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclop�dia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 08 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/entropy
3. ^ "Clausius, Rudolf", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p195-196.
4. ^ "Rudolf Clausius."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius {04/24/1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Clausius."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/120559/Rudolf-Julius-Emanuel-Clausius>

[2] "Rudolf Clausius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-clau
sius
[3] "Rudolf Clausius". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Clau
sius
[4] "Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rudolf_J
ulius_Emmanuel_Clausius
[5]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[6] Clausius, R. (1850), “Über die
bewegende Kraft der Wärme, Part I,
Part II”, Annalen der Physik 79:
368–397, 500–524 . See English
Translation: On the Moving Force of
Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature
of Heat itself which are deducible
therefrom. Phil. Mag. (1851), 2,
1–21, 102–119. German: Part 1:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f384.table Part 2:
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15
164w/f518.table English: http://www.ar
chive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond

[7] "entropy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/189035/entropy>
(New Polytechnicum) Zurich, Germany3
 
[1] Rudolf Clausius Source
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/history/Posters2/Clausius.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Clausius.jpg

[2] Rudolf J. E. Clausius Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSrudolj.jpg
135 YBN
[1865 AD] 8 9 		3403) The Mendelian {meN-DElE-eN2 } law
of genetic inheritance (the 1:2:1 ratio
of inheritance of a trait) is
described.3

The first time specific characteristics
are followed through generations,4 and
that characteristics are inherited in
an all or none fashion is shown.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "Gregor Mendel." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
2. ^ "Mendelian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelian
3. ^ "Gregor Mendel." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 11
Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
4. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
5. ^ "Mendel, Johann Gregor", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p594-596.
6. ^ "Gregor Mendel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>.
7. ^ "Gregor Mendel." Who2?
Biographies. Who2?, 2008. Answers.com
11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p418-419. {1865}
9. ^
"Gregor Mendel." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/374739/Gregor-Mendel>. {1865}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gregor Mendel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregor-mend
el
(Natural Science Society) Brünn6 ,
Austria7 (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic) 
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg

[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
134 YBN
[05/17/1866 AD] 4 5 		3430) A nova (an exploded star1 ) is
found to be surrounded by hydrogen gas;
from its spectrum.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427.
3. ^ "Sir William
Huggins." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
4. ^ William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
{05/17/1866}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p426-427. {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
(Tulse Hill) London, England3  
[1] Spectrum of absorption and spectrum
of bright lines forming the Compound
Spectrum of a New Star near epsilon
Coronae Borealis. PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j722186535000l64/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 3 		3267) A meteor swarm is shown to have a
comet-like orbit.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp400-401.
2. ^ "Adams, John
Couch." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
.
3. ^ "Adams, John Couch."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
June 2008
<http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9003668>
. (1866)

MORE INFO
[1] "John Couch Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[2] "John Couch Adams." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[3] "John Couch Adams." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 13 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-couch-
adams
[4] "John Couch Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Couch_
Adams
[5] "John Couch Adams". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Cou
ch_Adams
(Cambridge Observatory) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] John Couch Adams PD
source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/I
mages/StarChild/scientists/adams_l1.jpg

[2] John Couch Adams. Hulton
Archive/Getty Images PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
68871&rendTypeId=4
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 6 7 		3679) Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) is prepared
and recognized as a phosphor (a
substance that exhibits
phosphorescence1 , a luminescence that
persists after removal of the exciting
source2 ).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "phosphor." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 08
Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
2. ^ "phosphorescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 08 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphoresc
ence
3. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I
4. ^
http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0000302/abrams
_b.pdf
5. ^ William M. Yen, Shigeo Shionoya,
Hajime Yamamoto, "Fundamentals of
Phosphors", CRC Press, 2006,
p238. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZgJS52jG04YC&pg=PA238&dq=theodore+sidot&
as_brr=0&ei=jbpBSYCcJ4askAS5_63LDg#PPA23
8,M1
6. ^ Raymond Kane, Raymond Kane and
Heinz Sell, "Revolution in Lamps: A
Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress", The
Fairmont Press, Inc., 2001,
p96. http://books.google.com/books?id=k
lE5qGAltjAC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=theodore
+sidot&source=web&ots=yaXfXcsJ0T&sig=ktj
D5WA5O73ht6WpAg0rZajYv4I {1866}
7. ^ William
M. Yen, Shigeo Shionoya, Hajime
Yamamoto, "Fundamentals of Phosphors",
CRC Press, 2006,
p238. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZgJS52jG04YC&pg=PA238&dq=theodore+sidot&
as_brr=0&ei=jbpBSYCcJ4askAS5_63LDg#PPA23
8,M1 {1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Phosphorescence".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Phosphor
escence
[2] "luminescence." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-6894
2>
[3] "Phosphorus". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus
[4] "luminescence." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 12 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/luminescenc
e
[5] "phosphor." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 12 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phosphor
[6] "Barium sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulf
ide
[7] F. Licetus, Litheosphorus, sive de
lapide Bononiensi lucem in se conceptam
ab ambiente claro mox in tenebris mire
conservante, Utini, ex typ. N.
Schiratti, 1640. See
http://www.chem.leeds.ac.uk/delights/tex
ts/Demonstration_21.htm
[8] "Zinc sulfide". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_sulfid
e
(Sorbonne laboratory4 ) Paris, France5
 
[1] The white material collected in the
bottom of these test tubes is zinc
sulfide that has settled out of pore
water from push cores taken during this
cruise. Photo courtesy of A.
Eisen. PD
source: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex
plorations/03windows/logs/jul30/media/zi
ncsulfideprecipitate_600.jpg
134 YBN
[1866 AD] 4 5 6 7 		3695) Dynamite is invented.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p462-463.
3. ^
http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/alfred-
nobel/
4. ^ "Nobel, Alfred Bernhard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9056
007>. {1867}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p462-463. {1866}
6. ^
"Nobel, Alfred Bernhard", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p650. {patent)1867}
7. ^ Henry De Mosenthal,
"The Life-Work of Alfred Nobel",
Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, v. 18 (Jan.-June 1899),
p443-451. http://books.google.com/books
?id=WyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA443&dq=alfred+nobe
l&as_brr=1&ei=px1TSbHgOpLOlQSCzM3bCQ
{1866}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Nobel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[2] "Alfred Nobel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[3] "Alfred Nobel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alfred-nobe
l
[4] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Bern
hard_Nobel
[5] "Alfred Bernhard Nobel".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alfred_B
ernhard_Nobel
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/indus
trial/articles/lundstrom/index.html
[7] Nobel's US patent with description
of dynamite, US#78,317 (1868-05-26)
Alfred Nobel, Improved explosive
compound. http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pd
f/foo.pl?number=78317
Paris, France3 (guess) 
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg

[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
132 YBN
[04/23/1868 AD] 5 		3435) The Doppler effect is used to
estimate the relative radial (or line
of sight) velocity of celestial objects
by comparing the position of spectral
lines from the celestial object to
those of a terrestrial light source.2
Sirius is estimated to be moving away
from the Earth.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Huggins, William. "Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925
2. ^ Huggins, William. "Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925
3. ^ William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of the Great Nebula in Orion, and on
the Motions of Some Stars towards or
from the Earth", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 20,
1871/1872,p379-394. http://books.google
.com/books?id=ffhKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA379 {Hu
ggins_Doppler_1868.pdf} {04/23/1868}
4. ^ "Sir
William Huggins." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/274848/Sir-William-Huggins>.
5. ^ Huggins, William. "Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925

MORE INFO
[1] "William Huggins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[2] "William Huggins." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[3] "William Huggins." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hug
gins
[4] "William Huggins". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hug
gins
[5] "Sir William Huggins". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Huggins
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[7] "Huggins, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p441
[8]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture15.html
[9]
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/Exp
loringtheCosmos/lecture16.html
[10] William Huggins, edited by Sir
William Huggins and Lady Huggins, "The
scientific papers of Sir William
Huggins", W. Wesley and Son, 1909
[11]
William Huggins, William Allen Miller,
"Note on the Lines in the Spectra of
Some of the Fixed Stars", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 12 - 1862/1863,
p444-445. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/025553r323116j26/?p=0fd9a491
65954b07bbb2f540f21f4853π=38 {Huggins_
William_1863.pdf} see also
{Huggins_William_1863_11.pdf}
[12] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Fixed Stars", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 154, 1864,
p413-435. {Huggins_William_1864.pdf} h
ttp://journals.royalsociety.org/content/
c60873v443483764/?p=e7dddbba8ca6456481b5
de51469415a3π=54
[13] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectra of Some of the
Nebulae. By William Huggins, F.R.A.S. A
Supplement to the Paper 'On the Spectra
of Some of the Fixed Stars William
Huggins F.R.A.S., and W. A. Miller,
M.D., LL.D., Treas. and V.P.P.S."',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
154, 1864,
p437-444. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/4474550153k52t21/?p=a944c063
26554c88a8b57d5550e80b7dπ=0 {Huggins_W
illiams_Nebulae_1864.pdf}
[14] Richard F. Hirsh, "The Riddle of
the Gaseous Nebulae", Isis, Vol. 70,
No. 2 (Jun., 1979), pp.
197-212. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
0787?seq=3 {Huggins_Isis_1979_230787.pd
f}
[15] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in the Sword-Handle of Orion",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 14,
1865,p39-42. http://journals.royalsocie
ty.org/content/41x0375851104382/?p=1e2a4
7ba864a490082ae3d43a06b356eπ=28 {Huggi
ns_William_1865_Orion.pdf}
[16] William Huggins, William Allen
Miller, "On the Spectrum of a New Star
in Corona Borealis", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 15,1866/1867,
p146-149 {Huggins_nova_1866.pdf}
[17] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet 1, 1866", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 15,
1866/1867,p5-7. {Huggins_comet_1866.pdf
}
[18] William Huggins, "On the Spectrum
of Comet II., 1868.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 16, 1867/1868,
p481-482. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/2h060vq702k86930/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=53 {Huggins_
comet2_1868.pdf}
[19] William Huggins,"Note on the
Spectrum of Uranus and the Spectrum of
Comet I., 1871", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 19, 1870/1871,
p488-491. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/0w632525127q705p/?p=2cd9532a
7227424881f3bc89e302b09cπ=54 {Huggins_
Uranus_1871.pdf}
(Tulse Hill) London, England4  
[1] [t Note that the lines are
absorption lines.] Figure 4
from: Huggins, William. ''Further
Observations on the Spectra of Some of
the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt
to Determine Therefrom Whether These
Bodies are Moving towards or from the
Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra
of the Sun and of Comet II., 1868.''
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 158 (1868):
529-564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10
.2307/108925 PD [1] William
Huggins PD/Corel
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2
307/108925

[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
132 YBN
[06/23/1868 AD] 3 4 		6252) The first practical typewriter.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p57.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p57.
3. ^ Sholes, Glidden & Soule,
"Type Writing Machine", Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ {06/23/1868}
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser,
"100 Inventions That Shaped World
History", 1993, p57. {1867}
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA2  
[1] Description Drawing for a
Typewriter, 06/23/1868. This is the
printed patent drawing for a typewriter
invented by Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W. Soule. From
the National Archives Date 23
June 1868 Source Patented Case
Files, 1836 - 1956; Records of the
Patent and Trademark Office; Record
Group 241; National Archives. (ARC
Identifier: 595503) Originally
uploaded by Brian0918 Author
Illustrator: Unknown Patent
assignees: Christopher L. Sholes,
Carlos Glidden, and J. W.
Soule Permission (Reusing this file)
Public domain - published in USA
before 1923 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/TypewriterPatent1868.
jpg

[2] Image from: Sholes, Glidden &
Soule, ''Type Writing Machine'', Patent
79265 http://www.google.com/patents?id=
t7YAAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=t7YAAAAAEBAJ
132 YBN
[11/23/1868 AD] 5 		3648) The first permanent color
photograph is created by superimposing
(and fastening together2 ) three
different colored transparent images.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
4. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
5. ^ "Louis Ducos du Hauron."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/172961/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauron>.
{11/23/1868}
?, France4  
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg

[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel

source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 3 		3418) Bacteria are isolated from
distinct diseases.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7] René
Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth Emma Proby
Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His Life and
Labours", Longmans, Green, & co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France2  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
132 YBN
[1868 AD] 3 4 		3447) The new element helium is named
from an unrecognized yellow spectral
line in the light of the Sun's
atmosphere.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261.
2. ^ "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
3. ^ "Pierre Jules César Janssen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen {1868}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p427-428. {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Janssen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/300476/Pierre-Jules-Cesar
[2] "Pierre Jules César Janssen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-jule
s-c-sar-janssen
[3] "Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Pierre_J
ules_Cesar_Janssen
[4] "Janssen, Pierre Jules César",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p459
[5] "Pierre
Janssen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jans
sen
[6] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[7] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[8] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[9] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[10] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[11] Cortie, A. L., "Sir Norman
Lockyer, 1836-1920", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 53, p.233 (ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[12]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(?), India2  
[1] Description Pierre Jules Janssen
(1824-1907) Source Bulletin de la
société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD AND
Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpghtt
p://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=10214&rendT
ypeId=4

[2] Description Pierre Jules
Janssen (1824-1907) Source Bulletin
de la société astronomique de France,
1913 Date Prior to 1907 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Pierre_Janssen.jpg
131 YBN
[01/30/1869 AD] 6 		4839) The theory that waves radiating
from the electricity in the brain might
allow images of thought to be captured
on a photograph.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "The Twentieth century", Volume
11, p900,
06/1832. http://books.google.com/books?
id=noQPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA900&dq=brain+waves&
hl=en&ei=hNvDTMfEDoygsQPa88CPDA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEwQ
6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=brain%20waves&f=false

2. ^ J.T.K., "Brain Waves: A theory",
The Spectator, 01/30/1869.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Yr0-A
QAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Knowles_James_18690130.
pdf}
3. ^ James Knowles, "The Twentieth
Century", Volume 45, 1899,
p858. http://books.google.com/books?id=
VAADAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA858&lpg=PA858&dq=%22A+
collection+of+authenticated+ghost+storie
s+relating%22&source=bl&ots=vckDukC9Jc&s
ig=utc3VF95O58EuOt0gOa7rm7ItUU&hl=en&ei=
Lk3kTKXYGpLUtQPT7-xm&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=4&sqi=2&ved=0CCMQ6AEwA
w#v=onepage&q=%22A%20collection%20of%20a
uthenticated%20ghost%20stories%20relatin
g%22&f=false
4. ^ "Sir James Knowles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Knowles
5. ^ "The Twentieth century", Volume
11, p900,
06/1832. http://books.google.com/books?
id=noQPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA900&dq=brain+waves&
hl=en&ei=hNvDTMfEDoygsQPa88CPDA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEwQ
6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=brain%20waves&f=false

6. ^ J.T.K., "Brain Waves: A theory",
The Spectator,
01/30/1869. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135 {Brain-Waves_
The_Spectator_18690130.pdf}
and {Knowles_James_18690130.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Knowles (architect)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Knowl
es_(architect)
London, England5 (presumably) 
[1] Text from: J.T.K., ''Brain Waves:
A theory'', The Spectator, 01/30/1869.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Yr0-A
QAAIAAJ&pg=135 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Yr0-AQAAIAAJ&pg=135
131 YBN
[03/17/1869 AD] 4 5 6 		3495) That a spectral emission line
becomes thicker because of increased
pressure is observed.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. N. Lockyer. "Spectroscopic
Observations of the Sun - No. III."
Royal Society of London Proceedings
Series I 17 (1868): 350-356;
p.355. books.google.com/books?id=glFJAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA350
2. ^ "Sir Edward Frankland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland
3. ^ Edward Frankland, (obituary)
Minutes of Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers,
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great
Britain),
p343-349. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4Q8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA343&dq=Edward+Fran
kland+obituary&as_brr=1
4. ^ J. N. Lockyer. "Spectroscopic
Observations of the Sun - No. III."
Royal Society of London Proceedings
Series I 17 (1868): 350-356;
p.355. books.google.com/books?id=glFJAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA350
5. ^ Frankland, Lockyer, "Preliminary
Note of Researches on Gaseous Spectra
in Relation to the Physical
Constitution of the Sun",
Journal Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
17, 1868/1869,
p288-291. books.google.com/books?id=glF
JAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA288
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307
/112396
AND http://journals.royalsociety.org/co
ntent/714t46272233x081/?p=4b4f4d0d6db641
6cb6955c3f69062267π=63 {Frankland_Lock
yer_Helium_1868.pdf} {02/11/1869}
6. ^ "Sir Edward
Frankland". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Edwa
rd_Frankland {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frankland, Edward", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p327
[2] "Sir Edward Frankland."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/217311/Sir-Edward-Frankland>
[3] "Edward Frankland." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[4] "Edward Frankland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fran
kland
[5]
http://members.cox.net/ggtext/edwardfran
kland1825_obit.html
[6] "Edward Frankland." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Aug.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-fran
kland
[7] Dictionary of National Biography
(1901) entry for Edward
Frankland http://books.google.com/books
?id=TCYJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=edward+fran
kland&as_brr=1#PPA238,M1
[8] Frankland, E., and J. N. Lockyer.
"Researches on Gaseous Spectra in
Relation to the Physical Constitution
of the Sun, Stars, and Nebulae.--Second
Note." Royal Society of London
Proceedings Series I 17 (1868):
453-454. books.google.com/books?id=glFJ
AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA453
(Royal College) London, England3  
[1] Scanned from the frontispiece of
Sketches from the life of Edward
Frankland, published in 1902 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/09/Frankland_Edward_26.jpg

[2] Sir Edward Frankland
(1825–1899), English chemist. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e9/Edward_Frankland.jpg
131 YBN
[05/??/1869 AD] 6 7 		3147) The spectrum of the Aurora
Borealis is examined and found to have
mainly one bright line not belonging to
any known simple or compound gases.1 2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. A. Angstrom, "Spectrum of the
Aurora Borealis", Philosophical
Magazine, 1869,
246-247. books.google.com/books?id=n18E
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA246
2. ^ Poggendorf's Annalen, May 1869
3. ^ A.
S. Davis, "On a possible Cause of the
Bright Line observed by M. Angstrom in
the Spectrum of Aurora Borealis",
Philosophical Magazine, July 1870, 33.
http://books.google.com/books?id=aZuzm
3GnhnIC&pg=RA1-PA33
4. ^ "Anders Jonas Angstrom".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Anders_J
onas_Angstrom
5. ^ "Ångström, Anders Jonas."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 May
2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-900
7607>.
6. ^ J. A. Angstrom, "Spectrum of the
Aurora Borealis", Philosophical
Magazine, 1869,
246-247. books.google.com/books?id=n18E
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA246
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp385-386. (1867)

MORE INFO
[1] "Anders Jonas Ångstrom." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 May. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anders-jona
s-ngstrom
[2] "Anders Jonas Angström".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Jona
s_Angstr%C3%B6m
[3] "Ångström, Anders Jonas", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp22-23
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden5  
[1] Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874)
is remembered as one of the fathers of
modern spectroscopy. His unit of
wavelength is still used worldwide; the
Ångström (1 Å = 0.1 nm). PD/Corel
source: http://www.angstrom.uu.se/bilder
/anders.jpg

[2] Anders Jonas Ångström, c.
1865 Courtesy of the Kungl.
Biblioteket, Stockholm PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13450&rendTypeId=4
131 YBN
[1869 AD] 6 7 8 		3761) The first practical artificial
plastic, Celluloid:1 a transparent
plastic2 created by heating a mixture
of nitrocellulose, camphor, and alcohol
under pressure until the mold3 .4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "John Wesley Hyatt."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 08 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/277989/John-Wesley-Hyatt>.
2. ^ "John Wesley Hyatt." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 30 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hyatt-john-
wesley
3. ^ "Hyatt, John Wesley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9041
686>.
4. ^ JOHN W. HYATT, IMPROVEMENT IN
TREATING AND MOLDING PYROXYLINE, Patent
number: 105338, Issue date: Jul 12,
1870. http://www.google.com/patents/US1
05338
5. ^
http://www.plastiquarian.com/hyatt.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p477. {1869}
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p343. {1869}
8. ^ JOHN W.
HYATT, IMPROVEMENT IN TREATING AND
MOLDING PYROXYLINE, Patent number:
105338, Issue date: Jul 12,
1870. http://www.google.com/patents/US1
05338

MORE INFO
[1] "John Wesley Hyatt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley
_Hyatt
[2] "Celluloid". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celluloid
Albany, NY, USA5  
[1] Description English: celluloid
pen Date 5 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
self-made) Author Helian (talk).
Original uploader was Helian at
en.wikipedia CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arco_pen.jpg/88
2px-Arco_pen.jpg

[2] John Wesley Hyatt Celluloid
Corporation Records PD
source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/ar
chives/images/d8009-1.jpg
130 YBN
[04/21/1870 AD] 5 6 		3571) Multiple bonds between two atoms
are described.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 .
2. ^
http://chemistry.about.com/od/famouschem
ists/p/alexandr-butlerov-bio.htm
3. ^ Butlerov, A.M. Sur La Structure
Chimique De Quelques Hydrocarbures
Non-saturés. Eggers, 1870. Mémoires
De l’Académie Impériale Des
Sciences De St.-Pétersbourg /
7. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ
4. ^ Leicester, Henry M. (1940).
"Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov".
Journal of Chemical Education 17 (May):
203 –
209. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journ
al/Issues/1940/May/index.html {Butlerov
_Aleksandr_JCE1940.pdf}
5. ^ Butlerov, A.M. Sur La Structure
Chimique De Quelques Hydrocarbures
Non-saturés. Eggers, 1870. Mémoires
De l’Académie Impériale Des
Sciences De St.-Pétersbourg /
7. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ
6. ^ "Aleksandr Butlerov."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Sep. 2008 . {1868}

MORE INFO
[1] "Aleksandr Mikhailovich
Butlerov." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 12
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aleksandr-m
ikhailovich-butlerov
[2] "Butlerov". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlerov
[3] "Butlerov, Aleksandr Mikhailovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p158
[4] Arbuzov,
B. A. (1978). "150th Anniversary of the
birth of A. M. Butlerov". Russian
Chemical Bulletin 27 (9): 1791–1794.
doi:10.1007/BF00929226.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l0
48253337nx80h0/
[5] Rocke, Alan J. "Kekulé, Butlerov,
and the historiography of the theory of
chemical structure." The British
Journal for the History of Science
14.01 (1981):
27-57. http://journals.cambridge.org/ab
stract_S0007087400018276
(Kazan University) Kazan, Russia4
 
[1] Butlerov, A.M. Sur La Structure
Chimique De Quelques Hydrocarbures
Non-saturés. Eggers, 1870. Mémoires
De l’Académie Impériale Des
Sciences De St.-Pétersbourg /
7. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&lr=&id=iZZFAAAAcAAJ

[2] Butlerov, Alexander
Michailovich 19th Century Born:
Tschistopol near Kazan (Russia), 1828
Died: Biarritz (France), 1886 PD
source: http://www.euchems.org/binaries/
Butlerov_tcm23-29647.gif
130 YBN
[04/28/1870 AD] 6 7 		3766) That specific parts of the
cerebrum can contract certain muscles
is shown by direct electrical
stimulation of the cerebrum of dogs,1 2
3 and the first map of the brain that
connects brain location to function.4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Pietro Corsi, "The Enchanted
Loom: Chapters in the History of
Neuroscience", Oxford University Press,
1990,
p211. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A9RqAAAAMAAJ&q=Julius+Eduard+Hitzig+frit
sch&dq=Julius+Eduard+Hitzig+fritsch&lr=&
ei=Ni1bSc6WF4r8lQTb9d3sCA&pgis=1
2. ^ Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E., "Ueber
die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478-479.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E., "Ueber die
elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.
6. ^ Fritsch, G. and Hitzig,
E., "Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit
des Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960. {04/28/1870}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p478-479. {1870}
(University of Berlin?) Berlin,
Germany5  
[1] Figure from English translation of
Fritsch and Hitzig 1870 paper [t
Appears to be different, with symbols
in somewhat different locations] PD
source: Fritsch, G. and Hitzig, E.,
"Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des
Grosshirns", Archiv für Anatomie,
Physiologie und wissenschaftliche
Medicin, 1870, p300-332.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_qkEA
AAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Anatom
ie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftliche&as_
brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PPA300,M
1 English translation: Fritsch, G.
and Hitzig, E., "On the Electrical
Excitability of the Cerebrum", 1870.
in: G. von Bonin, "Some Papers on the
Cerebral Cortex", Springfield, Charles
C. Thomas, 1960.

[2] Figure from original Fritsch and
Hitzig 1870 paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_qkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5&dq=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+
Anatomie+Physiologie+und+wissenschaftlic
he&as_brr=1&ei=05ZnSYqzC4TMlQSk9PjLCg#PP
A313,M1
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 3 		2687) A communication cable connects
Asia and Australia.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ The Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119.
2. ^ The Worldwide
History of Telecommunications, By Anton
A. Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119.
3. ^ The
Worldwide History of
Telecommunications, By Anton A.
Huurdeman, 2003, isbn 0471205052, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc, p119. (1870)
2  
[1] Description English: Map Showing
the Telegraph Lines In Operation, Under
Contract, and Contemplated to Complete
the Circuit of the Globe, 1869 Date
1869 Source
https://qed.princeton.edu/getfile.php?f
=Map_Showing_the_Telegraph_Lines_In_Oper
ation,_Under_Contract,_and_Contemplated_
to_Complete_the_Circuit_of_the_Globe,_18
69.jpg Author HH Lloyd & Co
Publishers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Map_Showing_the_Teleg
raph_Lines_In_Operation%2C_Under_Contrac
t%2C_and_Contemplated_to_Complete_the_Ci
rcuit_of_the_Globe%2C_1869.jpg

[2] Description Deutsch: Errichtung
des ersten Mastes der Telgraphenleitung
nach Carpentaria (Holzstich) English:
Planting the first pole on the Overland
Telegraph line to Carpentaria, Calvert,
Samuel, 1828-1913 Wood Engraving ~1870,
Held in the collection of the National
Library of Australia Date 12 December
2005 (original upload date) Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Bidgee
using CommonsHelper. Original source
is National Libraray of
Australia Author Samuel Calvert
(1828-1913) Original uploader was PDH
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-AUSTRALIA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Overland_Telegraph.jp
g
130 YBN
[1870 AD] 3 		3778) The first synthetic perfume.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>.
2. ^ "Sir William Henry Perkin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
3. ^ "Perkin, Sir William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
280>. {1870}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir William Henry Perkin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[2] "Sir William Henry Perkin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-per
kin
[3] "William Henry Perkin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Perkin
[4] "William Henry Perkin".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_
Henry_Perkin
[5] "Perkin, William Henry", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p694-695
[6] "unsaturated." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 31 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/unsaturated

[7] "Coumarin". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coumarin
(Perkin factory) Greenford Green,
England2 (presumably) 
[1] Coumarin GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cou
marinv

[2] William Henry Perkin (1838-1907),
in 1860. (Credit: Edelstein
Collection.) PD/Corel
source: http://64.202.120.86/upload/imag
e/personal-column/tony-travis/19th-centu
ary-high-tech/william-henry-perkin.jpg
129 YBN
[01/07/1871 AD] 5 		3704) A periodic table with spaces that
represent elements not found yet.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
2. ^ Журнал
Русского
физико-химического
общества при
Ленинградеском, Volume 3,
1871, p25-56. Mendeleev, Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society, 3: 25-56
(1871) also: "Collected Works", vol.
2, pp140-163. A German version of this
paper appeared in : Mendelejeff, "Die
periodische Gesetzmassigkeit der
chemischen Elemente.", Annalen der
Chemie Und Pharmazie, VIII.
Supplementband, Leipzig and Heidelberg,
1872, pp. 133–229 English
translation: http://www.rod.beavon.clar
a.net/neweleme.htm
3. ^ "Mendeleev, Dmitry Ivanovich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p596-597.
4. ^
"Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9051
977>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p464-466.
{01/07/1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Dmitri Mendeleev." History
of Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 26
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[2] "Dmitri Mendeleev." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/dmitri-mend
eleev
[3] "Dmitri Mendeleev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mend
eleev
[4]
http://starina.library.tver.ru/us-35-1.h
tm
[5] Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev, George
Kamensky, Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
Translated by George Kamensky,
Contributor Thomas Atkinson Lawson,
"The Principles of Chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co.,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OqKMCLnvcdEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Principles+of+Chemistry&as_brr=1&ei=_W9U
SfWmO4PAlQTOw7SEBA#PPP7,M1 1901
edition: http://www.archive.org/details
/principlesofchem00menduoft
[6] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p342
[7]
D. I. Mendeleev, "Sootnoshenie svoistv
s atomnym vesom elementov" (The
Relation of the Properties to the
Atomic Weights of the Elements),
Zhurnal Russkoe Fiziko-Khimicheskoe
Obshchestvo 1, 60-77 (1869) (Journal of
the Russian Chemical Society);
abstracted as "Uber die Beziehungen der
Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der
Elemente," in Zeitschrift für Chemie
12, 405-406 (1869); Note: I know of no
translation to English of the original
Mendeleev paper. abstract translated
and annotated
here: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/ea
/MENDELEEVann.HTML
[8] Stephen G. Brush, "The Reception of
Mendeleev's Periodic Law in America and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 87, No. 4 (Dec.,
1996), pp.
595-628. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23
5195?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=5&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[9] Heinz Cassebaum, George B.
Kauffman, "The Periodic System of the
Chemical Elements: The Search for Its
Discoverer", Isis, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Autumn, 1971), pp.
314-327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
9945?&Search=yes&term=mendeleev&list=hid
e&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3F
Query%3Dmendeleev%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3D
on%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Searc
h%3DSearch&item=7&ttl=136&returnArticleS
ervice=showArticle
[10] W. Odling, "On the Natural
Groupings of Elements," Phil. Mag.,
1857, 13:423-439, 480-497
[11] W. Odling, "On
the Proportional Numbers of the
Elements," Quarterly Journal of
Science, 1864,1: 642-648
(University of St. Petersburg) St.
Petersburg, Russia3 4  
[1] {ULSF: Appears to be a larger copy
of:} The 1871 Table COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.meta-synthesis.com/we
bbook/35_pt/Mendeleev_1871b.png

[2] Fig 2 The 1871 Table UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/featur
es%20laing%20fig2_mar07_tcm18-79039.jpg
129 YBN
[09/11/1871 AD] 4 		6607) The spectrum of lightning is
found to include spectral emission
lines found in air.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Vogel, "Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze", Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, "On
the Spectra of Lightning"
2. ^ "Vogel, Hermann
Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
3. ^ H. Vogel, "Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze", Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/andp.18712190810/abstr
act
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, "On
the Spectra of Lightning"
4. ^ H. Vogel, "Ueber
die Spectra der Blitze", Annalen der
Physik, vol. 219, Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, "On
the Spectra of Lightning"

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Carl Vogel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[2] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/spag/ign/
events/pdf/wf-doppl.pdf
[9]
http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMe
dalists/Vogel/VogelBio.pdf
[10]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[11]
Resultate%20spectralanalytischer%20Beoba
chtungen%2C%20angestellt%20auf%20der%20S
ternwarte%20zu%20Bothkamp
[12] Hector Macpherson, "A century's
progress in astronomy", Blackwood and
sons,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1
[13]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#
de
[14] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 06 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[15]
http://books.google.com/books?id=OZ4RAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA56&dq=vogel+doppler&lr=&as_br
r=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=rshjSdvxC5icMpizoY
gM
(private observatory) Bothkamp,
Germany2 3  
[1] H. Vogel, ''Ueber die Spectra der
Blitze'', Annalen der Physik, vol. 219,
Issue 8, 1871,
pp.653-654. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112494935/PDFSTART
English translation H. Vogel, ''On
the Spectra of Lightning'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=6QU4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA653

[2] Hermann C. Vogel, ''Resultate
spectralanalytischer Beobachtungen,
angestellt auf der Sternwarte zu
Bothkamp.'', Astronomische Nachrichten,
78, 16, 1872,
p241–252;p249-250; http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA
49
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112526975/PDFSTART
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112579623/issue {Vogel_Hermann_
Doppler_Sun_Rotation_1871.pdf} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jgZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1871-IA49
129 YBN
[1871 AD] 5 6 		2661) The start of binary digital
communication: communication using only
a series of on or off values; the
Baudot {BxDO1 } code.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Baudot code." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 09 Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baudot-code

2. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
3. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
4. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
5. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
6. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot (1874)

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
[2] "Émile Baudot". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_
Baudot
France4  
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA49

[2] Émile Baudot PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ita2.png
128 YBN
[06/07/1872 AD] 6 		6624) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is
produced;1 2 a synthetic resin, second
only to polyethylene in production,
made from the polymerization
{Pu-liMR-u-ZA-suN3 } of vinyl
chloride.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Baumann, Eugen, "Ueber einige
Vinylverbindungen"Ann. Chem. Pharm.
1872, V163,
p308-322. books.google.com/books?id=HNX
yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA308 English: "On some
vinyl compounds"
2. ^ Gottesman, Roy T., and
Donald Goodman. "Poly (vinyl
chloride)." TESS, RW.; POEHLEIN, GW
Applied polymer science 2 (1985):
383-440. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10
.1021/bk-1985-0285.ch018 {Gottesman_198
50925.pdf}
3. ^ "polymerization." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 15 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
olymerization>.
4. ^ "polyvinyl chloride (PVC)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 24 Apr.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/469242/polyvinyl-chloride>.
5. ^ Professor Eugen Baumann
(obituary), Science, Volume 5,
p51-53. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=mXwCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51&dq=Eugen+Baumann&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Eugen%20Baumann&f=f
alse
6. ^ Baumann, Eugen, "Ueber einige
Vinylverbindungen"Ann. Chem. Pharm.
1872, V163,
p308-322. books.google.com/books?id=HNX
yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA308 English: "On some
vinyl compounds"
(for doctorate at University of
Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany5  
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_c
hloride GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol
yvinyl_chloride

[2] Beschreibung Eugen Baumann
(1846 - 1896), deutscher
Chemiker Quelle
Bioanalytical.com Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
Unbekannter Fotograf Datum
vor 1896 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/e/e5/Eugen_Baumann.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 3 4 		1249) The first "binder", a machine
that automatically binds grain with
wire, into bundles.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles B. Withington",
Industrial World. National Iron and
Steel Publishing Company, 1909,
p1480. http://books.google.com/books?id
=stkcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1480
2. ^ Iles, G. Leading American
Inventors. H. Holt and company, 1912.
Biographies of Leading Americans,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hn0_AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA309
3. ^ "Charles B. Withington",
Industrial World. National Iron and
Steel Publishing Company, 1909,
p1480. http://books.google.com/books?id
=stkcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1480
4. ^ Iles, G. Leading American
Inventors. H. Holt and company, 1912.
Biographies of Leading Americans,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Hn0_AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA309

MORE INFO
[1] Hounshell, D. From the
American System to Mass Production,
1800-1932: The Development of
Manufacturing Technology in the United
States. Johns Hopkins University Press,
1985. Studies in Industry and Society,
p176. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9H3tHKUFcfsC&pg=PA176
Janesville, Wisconsin, USA2  
[1] The Withington Binder Built by the
McCormicks in 1876 This machine binds
the grain with wire.. Read more:
http://chestofbooks.com/reference/Wonder
-Book-Of-Knowledge/Development-Of-The-Re
aper-Continued.html#.UWShTncrzg8#ixzz2Q0
kr3zQv UNKNOWN
source: http://chestofbooks.com/referenc
e/Wonder-Book-Of-Knowledge/images/The-Wi
thington-Binder-Built-by-the-McCormicks-
in-1876-This-m.jpg

[2] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 3 		3317) Dust in the air is shown to
contain microorganisms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp408-409.
2. ^ "Tyndall, John",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), pp891-892.
3. ^
http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27
948?_fromAuth=1 {1872}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tyndall, John."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
June 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-907
3992>
[2] "Tyndall, John." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[3] "Tyndall, John." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[4] "Tyndall, John." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-tyndal
l
[5] "John Tyndall". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndal
l
[6] "John Tyndall". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Tyn
dall
[7] John Tyndale, "Faraday as a
Discoverer", D. Appleton,
1868. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wskKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=John
+Tyndall&as_brr=1
[8] John Tyndall, "Heat a Mode of
Motion", D. Appleton and Company,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
3DUJAAAAIAAJ&dq=John+Tyndall&as_brr=1
(Royal Institution) London, England2
 
[1] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 17 x 12 cm /
Sheet: 33 x 22.9 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-11a.jpg

[2] Scientist: Tyndall, John (1820 -
1893) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.5 x 9 cm / Sheet: 27 x
21.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-T003-08a.jpg
128 YBN
[1872 AD] 6 7 		3909) Bacteria are grown (or cultured)
outside of the body.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.asm.org/membership/index.asp?
bid=16731
2. ^ Schroeter, Julius. "Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."
Beitrge zur Biologie der Pflanzen.
Ern's Verlag, Breslau (1872):
109-126. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
{beitrgezurbiolog01berl.pdf}
3. ^ Kango, N. Textbook Of
Microbiology. I.K. International
Publishing House Pvt. Limited, 2010,
p15. http://books.google.com/books?id=e
1t6CF1OhhIC&pg=PA15
4. ^ Easter, M.C. Rapid Microbiological
Methods in the Pharmaceutical Industry.
Taylor & Francis, 2003.
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Us
7VfXfea80C&pg=PA7
5. ^ "Joseph Schröter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr
%C3%B6ter
6. ^ Schroeter, Julius. "Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."
Beigrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen.
Ern's Verlag, Breslau (1872):
109-126. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up {beit
rgezurbiolog01berl.pdf}
7. ^ Schroeter, Julius. "Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete Pigmente."
Beitrge zur Biologie der Pflanzen.
Ern's Verlag, Breslau (1872):
109-126. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
{beitrgezurbiolog01berl.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Schroeter, J. "Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete
Pigmente."Beitr. Z. Biol. D.
Pflanzen1:2, 1872,
109-126 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.
org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
(University of Breslau) Breslau, Lower
Silesia (now Wroclaw, Poland)5  
[1] Schroeter, Julius. ''Ueber einige
durch Bacterien gebildete Pigmente.''
Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen.
Ern's Verlag, Breslau (1872):
109-126. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
{beitrgezurbiolog01berl.pdf} PD
source: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/27353#page/269/mode/1up
127 YBN
[02/12/1873 AD] 4 		3336) Selenium is found to convert
light into electricity.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Willoughby Smith, "Effect of
Light on Selenium During the Passage of
An Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf}
2. ^
http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/se.
html
3. ^
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/SMITH_BIO.htm
l
4. ^ Willoughby Smith, "Effect of Light
on Selenium During the Passage of An
Electric Current", Nature, Volume 7,
Number 173, p303. (Communicated to the
Society of Telegraph Engineers,
February 12, by Mr. Latimer Clark, from
Mr. Willoughby Smith, Electrician to
the Telegraph Construction
Company.) {Smith_Willoughby_1873_seleni
um_007303e0.pdf} {02/12/1873}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willoughby Smith".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willoughby_
Smith
[2] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
Valentia, Ireland3  
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg

[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg

126 YBN
[11/23/1874 AD] 6 7 8 9 		4087) The crystal diode (or rectifier)
is invented. Metal sulfide crystals are
found to transmit electricity more
easily in one direction than in the
other, and this will later be used to
convert an alternating current into a
direct current.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Braun, F. "Ueber die
Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle",
Ann. Phys. Chem 153 (1874):
556. http://books.google.com/books?id=L
g04AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA556 English: "On the
conduction of current through metal
sulfides."
2. ^ P. Russer, "Ferdinand Braun – A
Pioneer in Wireless Technology and
Electronics", Proceedings of the 39th
European Microwave Conference, Rome ,
Italy, October 2009, pp.
547-554. http://www.researchgate.net/pu
blication/230874467_Ferdinand_Braun_-_A_
Pioneer_in_Wireless_Technology_and_Elect
ronics/file/d912f50b8696d3e42d.pdf {rus
ser_braun_2012.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
4. ^ "Karl Ferdinand
Braun." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
5. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
6. ^ Braun, F. "Ueber die Stromleitung
durch Schwefelmetalle", Ann. Phys. Chem
153 (1874):
556. http://books.google.com/books?id=L
g04AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA556 English: "On the
conduction of current through metal
sulfides."
7. ^ P. Russer, "Ferdinand Braun – A
Pioneer in Wireless Technology and
Electronics", Proceedings of the 39th
European Microwave Conference, Rome ,
Italy, October 2009, pp.
547-554. http://www.researchgate.net/pu
blication/230874467_Ferdinand_Braun_-_A_
Pioneer_in_Wireless_Technology_and_Elect
ronics/file/d912f50b8696d3e42d.pdf {rus
ser_braun_2012.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1874}
9. ^ "Karl
Ferdinand Braun." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 02 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun {1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Braun, Ferdinand."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[3] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[4] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[5] Ferdinand Braun,
"Ueber die galvanische
Leitungsfähigkeit geschmolzener
Salze.", Berlin, Chem. Ges. Ber.,
7,1874, pp. 958-962; Annal. Phys.
Chem., Volume 230 Issue 2, Pages 161 -
196. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1875
AnP...230..161B
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4w
04AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=Ueber+d
ie+galvanische+Leitungsf%C3%A4higkeit+ge
schmolzener+Salze&source=bl&ots=BVk7avlu
2b&sig=zfGwwqpObGC92VZqX_DEfd2ExDQ&hl=en
&ei=TYPKStaNNYv-tQPe2oSiBQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=Ue
ber%20die%20galvanische%20Leitungsf%C3%A
4higkeit%20geschmolzener%20Salze&f=false

(Würzburg University) Würzburg,
Germany5  
[1] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg

[2] Karl Ferdinand Braun when
older PD
source: http://phys.bspu.unibel.by/hist/
physport/gif/phys/braun.jpg
126 YBN
[12/12/1874 AD] 4 5 		3872) The basis of color photography:
putting dye in a photographic emulsion
allows specific colors of light
(including infrared) to be
photographed, because the dyes allow
only those specific colors to reach the
light sensitive silver compound.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Captain J. Waterhouse, "On
Reversed Photographs of the Solar
Spectrum beyond the Red, obtained on a
Collodion Plate", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London (1854-1905),
Volume 24, 1875/1876,
p186-189. http://books.google.com/books
?id=MRVa8_iNs_sC&pg=PA186&dq=%22On+Rever
sed+Photographs+of+the+Solar+Spectrum%22
&as_brr=1&ei=zNaMSYu2LZbskgTy76zIBQ htt
p://journals.royalsociety.org/content/a2
n6133392374462/?p=6969f2b4703f403bbbaa6a
92fdf2f324π=23
2. ^ Richter, J. Inventing the Camera.
Crabtree Publishing Company, 2006.
Breakthrough Inventions
Series. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jRC1nQ2mKW8C&pg=PT16
3. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
4. ^ Photographic News, Jan. 1, 1875.
http://books.google.com/books?id=2hVnl
5U6scEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
0c7yAhzKPFNeGUL-ML#PPA6,M1 {12/1874}
5. ^ "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
{12/12/1874}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p358
[5] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[6] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[9] Hector Macpherson, "A century's
progress in astronomy", Blackwood and
sons, 1906,
p173-175. http://books.google.com/books
?id=4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
century%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuar
pf8I#PPA175,M1
[10] "Color photography". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_photo
graphy
(Astrophysical observatory) Potsdam,
Germany3  
[1] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g

[2] Hermann Carl Vogel 1906 Bruce
Medalist PD
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/Vogel/vogel.jpg
125 YBN
[04/27/1875 AD] 5 		3851) Electrical stimulation and
physical destruction of various
portions of the brain of living
monkeys1 is shown to cause blindness,
deafness, the loss of sense of touch,
smell, and taste, and the need to
scratch.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David Ferrier, "Experiments on
the Brains of Monkeys", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 1875, p409-432.
2. ^ David
Ferrier, "Experiments on the Brains of
Monkeys", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, 1875, p409-432.
3. ^ David Ferrier,
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1875,
p409-432.
4. ^ "Ferrier, David", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p312.
5. ^ David Ferrier,
"Experiments on the Brains of Monkeys",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1875,
p409-432. {04/27/1875}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n18/histo
ry/ferrier_i.htm
[2] David Ferrier, "The Functions of
the Brain", G. P. Putnum's Sons,
1876. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=4FLdeC-35MgC&dq=%22The+Functions+o
f+the+Brain%22&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=KMqCRFDN0G&sig=Jctw2lT7onr2yNa
-ZM5zHybSWLQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result#PPR3,M1
[3] David Ferrier, "Experimental
Researches in Cerebral Physiology and
Pathology", West Riding Lunatic Asylum
Medical Reports, Vol. III. 1873.
London, Smith, Elder and Co. 15,
Waterloo Place. Reprinted in J Anat
Physiol. 1873 November; 8(Pt 1):
152–155.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/artic
lerender.fcgi?artid=1319018 http://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?art
id=1319018&blobtype=pdf
[4] David Ferrier, "The Localization of
Function in the Brain", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, 1874,
p229-232. http://books.google.com/books
?id=b5YsMcImObAC&pg=PA229&dq=david+ferri
er+date:1874-1874&lr=&ei=AwCBSdegMYbokAS
yqPXUBg#PPA229,M1
(King's College Hospital and Medical
School) London, England3 4  
[1] Figures from Ferrier's 1875
work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TasOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=david+ferrier&
lr=&ei=qP-ASdq9CKWQkAT8l8XHCg#PPA410,M1

[2] David Ferrier PD
source: http://www.lecturelist.org/asset
s/images/199.jpg
125 YBN
[08/28/1875 AD] 8 		5575) The first direct neuron reading:5
 changes in electric currents on the
brains of rabbits and monkeys are
measured during chewing, and in
response to light shown in the eyes.6
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
2. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
3. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
4. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
5. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
6. ^ Emmanuel Donchin, "Average Evoked
Potentials Methods, Results and
Evaluations", NASA,
1969. {evoked001.pdf}
7. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf}
8. ^ Richard Caton, "The Electric
Currents of the Brain", British Medical
Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} {08/28/1875}
Liverpool, England7  
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html

[2]
http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E
1IB4C&pg=PA41 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_GMeW9E1IB4C&pg=PA41
124 YBN
[02/15/1876 AD] 4 		4065) Rapidly rotating static
electricity is shown to act like an
electric current; producing a magnetic
field.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p518-519.
2. ^ "Rowland, Henry
Augustus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>.
3. ^ Henry Rowland, "On the Magnetic
Effect of Electric Convection",
American Journal of Science, 15, 1878,
p30-38. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P0adAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22On+the+Magn
etic+Effect+of+Electric+Convection%22,#v
=onepage&q=%22On%20the%20Magnetic%20Effe
ct%20of%20Electric%20Convection%22%2C&f=
false http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
4. ^ "Rowland, Henry Augustus."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
251>. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Augustus Rowland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[2] "Henry Augustus Rowland." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-augus
tus-rowland
[3] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Augus
tus_Rowland
[4] "Henry Augustus Rowland".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Henry_Au
gustus_Rowland
[5] "Rowland, Henry Augustus", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p756
[6] Henry Augustus Rowland,
"The physical papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland, Johns Hopkins university ...",
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
180EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=henry+rowland+pap
ers&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(working for Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore) (University of Berlin)
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Description Rowland
Henry.jpg English: Photograph of Henry
Rowland, the American physicist,
published in 1902 Date
1902(1902) Source
Frontispiece of The Physical
Papers of Henry Augustus
Rowland Author Henry Rowland PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Rowland_Henry.jpg
124 YBN
[05/01/1876 AD] 4 		3656) The theory that electric current
conduction in water is not due to
conduction by the water, but by
dissolved particles, such as sodium
ions, and that the high conductivity of
acids is because hydrogen is one of
their migrating components.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
2. ^ Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
3. ^ "Kohlrausch, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p496.
4. ^
Friedrich Kohlrausch, "Ueber das
Leitungsvermögen der in Wasser
gelösten Elektrolyte im Zusammenhang
mit der Wanderung ihrer
Bestandtheile.", Nachrichten von der
Königl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften und der
Georg-Augusts-Universität zu
Göttingenaus dem
Jahre. http://www.digizeitschriften.de/
index.php?id=loader&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1ID
DOC. ^=467615 English
translation: From Harry Manley
Goodwin, Michael Faraday, Johann
Wilhelm Hittorf, Friedrich Wilhelm
Georg Kohlrausch, "The Fundamental Laws
of Electrolytic Conduction: Memoirs by
Faraday, Hittorf and F. Kohlrausch",
Harper & brothers, 1899, p85-92. "On
the conductivity of Electrolytes
dissolved in Water in relation to the
Migration of their Components."
http://books.google.com/books?id=7AYNA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=On+the+condu
ctivity+of+electrolytes+dissolved+in+wat
er+kohlrausch&source=web&ots=AA37IwYcNR&
sig=4QmWXY2nO_cBcb9CMhY-YCPCIQU&hl=en&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
{05/01/1876}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/kohlra
usch.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany2 3  
[1] Friedrich Wilhelm Georg Kohlrausch
PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch2.JPG

[2] Friedrich Kohlrausch PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/kohlrausch1.JPG
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 5 6 		3819) The first practical refrigerator
is built using liquid ammonia as a
coolant.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p493.
3. ^ "Linde, Carl
von." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
4. ^ "Linde, Carl von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
354>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493. {1876}
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p351. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Paul Gottfried von
Linde". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Paul_G
ottfried_von_Linde
[2] "Refrigerating". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Refriger
ating
[3] "Linde, Carl Von", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p545
[4] "Karl Paul Von Linde",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Pergamon Press, 1914, v.178, (1914),
p113-114. http://books.google.com/books
?id=y-QGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=Carl+Paul+G
ottfried+von+Linde&as_brr=1&ei=Du9kSfCMG
JOIkAT1v7TWDQ#PPA113,M1
(Technische Hochschule) Munich,
Germany4  
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf

[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
124 YBN
[1876 AD] 6 7 8 		4094) The luminescence produced at the
cathode in an evacuated tube (under
high electric potential1 ) is named
"Cathode-rays"2 , shown to be emitted
perpendicularly to the cathode surface,
and to cast sharp shadows.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
3. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284.
5. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1876}
7. ^
"Goldstein, Eugen." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>. {1876}
8. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1876}

MORE INFO
[1] "Eugen Goldstein." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 09 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[2] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg
123 YBN
[03/05/1877 AD] 3 4 5 6 		3756) The purple pigment (rhodopsin) in
the retina is shown to turn a yellowish
color when exposed to light. Using this
effect, a rabbit retina is removed, the
changed dyes fixed with chemicals, and
a permanent picture (an "optogram") is
made showing the last image the rabbit
saw (in this case, a barred window).1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Kühne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne
2. ^ "Willy Kuhne". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Willy_Ku
hne
3. ^ Kuehne W , "Ueber den Sehpurpur"
(pp.193-195), Zentralblatt fuer die
medizinischen wissenschaften, 15/11. -
Berlin, August Hirschwald, 1877, 8°,
pp.193-208
books.google.com/books?id=nqgvAAAAIAAJ
&pg=pa193
4. ^ "Wilhelm Kühne." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-k-h
ne {1877}
5. ^ Kuehne W , "Ueber den
Sehpurpur" (pp.193-195), Zbl. med.
Wiss., 15/11. - Berlin, August
Hirschwald, 1877, 8°, pp.193-208
books.google.com/books?id=nqgvAAAAIAAJ
&pg=pa193
6. ^
http://www.medicusbooks.com/shop/USER_AR
TIKEL_HANDLING_AUFRUF.php?darstellen=1&K
ategorie_ID=23709〈=de&update_user_lang
=true&Ziel_ID=7806&javascript_enabled=tr
ue&PEPPERSESS=eb2b859175ce4ee19d9633f9c3
1fb318 {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fri
edrich_K%C3%BChne
[2] "Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p504
[3]
http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/da
ta?id=per103
[4] Kuehne W (1859) Untersuchungen
über Bewegungen und Veränderungen der
contractilen Substanzen. Archiv für
Anatomie. Physiologie und
wissenschaftliche Medicin Jahrgang
1859:748–835
http://books.google.com/books?id=dwUBA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA748&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%B
Cber+Bewegungen+und+Ver%C3%A4nderungen+d
er+contractilen+Substanzen+date:1859-185
9&lr=&as_brr=1&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=NMlYSb6
1FoyEkQT39_E0
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p351
[6]
"Franz Christian Boll". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Chris
tian_Boll
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany2  
[1] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN AND Kühne,
Wilhelm Friedrich PD
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpghttp://vlp.mpiwg-ber
lin.mpg.de/vlpimages/images/img3930.jpg

[2] One of Kühne's rabbit optograms
from 1878 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.college-optometrists.
org/filemanager/root/site_assets/museum/
eyes/Untitled789.jpg
123 YBN
[12/24/1877 AD] 8 9 		4002) A sound recording is played back
out loud.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
2. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
4. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
6. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
7. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
8. ^ Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ {12/24/1877}
9. ^ Francis
Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva Edison:
sixty years of an inventor's life",
1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/24/1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[11]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[12] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[13] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[14] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[15] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[16] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
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[17] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
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elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[19] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[20] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[21] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
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02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[24] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[25] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
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Sept. 2009
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218>
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
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=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] The Iron age, Volume 94, Issues
14-27 http://books.google.com/books?id=
Na0vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT22&dq=edison+phonograp
h+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[28]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
(private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey,
USA7  
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg

[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 3 		3928) That certain diseases are
transmitted by insects is proven (a
mosquito is shown to transmit a
parasite that causes elephantiasis).1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Patrick Manson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
2. ^ "Manson, Sir Patrick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050
623>.
3. ^ "Patrick Manson." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 20 Mar.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Patrick Manson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manson-patr
ick
[2] "Manson, Patrick", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p573
Hong Kong2 (presumably) 
[1] Subject : Sir Patrick Manson
(1844-1922) British physician,
specialist about parasitology PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Mason_Patrick_1844-19
22.jpg
123 YBN
[1877 AD] 3 		4039) Telephone wires are connected to
individual homes.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
2. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
3. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell {1877}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[3] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
Boston and New York, USA2  
[1] Alexander Graham Bell speaking into
a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg

[2] Figures 6 and 7 from Bell's
02/14/1876 patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=crhRAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_selected
_pages&cad=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
122 YBN
[10/10/1878 AD] 3 		3878) The ultra-violet spectra of
various substances are photographed.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
2. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf}
3. ^ W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3 {Hartley_H
untington_1879.pdf} {10/10/1878}
(King's College and Institute of
Chemistry) London, England2  
[1] Plate 21 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: W. N. Hartley, A. K.
Huntington, "Researches on the Action
of Organic Substances on the
Ultra-Violet Rays of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3

[2] Plate 25 from Hartley Huntington
1879 paper PD
source: same
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 4 		3576) A practical electric light bulb.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
2. ^ "incandescent lamp."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008 .
3. ^ "Sir Joseph Wilson
Swan". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Wilson_Swan
4. ^ "incandescent lamp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 14 Sep. 2008 .
{1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Sep. 2008
[2] "Joseph Swan." A
Dictionary of British History. Oxford
University Press, 2001, 2004.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[3] "Joseph Swan." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 15 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-swan

[4] "Joseph Wilson Swan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wils
on_Swan
Newcastle, England3 (presumably) 
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not the
1860 lamp but is a later 1878-1879
lamp} The lamp on the left is an early
carbon and rod filament incandescent
electric lamp made by the English
chemist, Joseph Swan (1827-1914) in
1878-1879. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/object_images/535x535/10276216.jp
g

[2] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
122 YBN
[1878 AD] 9 10 		3790) Synthetic fabric. The first
synthetic silk (rayon).5 6

Fibers are produced by forcing
(extruding) solutions of cellulose
nitrate through very tiny holes in
glass, and allowing the solvent to
evaporate.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
2. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
4. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
6. ^ "Chardonnet,
Louis-Marie-Hilaire Bernigaud, Comte
De", Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p183-184.
7. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487.
8. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p487. {1878}
10. ^ "Hilaire
Bernigaud, count de Chardonnet".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 23 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/106367/Hilaire-Bernigaud-count-d
e-Chardonnet>.

MORE INFO
[1] "rayon." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rayon
[2] "Hilaire de Chardonnet". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilaire_de_
Chardonnet
[3]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blfabric.htm
[4]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/
Chardonnet-Hilaire.html
Paris, France (presumably)8  
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg

[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
121 YBN
[04/05/1879 AD] 8 9 10 11 		4059) Molecules of bromine and iodine
are shown to be diatomic; breaking into
single atoms on heating as shown by the
density of their vapors being reduced
by two-thirds of their normal values.1
2 3 4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Victor Meyer und Carl Meyer,
"Bestimmung der dampfdichte einiger
unorganischer k�rper", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,
Volume 12 Issue 1, p609 English:
"Determination of the vapor-pressures
of some inorganic
bodies" books.google.com/books?id=CBjzA
AAAMAAJ&pg=pa609 , 1195, 1282.
2. ^ Victor
Meyer und Carl Meyer, "Bestimmung der
Dampfdichte einiger Chlormetalle",
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, Volume 12 Issue 1,
p1195 English: "Determination of the
vapour-pressures of some
Chlorides" books.google.com/books?id=CB
jzAAAAMAAJ&pg=pa1195
3. ^ Victor Meyer und Carl Meyer,
"Bestimmung der Dampfdichte einiger
unorganischer Verbindungen", Berichte
der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,
Volume 12 Issue 1, p1282 English:
"Determination of the vapour-pressures
of some Inorganic
Compounds" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=CBjzAAAAMAAJ&pg=pa1282
4. ^ "Vapour density", Watts, H. A
Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied
Branches of Other Sciences. Longmans,
Green, and co., 1881. A Dictionary of
Chemistry and the Allied Branches of
Other Sciences, p2096.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p517.
6. ^ "Meyer,
Viktor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>.
7. ^ OBITUARY., J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1897, 19 (11), pp 918–921 DOI:
10.1021/ja02085a010 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02085a010
8. ^ Victor Meyer und Carl Meyer,
"Bestimmung der dampfdichte einiger
unorganischer k�rper", Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,
Volume 12 Issue 1, p609 English:
"Determination of the vapor-pressures
of some inorganic
bodies" books.google.com/books?id=CBjzA
AAAMAAJ&pg=pa609 , 1195, 1282.
9. ^ "Vapour
density", Watts, H. A Dictionary of
Chemistry and the Allied Branches of
Other Sciences. Longmans, Green, and
co., 1881. A Dictionary of Chemistry
and the Allied Branches of Other
Sciences, p2096.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p517. {1871}
11. ^ "Meyer,
Viktor." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
24 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
400>. {1871}

MORE INFO
[1] "Viktor Meyer." A Dictionary
of Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 24 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/viktor-meye
r-1
[2] "Viktor Meyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Meye
r
[3] "Victor Meyer". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Victor_M
eyer
[4] "Victor Meyer", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p603
[5]
American chemical journal, Volume 19,
p812. http://books.google.com/books?id=
caEwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=Victor+Mayer+da
te:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Victor
%20Mayer%20date%3A1897-1897&f=false
[6] Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, Volume 16,
p786. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pOnNAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA786&dq=Victor+Maye
r+date:1897-1897&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
(University of Stuttgart), Stuttgart,
Germany7 (presumably) 
[1] Description Viktor
Meyer.jpg Deutsch: Portrait Date
1901(1901) Source ''History
of Chemistry'' by F. Moore PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Viktor_Meyer.jpg

[2] Viktor
Meyer Historia-Photo ''Meyer,
Viktor.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Sept. 2009 . PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
36829&rendTypeId=4
121 YBN
[05/15/1879 AD] 5 6 		3847) That ultraviolet light is
absorbed inside the atmosphere of Earth
is understood.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres
2. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1 {1878}
3. ^ W. N. Hartley, "On the Limit
of the Solar Spectrum, the Blue of the
Sky, and the Fluorescence of Ozone.",
Nature, v39, 1889, p474-477.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wzYCA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:n
ature+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1&ei=B1d-Sdy
FOJOmkQTouqTUBg#PPA476,M1
4. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres
5. ^ A. Cornu, "Sur la limite
ultra-violette du spectre solaire",
Comptes Rendus, Paris, 88, 1879:
1101-8.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113734?ori
gin=ads
and http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30457.image.r=cornu.langEN.f1095.tab
leDesMatieres {05/15/1879}
6. ^ Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart, "Why
the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe des
Himmels",1999), Princeton University
Press,
2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=
-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappuis+oz
one&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-PA250
,M1 {1878}

MORE INFO
[1] "Marie Alfred Cornu".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Alfre
d_Cornu
[2] A. Cornu, "Sur l'absorption par
l'atmosphere des radiations
ultra-violettes", Comptes Rendus,
Paris, 91, 1879: 1285-90
[3] "Marie Alfred
Cornu". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.

http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Marie_Al
fred_Cornu
Paris, France4  
[1] Title: Marie Alfred
Cornu Artist: Nadar Type: Giclee
Print Size: 18 x 24 in PD
source: https://www.allposters.co.uk/-sp
/Marie-Alfred-Cornu-Posters_i1590814_.ht
m

[2] French physicist Alfred Cornu
(1849-1902) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/962/00010066
2/ Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Alfred_Cornu.jpg
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 3 		3853) Chromosomes are identified in the
nucleus of cells using dyes.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Flemming, Walther."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>.
2. ^ "Flemming, Walther", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p319.5. ^
3. ^ "Flemming,
Walther." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
29 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
551>. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walther Flemming".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Fle
mming
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany2
 
[1] Image provided by the Science Photo
Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif

[2] Image provided by the Science
Photo Library PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n1/images/nrm0101_072a_f1.gif
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 3 4 5 		3958) Saccharin, the first commercially
available artificial sweetener.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "saccharin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>.
2. ^
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/1994/aug2294/
remsen.html
3. ^ "saccharin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9064
643>. {1879}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p507. {1879}
5. ^ Ira
Remsen, C. Fahlberg, "On the Oxidation
of substitution products of aromatic
hydrocarbons, On the oxidation of
orthotoluenesulphamide " American
chemical journal, 1880, p426-438.
{01/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Remsen, Ira." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
160>
[2] "Constantin Fahlberg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_
Fahlberg
[3] "Remsen, Ira", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p740
[4]
http://hubpages.com/hub/Artificial-Sweet
eners-A-History
[5]
http://www.jhu.edu/gazette/2000/sep1100/
11remsen.html
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA2  
[1] Ira Remsen PD
source: http://hopkins.typepad.com/.a/6a
00d83451db8d69e2011278fa024c28a4-pi

[2] statues of Remsen and
Fahlberg from Smithsonian may be
PD COPYRIGHTED/FAIR USE
source: http://pus.sagepub.com/cgi/repri
nt/4/3/305.pdf?ck=nck
121 YBN
[1879 AD] 4 		4183) Nucleic acids are identified.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Albrecht Kossel." Encyclop�dia
Britannica. Encyclop�dia Britannica
Online. Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 11 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c//>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546.
3. ^ "Albrecht
Kossel." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546. {1879}

MORE INFO
[1] "Kossel, Albrecht."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9046
115>
[2] "Albrecht Kossel." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 03 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albrecht-ko
ssel
[3] "Albrecht Kossel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ko
ssel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1910/kossel-bio.html
(University of Strasbourg) Strasbourg ,
Germany3  
[1] Albrecht Kossel
(1853–1927) George Grantham Bain
Collection (Library of Congress) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Kossel%2C_Albrecht_%2
81853-1927%29.jpg
120 YBN
[02/09/1880 AD] 3 		3420) A successful vaccine is created
by growing the agent of disease on an
artificial media to create a milder
form1 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1 {02/09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7] René
Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth Emma Proby
Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His Life and
Labours", Longmans, Green, & co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[8] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[9]
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
[10] "Pasteur, Louis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p532-535
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France2  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
120 YBN
[06/03/1880 AD] 7 		4038) Sound is sent and received using
light particles:3 4 a mirror vibrating
from sound sends reflected sunlight to
a receiver to be transformed back into
sound.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
2. ^ U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
3. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se
4. ^ U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
5. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
6. ^
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
7. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm {06/03/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[4] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[5] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[6] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[7] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[8] "Photophone". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[9] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
(top of Franklin School) Washington, D.
C., USA6  
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Alexander Bell's
Photophone Patent of 08/28/1880
figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
120 YBN
[11/23/1880 AD] 3 4 		3948) The cause of malaria is found to
be a protist, which shows that disease
can be caused by a protist and not only
by a bacterium.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505.
2. ^ "Charles Louis
Alphonse Laveran." Encyclopedia of
Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 06 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p505. {11/23/1880}
4. ^ "Charles
Louis Alphonse Laveran." Encyclopedia
of Public Health. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 06 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran {11/23/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Louis Alphonse
Laveran." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06
Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-lou
is-alphonse-laveran
[2] "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524
(Académie de Médecine) Paris, France2
 
[1] Charles-Louis-Alphonse Laveran.
Library of Congress PD
source: "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p524.

[2] BBC Hulton Picture
Library,''Laveran, Alphonse.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 6 Aug. 2009 .
source: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-
12547/Laveran?&articleTypeId=50
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 4 		4095) That cathode rays can be bent by
magnetic fields is shown.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik,
11 (1880), 850.
3. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Goldstein, Eugen." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 458-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 9 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] Eugen Goldstein PD
source: http://www.pkc.ac.th/kobori/Asse
ts/ChemistryMahidol1/www.il.mahidol.ac.t
h/course/ap_chemistry/atomic_structure/p
icture/bild_goldstein.jpg

[2] Eugen Goldstein 1850 -
1931 PD
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/image/goldstein.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 10 11 		4348) Piezoelectricity
{PIEZOeleKTriSiTE or PEZO- or PEAZO-5 6
7 } is discovered: when pressure is
applied to certain crystals, an
electric potential is created.8
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Piezoelectricity."
Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House, Inc. 21 Jan. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
iezoelectricity>.
2. ^ "piezoelectricity." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piezoelectr
icity
3. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piezoe
lectricity&submit=Submit
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^
"Piezoelectricity." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
iezoelectricity>.
6. ^ "piezoelectricity." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/piezoelectr
icity
7. ^
http://howjsay.com/index.php?word=piezoe
lectricity&submit=Submit
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
9. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581. {1880}
11. ^
Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Développement, par pression, de
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 91 (1880),
294. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFe
netre?O=NUMM-3048&M=tdm Need English
translation: First paragraph quoted
in:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/g9
88721517372297/ {Curie_Jacques_and_Pier
re_N0003048_PDF_296_395_1880.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[2] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
[3] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
l’électricité polaire dans les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 383
[4] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Lois du
dégagement de l’électricité par
pression dans la tourmaline", Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 92 (1881),
186
[5] Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie, "Sur
les phénomènes électriques de la
tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres
à faces inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 350
[6] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Les cristaux
héemièdres à faces inclinées, comme
sources constantes d’électricitè",
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’Académie des sciences,
93 (1881), 204
[7] Pierre Curie,Jacques
Curie, "Contractions et dilatations
produites par des tensions électriques
dan les cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137
[8] Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914
(Sorbonne) Paris, France9  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 9 		5839) An artificial muscle: the
physical contraction of rubber under
electric potential is measured.6

Practical artificial muscles will not
be used in consumer products for over
130 years.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
4. ^ W. C. Röntgen,
"Ueber die durch Electricität
bewirkten Form- und Volumenänderungen
von dielectrischen Körpern", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 247, Issue 13, pages
771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
5. ^
http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p
02-elact-pol.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ W. C.
Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity"
9. ^ W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern", Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: "About the changes in shape
and volume of dielectrics caused by
electricity" {09/1880}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[8] "Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20
Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>
[9] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
(University of Giessen) Giessen,
Germany8  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
120 YBN
[1880 AD] 		6577) Slavery is outlawed in most major
nations.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
2. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
3. ^ "slavery". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/548305/slavery/24160/Ways-of-end
ing-slavery>.
 
[1] Two Full pages from the Illustrated
London News dated 1861, an illustrated
weekly newspaper weeks date as shown on
top of page, the size of each page is
approx ( including margins as shown
)imately 11 x 16 inches (280x410). All
are genuine antique prints and not
modern copies, the Illustrated London
News is an illustrated magazine which
was first printed in 1842 and is the
finest pictorial example of a historic
social record of British and world
events up to the present day PD
source: http://www.old-print.com/mas_ass
ets/full2/P1380861/P1380861139.jpg

[2] {ULSF: Slave auction} PD
source: http://striking-women.org/sites/
striking-women.org/files/slave%20market%
20in%20virginia.jpg
119 YBN
[01/05/1881 AD] 5 6 		3608) The electronic camera and
electronic image. An image is captured
and sent electronically.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
2. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
3. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/?target=
SeeMedium&ObjectID={362EAEAA-D808-2BE4-8
8E7-CAB0D5B92C95}&s=S1&SearchString=bidw
ell&source=Search&viewby=images&
5. ^ Shelford Bidwell,
"Tele-Photography", Nature, Volume 23,
Number 589, 10 February 1881,
pp333-356. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v23/n589/index.html {Bidwell_S
helford_1881_023344a0.pdf} {01/05/1881}
6. ^
http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhi
story.htm {1881}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wNURAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA546&dq=Shelford+Bidwell+photo
telegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpGgswOOu
uTeDg#PPA546,M1
[2] Marcus J. Martin, "The Electrical
Transmission of Photographs", Sir I.
Pitman & sons, ltd.,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Aw9IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Shelford+Bidwell
+phototelegraphy&as_brr=1&ei=aHrZSMyOLpG
gswOOuuTeDg#PPA12,M1
[3] "Electricity". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electric
ity
[4] "Telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Telegrap
h
[5] "Shelford Bidwell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelford_Bi
dwell
[6] Shelford Bidwell, "Telegraphic
Photography and Electric Vision",
Nature, Volume 78 Number 2014 pp97-120,
(04 June 1908),
p105. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2014/index.html http://www.nat
ure.com/nature/journal/v78/n2014/pdf/078
105a0.pdf
London, England4 (presumably) 
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf

[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
119 YBN
[02/??/1881 AD] 3 4 		3421) A successful vaccine for anthrax
is created by gently heating the
anthrax causing bacteria.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
2. ^ "Louis Pasteur." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>.
3. ^ Henry Smith Williams, Edward
Huntington Williams, "A History of
Science", Harper, 1904,
p232. http://books.google.com/books?id=
jms3-iWQDeYC&pg=RA2-PA218&dq=Louis+Paste
ur&as_brr=1#PRA2-PA232,M1 {02/1881}
4. ^ "Louis
Pasteur." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
13 Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/445964/Louis-Pasteur>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Louis Pasteur". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paste
ur
[2] "Louis Pasteur". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Louis_Pa
steur
[3]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1651.htm
[4] "Louis Pasteur." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-paste
ur
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p334
[6]
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p421-425. {1856}
[7]
"Pasteur, Louis", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p681-684
[8] René Vallery-Radot, Elizabeth
Emma Proby Hamilton, "Louis Pasteur His
Life and Labours", Longmans, Green, &
co., 1885,
p44. http://books.google.com/books?id=h
dQ9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis
+Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA44,M1
[9] René Vallery-Radot, R. L.
Devonshire, "The Life of Pasteur",
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916, p
99. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZO
wIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Louis+
Pasteur&as_brr=1#PPA99,M1
[10]
http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/
articles/pasteur.htm#paperII
(École Normale Supérieure) Paris,
France2  
[1] * Félix Nadar (1820-1910), French
biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),
1878 (detail). Source:
http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/
misc/evprev Creator/Artist Name
Gaspar-Félix
Tournachon Alternative names Félix
Nadar Date of birth/death 1820-04-05
1910-03-21 Location of birth/death
Paris Paris Work period 1854 -
1910 Work location Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg

[2] Scientist: Pasteur, Louis (1822 -
1895) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 21 x 15.2 cm / Sheet: 33 x
23.3 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-P002-04a.jpg
119 YBN
[12/15/1881 AD] 3 4 		3738) Certain spectrum lines are found
to become broader when an element is
heated.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Cortie, A. L.,
"Sir Norman Lockyer, 1836-1920",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 53, p.233
(ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128 {Locky
er_Norman_1881_11.pdf} {12/15/1881}
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph
Norman" (Obituary Notice), Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 81, p.261 (MNRAS
Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261
[8]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England2  
[1] Joseph Lockyer BBC Hulton Picture
Library PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10214&rendTypeId=4

[2] Norman Lockyer - photo published
in the US in 1909 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8b/Lockyer-Norman.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 3 		4040) A metal detector.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp513-514.
2. ^ "Alexander
Graham Bell." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 22 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
3. ^ Alexander Graham Bell, "On the
Production and Reproduction of Sound by
Light", The American Journal of
Science, series 3, vol 20, Num 118,
October, 1880,
p305-324. http://books.google.com/books
?id=br0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=%
22On+the+Production+and+Reproduction+of+
Sound+by+Light%22,&source=bl&ots=Nd7hl7O
dtE&sig=FPHn3JeAfBWEntvH5ROq0yv2gRc&hl=e
n&ei=LBm5Sum2N4j-tAPH-ZQf&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=%22
On%20the%20Production%20and%20Reproducti
on%20of%20Sound%20by%20Light%22%2C&f=fal
se {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexander Graham Bell." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 22 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexander-g
raham-bell
[2] "Alexander Graham Bell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_G
raham_Bell
[3] "Alexander Graham Bell".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alexande
r_Graham_Bell
[4] "Bell, Alexander Graham", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp76-77
[5] Silvanus Phillips Thompson,
"Philipp Reis: inventor of the
telephone: A biographical sketch, with
...",
1883. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phil
ip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=onep
age&q=&f=false
[6] U.S. Patent 174,465 Improvement in
Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876,
issued March 7, 1876 (Bell's first
telephone
patent) http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=174465
[7] U.S. Patent 235,199 Apparatus for
Signalling and Communicating, called
Photophone, filed August 1880, issued
December
1880 http://www.google.com/patents?vid=
235199
[8] "Bell, Alexander Graham."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9015
220>
[9]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/photophone.htm
[10] "Photophone". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone
[11] "Charles Sumner Tainter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sum
ner_Tainter
[12]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun03.
html
[13]
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinve
ntions/a/Metal_Detector.htm
(Volta Lab) Washington, District of
Columbia, USA2  
[1] The drawing for Alexander Graham
Bell's metal detector CREDIT: Bell,
Alexander Graham. ''Drawing.'' June 25,
1881. Alexander Graham Bell Papers,
1862-1939, Library of Congress. PD
source: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/a
ssets/jb/gilded/jb_gilded_garshot_2_e.jp
g

[2] Alexander Graham Bell speaking
into a prototype telephone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/85/1876_Bell_Speaking_in
to_Telephone.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 14 15 16 		4157) The Michelson experiment: Light
is found to have the same speed in any
direction horizontal to the Earth; this
causes doubt about the existence of an
aether medium and about the wave theory
for light.6 7 8 9 10

An interferometer splits a beam of
monochromatic light with a glass plate
into two directions at a right angle to
each other, and reflects them back
together to detect interference. If the
Earth moves through an aether, one ray
will take more time and cause
interference, but no interference is
observed.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
2. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
3. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
5. ^ Albert A.
Michelson, "The relative motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous ether", The
American Journal of Science, Volume
122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542.
7. ^ "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
8. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544.
10. ^ Albert A.
Michelson, "The relative motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous ether", The
American Journal of Science, Volume
122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
11. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The
relative motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
12. ^ "Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>.
13. ^ "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
14. ^ Albert A. Michelson, "The
relative motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&pg=120
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p540-542. {1881}
16. ^
"Michelson, A.A.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 6 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>. {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[7] Albert Michelson,
"Interference Phenomena in a new Form
of Refractometer", Philosophical
Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
(University of Berlin) Berlin,
Germany12 13  
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false

[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 6 		4349) Inverse piezoelectricity is
proven: when an electric potential is
applied to certain crystals, the
crystal vibrates at a regular rate.1 2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Pierre Curie,Jacques Curie,
"Contractions et dilatations produites
par des tensions électriques dan les
cristaux hémièdres à faces
inclinées", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 1137.
3. ^ Pierre
Curie,Jacques Curie, "Déformations
électriques du quartz", Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de
l’Académie des sciences, 95 (1882),
914.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p580-581.
5. ^ "Pierre Curie."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
6. ^ "Pierre Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist {1881}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[3] "pyroelectricity." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
057>
(Sorbonne) Paris, France5  
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg

[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
119 YBN
[1881 AD] 3 		6646) The electric car.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ American Technical Society.
Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering:
Electric Automobiles. American
Technical Society, 1915. Cyclopedia of
Automobile Engineering: A General
Reference Work,
p11. http://books.google.com/books?id=m
zIuAAAAYAAJ%pg=PA11
2. ^ American Technical Society.
Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering:
Electric Automobiles. American
Technical Society, 1915. Cyclopedia of
Automobile Engineering: A General
Reference Work,
p11. http://books.google.com/books?id=m
zIuAAAAYAAJ%pg=PA11
3. ^ American Technical Society.
Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering:
Electric Automobiles. American
Technical Society, 1915. Cyclopedia of
Automobile Engineering: A General
Reference Work,
p11. http://books.google.com/books?id=m
zIuAAAAYAAJ%pg=PA11

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinve
ntions/a/History-Of-Electric-Vehicles.ht
m
[2] Post, R.C. Urban Mass Transit: The
Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood
Publishing Group, Incorporated, 2007.
Greenwood Technographies Series,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
Z6Kke0MZWwC&pg=PA36
[3] "electric automobile." How Products
are Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electric-au
tomobile-transp-in-encyclopedia
France2  
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is a later
electric car than Raffard's for which I
can't find any image for} Aus diesen
Motoren gehen 1882 das erste
nennenswerte5elektrisch betriebene
Straßenfahrzeug von William Ayrton und
John Perry, das Ayrton/Perry tricycle
(vgl. Abbildung 1), sowie 1895 das
erste Fahrzeug mit Verbrennungsmotor
von Carl Benz, der Benz
Patent-Motorwagen 1 (vgl. Abbildung
2) hervor. Beide sind bezüglich ihrer
Leistung etwa vergleichbar: Benz
schafft mit 0,9 PS 16 km/h,
Ayrton/Perry bringen es mit 0,5 PS auf
14 km/h. UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.grin.com/images/previ
ew-object/document.90396/307ed9bf6ef810b
9cbd6d6c074f94be7_LARGE.png

[2] Lavergne, G. The Automobile: Its
Construction and Management. Cassell
and Company, limited, 1902,
p601. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=rDAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA601
118 YBN
[01/12/1882 AD] 3 		4011) The first central electricity
station and distribution of electricity
to houses (for electric lighting); in
London.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Association of Edison
Illuminating Companies, "Edisonia," a
brief history of the early Edison
electric lighting system", 1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
2. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies, "Edisonia," a brief history
of the early Edison electric lighting
system", 1904,
p157. http://books.google.com/books?id=
uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elect
rical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=on
epage&q=&f=false {01/12/1882}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Edison." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 01 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-edis
on
[2] "Thomas Alva Edison". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva
_Edison
[3] "Thomas Alva Edison". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_A
lva_Edison
[4] "Edison, Thomas Alva", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p274
[5] Video of Thomas Edison on
youtube.com: http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=H7RQ5sKHR5E
[6] Video: A day with Thomas A. Edison
/ General Electric Co. ; producer, Bray
Studios. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/
query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER
+@band(edmp+4057s6))+@field(COLLID+ediso
n))
[7]
http://www.atheists.org/Thomas_Alva_Edis
on:_1911_Columbian_Interview
[8]
http://www.atheistempire.com/greatminds/
quotes.php?author=11
[9] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison",
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[10] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life",
1907. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] Edith C. Kenyon, "Thomas Alva
Edison: the telegraph-boy who became a
great inventor",
1896. http://books.google.com/books?id=
24UVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
[12]
http://users.belgacom.net/gc391665/micro
phone_history.htm
[13] Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas
Commerford Martin, "Edison: his life
and inventions",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qN83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA200&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[14] George Bartlett Prescott, "The
speaking telephone, talking phonograph,
and other novelties",
1878,p9. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ANw3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=t
he+speaking+telephone#v=onepage&q=&f=fal
se
[15] Théodore Achille L. Du Moncel,
"The telephone, the microphone, and the
phonograph",
1879. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Do4DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR7&dq=history+microphon
e#v=onepage&q=history%20microphone&f=fal
se
and http://books.google.com/books?id=se
QOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=history+microphone&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=history%20microphon
e&f=false
[16] Theodore Du Moncel (comte),
"Exposé des applications de
l'électricité",
http://books.google.com/books?q=editio
ns:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=&id=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&sa
=N&start=0 Volume 5
(1862): http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jdYnAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ed
itions:0WEbvzifraAvqv&lr=#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[17] Chemical news and journal of
industrial science, Volume 38, 1878,
p241. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ugYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA241&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[18] Silvanus P. Thompson, "On the
Electric Resistance of Carbon under
Pressure.", Philosophical Magazine, S5,
Vol 13, Num 81, April 1882,
p262-265. http://books.google.com/books
?id=B1IwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=%22carbon+r
elay%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20rela
y%22&f=false
[19] "Under Pressure", The Electrician,
Volume 82, 03/11/1882,
p264. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IOYTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=%22carbon+relay
%22&lr=#v=onepage&q=%22carbon%20relay%22
&f=false
[20] "plumbago>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"plumbago." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
lumbago>
[21] Edison, 12/13/1887
patent http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Gr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[22] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[23] "rheostat>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"rheostat." Online Etymology
Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian.
02 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/r
heostat>
[24]
http://atheism.about.com/library/quotes/
bl_q_TAEdison.htm
[25] Edison patent 203,014, April 30,
1878, filed
07/20/1877 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=Fr9BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[26] Edison's Patent on the pressure
relay,
203015. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=F79BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[27] Herbert Treadwell Wade,
"Phonograph", The New international
encyclopaedia, Volume
18. http://books.google.com/books?id=VD
JXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA542&dq=scott+1855+phonau
tograph&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=scott%20185
5%20phonautograph&f=false
[28] "Incandescent light bulb".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescen
t_light_bulb
[29] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[30] "Edison, Thomas Alva."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
218>
(57 Holborn Viaduct) London, England2
 
[1] first Central Station for
Incandescent lighting on earth. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=holborn&f=false

[2] Edison's 1881 steam electric
generator PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uxdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA44&dq=edison%27s+elec
trical++station+london+1880&as_brr=1#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
118 YBN
[03/24/1882 AD] 18 19 		3620) The first invisible frequency
light particle communication. The first
radio communication. The sending and
receiving of a message using light
particles by electrical induction (also
known as "electric waves", "electric
radiation", and simply "radio", but
which may just be the photoelectric
effect13 ).14 15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
2. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
4. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
5. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
6. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
7. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
8. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
9. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
10. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
11. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
12. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
13. ^ Ted Huntington.
14. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A
History of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd,
Mead & Co., 1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
15. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
16. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Electric
Communication Without Wires",
Scientific American Supplement, Number
571, 12/11/1886,
p9119. http://books.google.com/books?id
=_jEiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA9119
17. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
18. ^ A. E. Dolbear, "Mode of Electric
Communication", Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ
19. ^ John Joseph Fahie, "A History of
Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead & Co.,
1902,
p.94-100. http://books.google.com/books
?hl=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+W
ireless+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmK
fhhsRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&res
num=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1 {1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Dolbear, A.E. �On the
Development of a New Telephonic
System.� Telegraph Engineers and of
Electricians, Journal of the Society of
11.41 (1882):
130�144. books.google.com/books?id=nB
E4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA130
(employed at Tuft's College)
Sommerville, Massachusetts, USA17
 
[1] A. E. Dolbear, ''Mode of Electric
Communication'', Patent number: 350299,
Issue date: Oct 5,
1886. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
Pc9cAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=Pc9cAAAAEBAJ

[2] From Scientific American
Supplement, December 11, 1886 PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wire
less+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sour
ce=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhh
sRE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPA98,M1
118 YBN
[1882 AD] 6 7 		3947) White blood cells are identified
and their role of destroying foreign
objects in the immune system of animals
is recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505.
2. ^ "Metchnikoff,
Élie." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
3. ^ "Nobel Lectures, Physiology or
Medicine 1901-1921", Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
1967. first published in the book
series Les Prix
Nobel http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov-bio.
html
4. ^ "Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p601.
5. ^ "Metchnikoff, Élie."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
307>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), pp504-505. {1882}
7. ^
"Metchnikoff, Elie", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p601.
{1882}

MORE INFO
[1] Tauber, Alfred I.,
Metchnikoff and the origins of
immunology: from metaphor to theory,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1991
[2]
Schmalstieg FC Jr, Goldman AS., "Ilya
Ilich Metchnikoff (1845-1915) and Paul
Ehrlich (1854-1915): the centennial of
the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine.", J Med Biogr. 2008
May;16(2):96-103. http://jmb.rsmjournal
s.com/cgi/content/full/16/2/96
[3] Karnovsky ML., "Metchnikoff in
Messina: a century of studies on
phagocytosis.", N Engl J Med. 1981 May
7;304(19):1178-80. (subscription)
[4] Breathnach CS.,
"Biographical sketches--No. 44.
Metchnikoff.", Ir Med J. 1984
Sep;77(9):303. http://www.imj.ie//Archi
ve/Metchnikoff.pdf
[5] Metchnikoff O. "Life of Elie
Metchnikoff".Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co, 1921. (translation from
French). http://books.google.com/books?
id=Y-MHAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=L
ife+of+Elie+Metchnikoff#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse http://www.archive.org/stream/life
ofeliemetchn00metciala/lifeofeliemetchn0
0metciala_djvu.txt
[6] Metchnikolf E. Ueber eine
Sporosspiizkrankheit der Daphnien.
Virchows Archiv für pathologische
Anatomie und Physiologie und für
klinische Medizin 1884; 96: 177-95.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AQ8BA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA54&dq=Archiv+OR+f%C3%BCr+OR
+pathologische+OR+Anatomie+inauthor:Virc
how&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_min
y_is=1884&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1884&a
s_brr=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] Elie Metchnikoff, "Lectures on the
comparative pathology of inflammation",
1893. (translated from
French) http://books.google.com/books?i
d=5ojk1BDdCqwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Un
tersuchungen+%C3%BCber+die+intracellul%C
3%A4re+Verdauung+bei+Wirbellosen+Tieren.
&source=gbs_book_other_versions_r&cad=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
(In his own private laboratory)3
Messina, Italy4 5  
[1] Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, by
Nadar. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Ilja_Iljitsch_Metschn
ikow_Nadar.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Medicine,
1908. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/10/Ilya_Mechnikov_%28Nob
el_1908%29.png
117 YBN
[03/05/1883 AD] 3 		3880) That infrared light is absorbed
by the atmosphere of Earth, and that
some of this absorption is due to water
is recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf}
2. ^ "Obituary Notices of Fellows
Deceased", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character (1905-1934), Volume 99,
Number 701 / September 01,
1921. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/d7l4r2h4722p4t7h/fulltext.pdf
3. ^ Captain Abney and Lieut.-Colonel
Festing, "Atmospheric Absorption in the
Infra-Red of the Solar Spectrum.",
Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6 {Abney_Festi
ng_1883.pdf} {03/05/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5 Feb. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9003
370>
[2] "William de Wiveleslie Abney." The
Oxford Companion to the Photograph.
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Answers.com 06 Feb. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-de-
wiveleslie-abney
[3] "William de Wiveleslie Abney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_
Wiveleslie_Abney
[4] "Sir William De Wiveleslie Abney".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_De_Wiveleslie_Abney
[5] "Abney, William De Wiveleslie",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p3
[6]
"emulsion." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Feb.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emulsion
[7] obituary, Nature, 12/09/1920,
p476. http://books.google.com/books?id=
bVLqQH3wHO0C&pg=PA476&dq=William+de+Wive
leslie+Abney+date:1920-1921&lr=&as_brr=1
&ei=dbSMScjDKYfEkASz_O3IBQ
[8] Captain W. De W. Abney, "On the
Photographic Method of Mapping the
Least Refrangible End of the Solar
Spectrum", Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London
(1776-1886), Volume 171, 1880,
p653-667. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/148420u840671470/?p=12743c5b
25164e94b61dc12adaa314eeπ=45
[9] John F. W. Herschel, "On the
Chemical Action of the Rays of the
Solar Spectrum on Preparations of
Silver and Other Substances, Both
Metallic and Non-Metallic, and on Some
Photographic Processes", Philosophical
Transactions, v130, 1840,
p1-59. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/j3401r3x2g4r02h8/?p=684dc9788b8
f4fdba45c07657d6560dfπ=11
[10] Captain Abney, Lieut.-Colonel
Festing , "On the Influence of the
Atomic Grouping in the Molecules of
Organic Bodies on Their Absorption in
the Infra-Red Region of the Spectrum",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
172, 1881,
p887-918. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/l1265167un20754x/?p=6dd90979
e2ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=4
[11] W. N. Hartley, A. K. Huntington,
"Researches on the Action of Organic
Substances on the Ultra-Violet Rays of
the Spectrum", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886), Volume 170, 1879,
p257-274. http://journals.royalsociety.
org/content/m5x231r091n48288/?p=17c6ba33
3abb4267ac77d5f672a6e695π=3
(Science and Art Department) South
Kensington, England2  
[1] Diagram from Abney Festing 1883
paper. In this image wavelengths
increase to the right, the infrared
being on the right beyond A. Absorption
is black while light is white.[t] PD
source: Captain Abney and
Lieut.-Colonel Festing, "Atmospheric
Absorption in the Infra-Red of the
Solar Spectrum.", Phil. Trans., 1883,
p80-83. http://journals.royalsociety.or
g/content/767j2732gwtj7864/?p=6dd90979e2
ab457f9f3af40cbfb58d9dπ=6

[2] ''Abney, Sir William de
Wiveleslie.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Feb.
2009 . [t Abney died in 1920 so photo
is:] PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
13667&rendTypeId=4
117 YBN
[06/06/1883 AD] 3 		4339) The theory of ionic dissociation,
how molecules that are electrolytes
separate in a liquid to form two or
more charged "ions".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p577-579.
3. ^ Svante
Arrhenius, "Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes",
1884. http://books.google.com/books?id=
oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rech
erches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galvan
ique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_DiL
MK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false {06/06/1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Arrhenius, Svante August."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 19 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9009
618>
[2] "Svante Arrhenius." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[3] "Svante Arrhenius." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 19 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/svante-arrh
enius
[4] "Svante August Arrhenius".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_Augu
st_Arrhenius
(Institute of Physics of the Academy of
Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden2  
[1] table from: Recherches sur la
conductibilité galvanique des
électrolytes By Svante
Arrhenius 06/06/1883 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oao6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rec
herches+sur+la+conductibilit%C3%A9+galva
nique+des+electrolytes&hl=en&ei=qU30S_Di
LMK88gaXrOyrDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q&f=false

[2] Svante August
Arrhenius 1859-1927 Portrait:
3 Location - Floor: First - Zone: Room
138 - Wall: South - Sequence:
6 Source: Chemical Heritage
Foundation Sponsor: Kris A.
Berglund UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/arrhenc.jpg
116 YBN
[04/23/1884 AD] 5 6 7 8 		4206) The first practical steam turbine
{TR-BiN or TR-BIN1 }, a steam engine
that uses steam to turn a wheel with
blades around the rim directly.2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "turbine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 16
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/turbine
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p551-552.
3. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp
4. ^ "Charles Algernon Parsons." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
5. ^ US Patent
#328710 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false {04/23/1884}
6. ^
http://www.birrcastle.com/inventionsAndE
xperiments.asp {04/1884}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p551-552. {1884}
8. ^
"Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9058
570>. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Algernon Parsons."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-alg
ernon-parsons
[2] "Charles Algernon Parsons".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alg
ernon_Parsons
[3]
http://www.houseofdavid.ca/parsons.htm
(Clarke, Chapman and Company3 )
Gateshead, England4  
[1] Drawing from 1884 patent - from US
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=d_5sAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Charles Algernon Parsons
(1854–1931), British engineer,
inventor of the steam turbine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Charles_Algernon_Pars
ons.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 4 		3398) High pitch whistles measure the
threshold of human hearing to be 18 khz
(or 18 thousand cycles per second).1
A
system of fingerprinting is
established.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p416-417.
3. ^ "Francis
Galton." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
4. ^ "Francis Galton." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Francis Galton."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 07
Jul. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/224628/Sir-Francis-Galton>
[2] "Francis Galton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Jul.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[3] "Francis Galton." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 09 Jul. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-gal
ton
[4] "Francis Galton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Gal
ton
[5] "Sir Francis Galton". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Fran
cis_Galton
[6]
http://www.sciencetimeline.net/1866.htm
[7] "Galton, Francis", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 1, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1981), p273
[8] "anticyclone."
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. 08 Jul. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/a
nticyclone>
London, England3  
[1] Galton published two major works
about fingerprints. The cover of the
first, Finger Prints, contained a full
set of his own prints He also
published an important booklet on
decipherment of blurred
fingerprints: Facsimile 1892 Finger
Prints. Macmillan , London Facsimile
1893 Decipherment of Blurred Finger
Prints. Macmillan , London 1894
Physical Index to 100 Persons Based on
their Measures and Finger Prints
Privately printed Facsimile 1895
Finger Print Directories. Macmillan ,
London Galton also published a great
number of scholarly papers, popular
articles, letters and interviews on
the subject of fingerprints. This was
important groundwork, and prepared the
way for the positive findings of the
Parliamentary committee of 1894, which
soon led to the acceptance of
fingerprint testimony in the courts, to
identify recidivists, and later to
their forensic use. Facsimile
1888 'Personal identification and
description.' Nature 38 : 173-7, 201-2
UNKNOWN AND Galton
Whistle COPYRIGHTED AND {ULSF: Photo
of Galton probably in his 50s} PD
source: http://www.sonochemistry.info/Fi
g%203-1.JPGhttp://galton.org/images/fing
er-prints.jpghttp://i63.photobucket.com/
albums/h149/demotivator/FrancisGalton.jp
g

[2] Description English: Portrait
of Francis Galton (1822-1911),
Victorian polymath Date c1860 Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fran
cis_Galton-by_Octavius_Oakley.jpg Autho
r Octavius Oakley
(1800-1867) Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Francis_Galton00.jpg
116 YBN
[1884 AD] 4 5 		4315) The first use of a local
anesthetic: (a drug that stops the
conduction of impulses in sensory
nerves in the region where it is
applied1 ); cocaine.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oxford A-Z of Medicinal Drugs
Market University Press. © 2000, 2003,
2010 An A-Z of Medicinal
Drugs. http://www.answers.com/topic/loc
al-anesthetic
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569.
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=OT-gAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA292&dq=Carl+Koller+1884&hl=en
&ei=smLbS5nALo-KsgPo_pBt&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p568-569. {1884}
5. ^
"Koller, Carl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9045
941>. {1884}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carl Koller". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Koller

(General Hospital in Vienna) Vienna,
Austria3  
[1] Carl Coller.jpg Deutsch: Carl
Koller (1857-1944) Date “Foto,
um 1910.” Source
http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.e
ncyclop.k/k561735.htm Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7e/Carl_Coller.jpg
115 YBN
[01/30/1885 AD] 5 6 7 		3500) The Balmer series is discovered,
a simple mathematical formula that
gives the wavelengths of the spectral
lines of hydrogen.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Johann Jakob Balmer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Aug. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johann-jako
b-balmer
2. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885)
750. http://books.google.com/books?id=1
LUEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA750 and Annalen der
Physik und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html
3. ^ Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966),
p363-365. {Balmer.pdf}
4. ^ "Johann Jakob Balmer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Aug. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/50792/Johann-Jakob-Balmer>.
5. ^ J.J. Balmer. "Notiz über die
Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs.",
Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Basel, 7 (1885) 548; 7
(1885) 750. and Annalen der Physik
und Chemie N.F. 25: 80–87,
1885. http://www3.interscience.wiley.co
m/journal/112487600/abstract {Balmer_Jo
hann_1885.pdf} translated to
English: (as translated and published
by Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The
World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York:
Basic Books, 1966) with omissions
filled in by Carmen
Giunta) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
balmer.html {01/30/1885}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p435. {1885}
7. ^
"Theory Of Radiation". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theory_O
f_Radiation {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johann Jakob Balmer".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Jako
b_Balmer
(Secondary School3 ) Basel,
Switzerland4  
[1] [t one of Balmer's
tables] PD/Corel
source: Balmer_Johann_1885.pdf

[2] [t English translation of Blamer
table from 1885 work.] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/b
almer.html
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 4 		3711) The first practical gasoline
engine1 and motor boat2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>.
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
3. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
4. ^ "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gottlieb Daimler." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[2] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[3] "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany3  
[1] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1

[2] Gottlieb Daimler PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Gottliebdaimler1.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 3 		3712) The first motorbike.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p359.
2. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
3. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany2  
[1] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG

[2] Diagram of the earliest Daimler
gasoline motor PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr
=1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA298,M1
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 6 		4461) Spectral emission lines are
observed to widen when subjected to an
electromagnetic field.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Zeeman, P., "On the Influence of
Magnetism on the Nature of the Light
Emitted by a Substance.", Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V43, N262, March 1897,
p226. http://books.google.com/books?id=
fXpDler746QC&pg=PA226&lpg=PA226&dq=On+th
e+Influence+of+Magnetism+on+the+Nature+o
f+the+Light+Emitted+by+a+Substance&sourc
e=bl&ots=xOeqyMN8gk&sig=ndY_rFeKVmwu6MKC
gk21TS72urI&hl=en&ei=q-ooTP-9O4iJnAfusNi
oAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=On%20the%
20Influence%20of%20Magnetism%20on%20the%
20Nature%20of%20the%20Light%20Emitted%20
by%20a%20Substance&f=false and: Astr
ophysical Journal, vol. 5,
p.332. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1897ApJ.....5..332Z/0000345.000
.html
and http://books.google.com/books?id=Uo
MOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345&lpg=PA345&dq=De+l%27
Influence+du+Magn%C3%A9tisme+sur+les+Car
act%C3%A8res&source=bl&ots=ofy7CS6A0v&si
g=DOFLYtcyw1Ay9Itl6NRe_jnUm5k&hl=en&ei=e
TslTKbxMYH98Aa09KSACA&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q&f=false
2. ^ Thomas Preston, "Radiation
Phenomena in the Magnetic Field.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V45, N275,
April 1898,
p325. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thoma
s+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113u
y&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en&
ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#v
=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=f
alse
3. ^ M. Fievez, "De l'Influence du
Magnétisme sur les Caractères des
Raies spectrales", Bulletin de l'
Academie des Sciences de Belgique, S3,
Tome 9, 381, 1885
{Fievez_Charles_1885.pdf}
4. ^ M. Fievez, "Essai sur l'Origine
des Raies de Fraunhofer, en rapport
avec la Constitution du Soleil",
Bulletin de l' Academie des Sciences de
Belgique, S3, Tome 12, 30, 1886.
5. ^ Sauval,
A. J., "Charles FIEVEZ; 13 Years of
Spectroscopy at the Observatoire Royal
de Bruxelles (1877-1890)", Workshop on
Laboratory and astronomical high
resolution spectra. Astronomical
Society of the Pacific Conference
Series; Proceedings of ASP Conference
no. 81 held in Brussels; Belgium 29
August - 2 September 1994 in honour of
the 150th birthday of Charles Vievez
(1844-1890) the pioneer of astronomical
spectroscopy in Belgium; San Francisco:
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
(ASP); c1995; edited by A.J. Sauval, R.
Blomme, and N. Grevesse,
p.3 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995
ASPC...81....3S
6. ^ M. Fievez, "De l'Influence du
Magnétisme sur les Caractères des
Raies spectrales", Bulletin de l'
Academie des Sciences de Belgique, S3,
Tome 9, 381, 1885

MORE INFO
[1] "Zeeman, Pieter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
299>
[2] "Pieter Zeeman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Zeem
an
[3] "Pieter Zeeman." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Jun.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pieter-zeem
an
[4] Albert Michelson, "Light Waves and
their uses", 1902, p
107. http://books.google.com/books?id=p
rTvAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=light
+waves+and+their+uses&hl=en&ei=8DIlTOHxL
MGB8gbousS2Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
&f=false
[5] "Zeeman,Pieter." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 597-599. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904772&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Royal Observatory of Brusells)
Bruselles, Belgium5  
[1] Image from: Thomas Preston,
''Radiation Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field.'', Philosophical Magazine, S5,
V45, N275, April 1898, p325. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=kpQOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325&lpg=PA325&dq=Thom
as+Preston+zeeman&source=bl&ots=34SE5113
uy&sig=A-JeUa9Iwa6iuCWj9K6e4KGSwf8&hl=en
&ei=gcMjTKGmDYOinQfW_Ogm&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAg#
v=onepage&q=Thomas%20Preston%20zeeman&f=
false

[2] Description Pieter
Zeeman.jpg Pieter Zeeman Date
ca. 1920(1920) Source
http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Zeeman.jpg Author This file is
lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD by age Other versions
Digital Library, Proceedings of the
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences (KNAW) Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives http://www.knaw.nl/cfdata/digi
tal_library/output/proceedings/biography
.cfm?RecordId=39 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Pieter_Zeeman.jpg
115 YBN
[1885 AD] 4 		6604) The first steel-framed building
and skyscraper.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
2. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
3. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
4. ^ Oxlade, C. Skyscrapers. HEINEMANN
- USA, 2006. Building Amazing
Structures Series,
p7. http://books.google.com/books?id=d2
lW2gtQ3bUC&pg=PA7
Chicago, Illinois, USA3  
[1] The first skyscraper, the Home
Insurance Building. UNKNOWN
source: http://chicagopubliclibrary.tumb
lr.com/image/197902876

[2] Description English: Exterior
of the Home Insurance Building by
architect William Le Baron Jenney in
Chicago, Illinois. Date 1884 Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
National Digital Library Program under
the digital ID mhsalad.250058. This
tag does not indicate the copyright
status of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Home_Insurance_Buildi
ng.JPG
114 YBN
[02/23/1886 AD] 3 		4431) A low cost method of producing
pure aluminum metal from aluminum oxide
is discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
2. ^ "Hall, Charles
Martin." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9038
909>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p597-598.
{02/23/1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Martin Hall".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Mar
tin_Hall
[2] US patent 400664, Charles Martin
Hall, "Process of Reducing Aluminium
from its Fluoride Salts by
Electrolysis", issued
1889-04-02 http://worldwide.espacenet.c
om/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=US&NR=40
0664&KC=&FT=E&locale=en_EP and
http://www.google.com/patents?id=LE1OAAA
AEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUCING+ALUM
INIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY+ELECTRO
LYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qpiAKm9YHb
DQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=PROCESS%2
0OF%20REDUCING%20ALUMINIUM%20FROM%20ITS%
20FLUORIDE%20SALTS%20BY%20ELECTROLYSIS&f
=false
[3] US patent 400766, Charles Martin
Hall, "Process of Reducing Aluminium
from its Fluoride Salts by
Electrolysis", filing date: Jul 9, 1886
Issue date: Apr 2, 1889 Filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ
(Oberlin (Ohio) College Hall) Oberlin,
Ohio, USA2  
[1] Image from US patent 400766,
Charles Martin Hall, ''Process of
Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride
Salts by Electrolysis'', filing date:
Jul 9, 1886 Issue date: Apr 2,
1889 Filing date: Jul 9, 1886 Issue
date: Apr 2,
1889 http://www.google.com/patents?id=k
X9OAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=LE1OAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=PROCESS+OF+REDUC
ING+ALUMINIUM+FROM+ITS+FLUORIDE+SALTS+BY
+ELECTROLYSIS&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yQtLT7TzK4qp
iAKm9YHbDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
CharlesMartinHall.jpg English:
Charles Martin
Hall Български: Чарли
Мартин Хол -
портрет Date Source
Originally uploded on
en:File:CharlesMartinHall.jpg Author
Originally uploaded by
en:User:Sillybilly PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c8/CharlesMartinHall.jpg

114 YBN
[07/27/1886 AD] 13 14 15 		4096) Positively charged ion beams are
discovered (and called "Kanalstrahlen"
or "channel rays").5 6 7 8
Using a
perforated cathode, rays going through
the holes in the direction opposite to
that of the cathode rays are found.9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ E. Goldstein, "On the Canal Ray
Group", Phil Mag,S6, V15, N87,March
1908,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f_dbTfAUVZEC&pg=PA372&dq=intitle:Philoso
phical+Goldstein&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=intitle%3APhilosophical%20Goldstein&f=
false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
4. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On Rays of Positive Electricity",
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
6. ^ E. Goldstein, "On the Canal Ray
Group", Phil Mag,S6, V15, N87,March
1908,
p372. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f_dbTfAUVZEC&pg=PA372&dq=intitle:Philoso
phical+Goldstein&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepage&
q=intitle%3APhilosophical%20Goldstein&f=
false
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p525.
8. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On Rays of Positive Electricity",
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
9. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
10. ^ Califano, S. Pathways to Modern
Chemical Physics. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2012. SpringerLink?:
B�cher,
p112. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA112
11. ^ Dick, W.R., and K. Fritze. 300
Jahre Astronomie in Berlin Und Potsdam:
Eine Sammlung Von Aufs�tzen Aus
Anlass Des Gr�ndungsjubil�ums Der
Berliner Sternwarte. Deutsch Harri
GmbH, 2000. Acta Historica Astronomiae,
p186. http://books.google.com/books?id=
F-PyBbBVLzkC&pg=PA247
12. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
13. ^ Goldstein, "Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń", in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+n
och+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+
der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#
v=onepage&q=&f=false {07/27/1886}
14. ^ "Goldstein,
Eugen." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 458-459.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 9
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1886}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p525. {1886}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goldstein, Eugen."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 Oct.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9037
282>
[2] "Eugen Goldstein." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Oct.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/eugen-golds
tein
[3] "Eugen Goldstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Golds
tein
[4] Monatsberichte der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
(1876), 284
[5] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Rays of positive electricity and their
application to chemical analyses,
1921. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tcxAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine+no
ch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+an+d
er+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%84#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Thomason, "Rays of Positive
Electricity", Nature, Vol 79, Num 2037,
11/12/1908,
p52. http://books.google.com/books?id=O
tYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA52&dq=intitle:Nature+Ka
nalstrahlen#v=onepage&q=intitle%3ANature
%20Kanalstrahlen&f=false
(Potsdam Observatory) Berlin, Germany10
11 12  
[1] Goldstein, ''Über eine noch nicht
untersuchte Strahlungsform an der
Kathode inducirter Entladungeń'', in
Sitzungsberichie der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,39 (1886),
691. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
UsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457

[2] Figure 2 from Goldstein's 1886
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vUsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA457&dq=%C3%9Cber+eine
+noch+nicht+untersuchte+Strahlungsform+a
n+der+Kathode+inducirter+Entladunge%C5%8
4#v=onepage&q=&f=false
113 YBN
[03/04/1887 AD] 6 7 		3713) The gasoline internal combustion
engine car.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
3. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p359.
5. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
6. ^ "Oil Engine". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Oil_Engi
ne {03/04/1887}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p467-468. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Daimler, Gottlieb."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
558>
[2] "Gottlieb Daimler." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 26 Dec.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gottlieb-da
imler
[3] "Motor Vehicles". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Motor_Ve
hicles
[4] James Edward Homans, James Edward
Homans, 1865-, "Self-propelled
Vehicles: A Practical Treatise on the
Theory, Construction, Operation, Care
and Management of All Forms of
Automobiles", T. Audel & Company,
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PsoNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297&dq=daimler&as_brr=
1&ei=9HRVSeuvIJSokATWrLnzBA#PPA297,M1
[5] Dugald Clerk, "The Gas Engine",
Scientific American Supplement (Vol.
19, #484: April 11,
1885) http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.
edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=13939 and
also
http://www.a1nethost.com/american/scie
ntific-american/484/00.htm#3
[6] William Robinson, "Gas and
Petroleum Engines: A Practical Treatise
on the Internal Combustion ...",
http://books.google.com/books?id=8e9MA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22robert+
street%22+patent+engine&source=web&ots=z
XhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ0kuNyV
I&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=
result#PPA102,M1
(factory) Stuttgart, Germany5  
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg

[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
113 YBN
[03/??/1887 AD] 7 		4285) The phenomenon of electrical
resonance is discovered (this allows
specific frequencies of light to be
singled out which improves radio
communication3 ).4

Electrical oscillations in one circuit
can excite the same electrical
oscillations to flow (causing a spark)
in a second unconnected distant
circuit.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr
schnelle electrische Schwingungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31)
Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr
schnelle electrische Schwingungen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31)
Issue 7, March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
6. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/jou
rnal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false
7. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle
electrische Schwingungen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 267 (V. 31) Issue 7,
March 1887, Pages 421 -
448. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
hY4AAAAMAAJ
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112507534/abstract
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112507534/PDFSTART {He
rtz_Heinrich_188703xx.pdf} English
Translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "On Very Rapid Oscillations",
Electric Waves, 1893, 1962,
p29. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false {03/1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[5] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894;
Jones, Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott,
George Adolphus, 1868- tr,
"Miscellaneous papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[6] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[7] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect of
Light on the Electric Discharge", The
Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=
zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+dis
charge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[9] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric Discharge",
Journal of the Chemical Society:
Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
dY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_ma
xm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany6  
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[05/02/1887 AD] 4 		3762) Plastic photographic film.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

2. ^ Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
3. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.

4. ^ "history of the motion picture."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture>.
{1887}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450
[2] "Étienne-Jules
Marey." The Concise Grove Dictionary of
Art. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
2002. Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm

[4] "Marey, Étienne-Jules", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p575
[5] "Étienne-Jules Marey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey>
[6] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[7] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p449-450
[8] "Photographic
film#History of film". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographi
c_film#History_of_film
Newark, New Jersey3  
[1] Goodwin's Patent
#610,861 PHOTOGRAPHIC PELLICLE AND
PROCESS OF PRODUCING SAME HANNIBAL
GOODWIN PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=bbZkAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Reverend Hannibal Goodwin PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eas
tman/timeline/images/1887.jpg
113 YBN
[05/??/1887 AD] 5 6 		4286) That ultraviolet light causes
more current to flow on a metal
electrode than lower frequencies of
light is found.1 2

In addition, electrical induction is
shown to be like light in being
propagated in straight lines (casting a
shadow), reflected, refracted (with a
refrangibility much greater than that
of violet rays of light), and to be
non-electrical.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565.
2. ^ H. Hertz.
"Ueber einen Einfluss des
ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA63 Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
4. ^ "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Englis
h translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D.
E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric Discharge",
Journal of the Chemical Society:
Transactions, Volume 54, Part 1,
p13. http://books.google.com/books?id=l
dY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&as_drrb
_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&as_ma
xm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=hertz&f=false {05/1887}
6. ^ "Hertz,
Heinrich Rudolf." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 6.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
340-350. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[10] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[11] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[12] Wiedemann, Ebert, "On the Effect
of Light on the Electric Discharge",
The Electrical world, Volumes
11-12 http://books.google.com/books?id=
zYVMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123&dq=hertz++An+effec
t+of+ultraviolet+light+on+electrical+dis
charge&hl=en&ei=2vLES9fqKJOmswPOwfSCDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ve
d=0CEgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany4  
[1] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] Figure 18 from Hertz's Feb 1888
paper H. Hertz. ''Ueber einen
Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf
die electrische Entladung'', (''An
effect of ultraviolet light on
electrical discharge''), Annalen der
Physik und Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33),
Issue 8, Date: 1887, Pages: 983-1000.
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
113 YBN
[10/12/1887 AD] 11 12 13 		4245) The alternating current electric
motor.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
3. ^ Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
4. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
6. ^ Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
7. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
8. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
9. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
10. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false {10/12/1887 (verify this is
the correct patent}
12. ^ "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>. {1883}
13. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1883}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[4] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[5] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[6]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[7] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[8] http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA7 8 |(earlier claim
of)Strasbourg, France9 10  
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
113 YBN
[11/07/1887 AD] 3 		4114) A flat disk sound recording
device.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false
2. ^ "Emile Berliner." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 20. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 39-41. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Emile Berliner's patent of
11/07/1887 - to my understanding - the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder http://www.google.com/patents?
id=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
#v=onepage&q=&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Berliner, Emil."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
812>
[2] "Emile Berliner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-berli
ner
[3] "Emile Berliner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berli
ner
[4]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/ber
lemil.html
[5] U.S. Patent 372,786 Gramophone
(horizontal recording), original filed
May 1887, refiled September 26, 1887,
issued November 8,
1887 http://www.google.com/patents?id=f
CRPAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=
false
(own lab) Washington, DC, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from Berliner's 11/07/1887
patent - presumably the first publicly
known flat disk sound recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Figure 2 from Berliner's
11/07/1887 patent - presumably the
first publicly known flat disk sound
recorder PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=hOpjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 3 4 		3739) The theory that subatomic
particles produce spectra.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p472-473.
2. ^ Cortie, A. L.,
"Sir Norman Lockyer, 1836-1920",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 53, p.233
(ApJ Homepage),
05/1921. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921ApJ....53..233C and
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1921ApJ....53..2
33C&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&t
ype=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ Norman Lockyer, "The Chemistry of
the Sun", Macmillan and co.,
1887. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Chemistry+of+t
he+Sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ot
s=-3OHN4Z9fm&sig=YGqMa1zIo4q2SDXDzlnbs_i
Vyds
4. ^ "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman"
(Obituary Notice), Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol.
81, p.261 (MNRAS Homepage),
02/1921 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
921MNRAS..81R.261. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lockyer, Sir Joseph Norman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
704>
[2] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[3] "Joseph Norman Lockyer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 28 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/joseph-norm
an-lockyer
[4] "Joseph Norman Lockyer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Norm
an_Lockyer
[5] "Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jose
ph_Norman_Lockyer
[6] "Lockyer, Joseph Norman", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p551
[7]
http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guid
es/archives/101-110/110_01.html
[8] Norman Lockyer, "On the Most
Widened Lines in Sun-Spot Spectra.
First and Second Series, from November
12, 1879, to October 15, 1881.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1883 vol:36 iss:1 pg:443.
http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_loc
al?sid=google&auinit=JN&aulast=Lockyer&a
title=On+the+Most+Widened+Lines+in+Sun-S
pot+Spectra.+First+and+Second+Series,+fr
om+November+12,+1879,+to+October+15,+188
1.&id=doi:10.1098/rspl.1883.0128
[9] J. Norman Lockyer, "On the Iron
Lines Widened in Solar Spots",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 31,
1880/1881. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/806858137u0r5888/?p=149f9b4
bf4ee41088f3c5a073eedec5eπ=85
(Solar Physics Observatory) South
Kensington, England2
(presumably) 
[1] Fluted spectra PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA180,M1

[2] spectra of Stellar types PD/Corel

source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=tr8KAAAAIAAJ&dq=chemistry+of+the+
sun&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-
3OHO-18fp&sig=kNsnqgBVPljadCXXtbFG1GaEPu
M#PPA189,M1
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 6 7 		3960) That the number of chromosomes in
cells is constant, and that each
species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes in their cells is
recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508.
2. ^ "Beneden,
Edouard van." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
21 Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
551>.
3. ^ "Prof. E. van Beneden" (obituary),
Nature 83, 344-345 (19 May 1910)
4. ^
doi:10.1038/083344a0 http://books.googl
e.com/books?id=nHkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA344&dq=
intitle:nature+Beneden+date:1910-1910#v=
onepage&q=intitle%3Anature%20Beneden%20d
ate%3A1910-1910&f=false
5. ^ VAN BENEDEN. E. (1883).
"Recherches sur la maturation de l'oeuf
et la fecondation Ascaris
megalocephala.", Arch. Biol, 4:
265-640. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=aPYYAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA49
&dq=Van+Beneden+E&ots=PoCu8l1ocy&sig=sqi
0uQBs3vPZFhYrlImgh6HSdeE#v=onepage&q=Van
%20Beneden%20E&f=false
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p508. {1887}
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p366. {1887}

MORE INFO
[1] "meiosis>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meiosis." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 21 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eiosis>
[2]
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_35330/famous-
scholars-at-the-university-of-liege?hlTe
xt=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlM
ode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText
=beneden&hlMode=any&hlText=beneden&hlMod
e=any&hlText=beneden&hlMode=any
[3]
http://www.ulg.ac.be/cms/c_5000/home
(University of Liège) Liège, Belgium3
4 5  
[1] Edouard Van Beneden PD
source: http://webapps.fundp.ac.be/umdb/
wiki-bioscope/images/9/9b/Vanbeneden.jpg


[2] Beneden and his daughter in 1891,
outside his home in Liege. PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/site
s/entrez
113 YBN
[1887 AD] 11 		4369) The electricity of a heart beat
is measured and recorded and found to
coincide with each heart muscle
contraction.5 6 7 The first
electrocardiograph images.8 9
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
2. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
3. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
4. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
5. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
6. ^ Burch, G.E., and N.P. DePasquale.
The History of Electrocardiography.
Norman Pub., 1964. Norman Cardiology
Series, No
1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_w9
v_ZkzTZoC&pg=PA28
7. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
8. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}
9. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
10. ^
http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-history
/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
11. ^ Augustus D. Waller, "A
Demonstration on Man of Electromotive
Changes accompanying the Heart's Beat",
J Physiol. 1887 October; 8(5):
229–234. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1485094/?page=1 {Waller
_Augustus_electrocardiograph_1887.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "A. D. Waller Obituary",
Nature, Vol 109, N2735, April 1, 1922,
p
418. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
vARAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=obitua
ry+einthoven+intitle:nature&source=bl&ot
s=ku9EmPPB1V&sig=WZRcbRFA9qoQo4ip0qYobAQ
rYLk&hl=en&ei=1Wz9S6riB4XENr_F3d4H&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0C
CMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=obituary%20einthov
en%20intitle%3Anature&f=false
[2] "Augustus Desiré Waller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_De
sir%C3%A9_Waller
[3]
http://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?s
cript=sci_arttext&pid=S0043-314420050003
00012&lng=en&nrm=
(St. Mary's Hospital) London, England10
 
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD

source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf

[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
112 YBN
[02/02/1888 AD] 5 		4288) Light interference between two
radio sources is demonstrated and
electrical induction is confirmed to
have the speed of light.2

The wavelength (or particle interval)
of a radio emitter is measured to be
2.8 meters; much larger than visible
light.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&pg=59
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p59. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&pg=59
3. ^ H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
4. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTART
{Hertz_188802xx.pdf}
5. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. books.google.com/books?id=_D0
bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA551
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTART Eng
lish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false {02/02/1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany4  
[1] figure from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] table from: H. Hertz, ''Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen'', Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, ''On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On the Finite Velocity of
Electromagnetic Actions", "Electric
Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[12/13/1888 AD] 3 		4291) That radio can be focused and
polarized is proven.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
2. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
3. ^ H. Hertz, "Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft", Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Hertz, Heinrich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040
253>
[2] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[3] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[4] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 07 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heinrich-ru
dolf-hertz
[5] http://www.ur5eaw.com/Hertz.html
[6] Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8514?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=10&ttl=263&returnArticleService=
showArticle
[7] Charles Susskind, "Observations of
Electromagnetic-Wave Radiation before
Hertz", Isis, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar.,
1964), pp.
32-42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2277
53?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&sear
chUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%
3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Searc
h.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSearch
&item=3&ttl=263&returnArticleService=sho
wArticle
[8] Charles Susskind, "Hertz and the
Technological Significance of
Electromagnetic Waves", Isis, Vol. 56,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp.
342-345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/22
8108?&Search=yes&term=hertz&list=hide&se
archUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuer
y%3Dhertz%26jc%3Dj100194%26wc%3Don%26Sea
rch.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26Search%3DSear
ch&item=4&ttl=263&returnArticleService=s
howArticle
[9] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] Hertz, Heinrich, 1857-1894; Jones,
Daniel Evan, b. 1863; Schott, George
Adolphus, 1868- tr, "Miscellaneous
papers",
1896. http://www.archive.org/details/cu
31924012500306
and http://books.google.com/books?id=5W
0OAAAAIAAJ&q=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&
dq=Miscellaneous+papers+hertz&hl=en&ei=W
ujES-uALYn-tQPTxpj0DQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA
[11] "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Heinrich
_Rudolf_Hertz
[12] Heinrich Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones,
"Electric waves: being researches on
the propagation of electric action with
finite velocity through space.",
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Elec
tric+Waves+hertz&source=bl&ots=Av7VeelDo
1&sig=CmRSHstHdB9ihOKQYMZ50T69-q0&hl=en&
ei=u-vES_n0J4aysgPloeDwDA&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCoQ6AEwBg
#v=onepage&q&f=false
[13] H. Hertz. "Ueber einen Einfluss
des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die
electrische Entladung", ("An effect of
ultraviolet light on electrical
discharge"), Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, Volume 267 (Vol 33), Issue 8,
Date: 1887, Pages:
983-1000. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/journal/112487894/abstract and
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi
-bin/fulltext/112487894/PDFSTART Engl
ish translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr:
D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=E
JdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intit
le:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_is
=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm_
is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=one
page&q&f=false Summary in
English: "Influence of Ultra-Violet
Light on the Electric
Discharge" http://books.google.com/book
s?id=ldY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=hertz&lr=&a
s_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887
&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1888&as_brr=0&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[14] H. Hertz, "Ueber die Einwirkung
einer geradlinigen electrischen
Schwingung auf eine benachbarte
Strombahn", Annalen der Physik, Feb
1888,
p155-170. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112487948/PDFSTAR
T
[15] H. Hertz, "On the Speed of
Diffusion of Electrodynamic Actions",
The Electrical review, Volume 23, p510,
536. part1: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fyEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+sp
eed+of+diffusion+of+electrodynamic+actio
n&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_
is=1887&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_
brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false pa
rt2: http://books.google.com/books?id=f
yEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA510&dq=hertz+speed+of+d
iffusion+of+electrodynamic+action&lr=&as
_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1887&
as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1889&as_brr=0&cd
=1#v=onepage&q=hertz&f=false
[16] H. Hertz, "Ueber die
Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der
electrodynamischen Wirkungen", Annalen
der Physik, Volume 270 Issue 7,
p551-569. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488021/PDFSTAR
T English translation: Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On the Finite
Velocity of Electromagnetic Actions",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962,
p107. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[17] H. Hertz, "Ueber electrodynamische
Wellen im Luftraume und deren
Reflexion", Annalen der Physik, Volume
270 (V. 34), Issue 8A, Pages 609 -
623. http://books.google.com/books?id=W
XoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA614#v=onepage&q&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112488025/abstract Heinrich
Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "On
Electromagnetic Waves in Air and There
Relfection", "Electric Waves", 1893,
1962,
p124. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[18] H. Hertz, "Die Kräfte
electrischer Schwingungen, behandelt
nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie",
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 Issue 1,
Pages 1 -
22. http://books.google.com/books?id=MD
QbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=Die+Kr%C3%A4fte+ele
ctrischer+Schwingungen,+behandelt+nach+d
er+Maxwell%27schen+Theorie&cd=1#v=onepag
e&q=Die%20Kr%C3%A4fte%20electrischer%20S
chwingungen%2C%20behandelt%20nach%20der%
20Maxwell%27schen%20Theorie&f=false
and http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112587570/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "The Forces of Electric
Oscillations, Treated According to
Maxwell's Theory", "Electric Waves",
1893, 1962,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[19] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p. 564-565
(University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe,
Germany2  
[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.

[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 5 		3801) A pressure of 3,000 atmospheres
is obtained.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p490.
2. ^ Emile Amagat,
"Compressibilite des gaz: oxygene,
hydrogene, azote et air jusqu'a 3000
atm", Comptes Rendus, cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR
3. ^ Carl Barus, Robert Boyle, Émile
Hilaire Amagat, "The Laws of Gases",
Harper,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPP11,M1
4. ^ Carl Barus, Robert Boyle, Émile
Hilaire Amagat, "The Laws of Gases",
Harper,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPP11,M1
5. ^ Emile Amagat, "Compressibilite des
gaz: oxygene, hydrogene, azote et air
jusqu'a 3000 atm", Comptes Rendus,
cvii, 1888, p522.
http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6
k30635.image.r=amagat+1888.f522.langFR

MORE INFO
[1] "Emile Amagat." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emile-amaga
t
[2] "Emile Hilaire Amagat". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Hilai
re_Amagat
[3] Emile H Amagat, "Verification of
the van der Waals Law of Corresponding
Conditions", Compt rend, 1896, 123,
p30-35. Journal of the Chemical
Society, Chemical Society (Great
Britain), Royal Society of Chemistry
(Great Britain), v.72 pt.2
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
tOY4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA363&dq=Emile+Hilaire+A
magat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungDQ
#PPA363,M1
(faculte Libre des Sciences of Lyons)
Lyons, France4  
[1] Disposition for apparatus for very
high pressure PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA68,M1

[2] Figure 2: Pressure apparatus with
electric contacts. fig 3: piezometer
for Gases. fig 4: piezometer for
Liquids. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=pwwWTqLaT48C&pg=PA107&dq=Emile+Hilaire+
Amagat&as_brr=1&ei=U7JeSfjXN4qakQSNxungD
Q#PPA63,M1
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 3 		4025) Moving images are captured and
stored onto rolls of sensitized paper.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Marey, "Décomposition des
phases d'un mouvement au moyen d'images
photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm
2. ^ "Marey, Étienne-Jules", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p575
3. ^ M. Marey, "Décomposition
des phases d'un mouvement au moyen
d'images photographiques successives,
recueillies sur une bande de papier
sensible qui se déroule;", Comptes
Rendus, 1888, p677. English
translation: http://www.precinemahistor
y.net/1885.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The
Concise Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford
University Press, Inc., 2002.
Answers.com 18 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
[2]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm

[3] "Étienne-Jules Marey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364535/Etienne-Jules-Marey>
[4] "Étienne-Jules Marey." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/tienne-jule
s-marey
(College de France) Paris, France 2
(presumably) 
[1] Marey's photographic gun This item
is on display at the Musée des Arts et
Métiers, Paris Copyright © 2006
David Monniaux GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Fusil_de_Marey_p10403
53.jpg

[2] The Illustration to the left is
entitled ''Flight of the birds
according to the instantaneous
photographs of Mr. Marey'', From 1882
PD/Corel
source: http://www.precinemahistory.net/
images/marey_fusil_card.jpg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 4 5 		4118) The theory that visible light can
be produced from electrical
oscillation.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228514.pdf {Maxwell_direct_test_I
SIS_1966.pdf}
2. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On the Measurement
of the Length of Electro-magnetic
Waves", Report of the British
Association, 1888,
58:567. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=N-s4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA567&dq=The+author+ha
s+been+endeavouring+to+manufacture+light
#v=onepage&q=The%20author%20has%20been%2
0endeavouring%20to%20manufacture%20light
&f=false
3. ^ "Lodge, Oliver Joseph." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 443-444. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 13 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Thomas K. Simpson, "Maxwell and
the Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell and the
Direct Experimental Test of His
Electromagnetic Theory", Isis, Vol. 57,
No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp.
411-432. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/228514.pdf {Maxwell_direct_test_I
SIS_1966.pdf} {1888}
5. ^ Oliver Lodge, "On
the Measurement of the Length of
Electro-magnetic Waves", Report of the
British Association, 1888,
58:567. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=N-s4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA567&dq=The+author+ha
s+been+endeavouring+to+manufacture+light
#v=onepage&q=The%20author%20has%20been%2
0endeavouring%20to%20manufacture%20light
&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[2] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[3] "Oliver Joseph Lodge." Encyclopedia
of Occultism and Parapsychology. The
Gale Group, Inc, 2001. Answers.com 14
Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oliver-jose
ph-lodge
[4] "Oliver Joseph Lodge". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Jose
ph_Lodge
[5] "Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
722>
(University College) Liverpool,
England3  
[1] English: Picture of Sir Oliver
Joseph Lodge, the British
scientist Date 1917(1917) Source
Page 19 of British Universities
and the War: A Record and Its
Meaning Author Herbert Albert
Laurens
Fisher http://books.google.com/books?id
=ZWcoNGuoaGQC&pg=PA20&dq=physics+oliver+
lodge&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA18-IA1,M2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Lodge_Oliver_Joseph_b
w.jpg

[2] Caricature of physicist and writer
Oliver Joseph Lodge, printed in
''Vanity Fair'' in 1904 Date
1904(1904) Source Cartoon
by Via
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-iden
tity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=N P
D
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/58/Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.j
pg
112 YBN
[1888 AD] 3 4 		4210) The first consumer camera, which
brings the ability to capture photos to
average people.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553.
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553. {1888}
4. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml {1888}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[6] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[7] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
(Eastman Dry Plate Company) Rochester,
NY, USA2 (presumably) 
[1] Eastman's patent #388,850 for a
camera of 09/04/1888. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rAlvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] An early ad featuring a slogan
coined by Eastman. PD
source: http://www.kodak.com/US/images/e
n/corp/kodakHistory/WeddingGiftAd.gif
111 YBN
[02/16/1889 AD] 4 		211) Electricity is used to restart a
heart beating.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
2. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
3. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
4. ^ McWilliam JA (1899). "Electrical
stimulation of the heart in man". Br
Med J 1 (1468): 348�50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 {McWilliam_1
8890216.pdf}
(University of Aberdeen) Aberdeen,
Scotland3  
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
111 YBN
[03/12/1889 AD] 4 		6255) An automatic telephone exchange
that allows people to connect their own
phone calls is invented.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p60.
3. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ
4. ^ U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch "Automatic Telephone Exchange"
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ {03/12/1889}
Kansas City, Missouri, USA3  
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ

[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
111 YBN
[05/02/1889 AD] 6 		4117) The theory that matter contracts
depending on its velocity relative to
the speed of light2 is used to explain
the Michelson experiment while
preserving the theory of an aether
medium for light.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p530-531.
3. ^ George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
4. ^ "Fitzgerald, George Francis."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 15-16. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
6. ^ George FitzGerald, "The Ether and
the Earth's Atmosphere.", Science, Vol
13, Num 328, 1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false {05/02/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "FitzGerald, George Francis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14
Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
429>
[2] "George FitzGerald." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-fitz
gerald
[3] "George Francis Fitzgerald".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fran
cis_Fitzgerald
[4] translated in: H. A. lorentz, A.
Einstein, H. Minkowski, and H. Weyl,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923
"Michelson's Interference Experiment,",
pp3-7. http://books.google.com/books?id
=yECokhzsJYIC&dq=The+Principle+of+Relati
vity&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=t
QNZxQlfjG&sig=BAnbHCYtDPVgWl4c2gYRscPMrt
I&hl=en&ei=fQbZSrHrAoLusgOA-MyiDA&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB
MQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Dublin, Ireland5  
[1] George Francis FitzGerald
(1851-1901). Date Unknown, but
1901 or earlier. Source Scanned
from Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude
(ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p. 48. It was
scanned on an Epson Perfection 1250 at
400dpi, reduced to grayscale in
Photoshop, and saved as JPG using the
'Save for Web' optimizer. Originally
uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:51, 27
July 2004 by Grendelkhan. Author
Unknown. Permission (Reusing
this image) The photograph is
reprinted courtesy of the IEEE in
London (as stated in the credits in the
back of the book, p. 318), but its age
implies that it's public domain. (It
must have been taken in 1901 or
earlier.) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/George_Francis_FitzGe
rald.jpg
111 YBN
[06/03/1889 AD] 3 		4834) The first commercial wireless
telegraph message.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html
2. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html
3. ^
http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/letter
s.html {06/03/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651
[2] "Guglielmo
Marconi." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
19 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>
[3] "Guglielmo Marconi." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[4] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[7] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[8] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[9] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[10] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[11] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi:
The Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[12] W. P.
Jolly, "Marconi", 1972, p78
[13] British
patent No. 12,039, Date of Application
2 June 1896; Complete Specification
Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July
1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to
contain his own ideas which he failed
to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[14] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[15] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[16] Marconi, U.S. Patent 0,668,315
"Receiver for electrical
oscillations". http://www.google.com/pa
tents?vid=668315
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland2  
[1] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD AND Marconi, Guglielmo,
Marchese (1874-1937), Italian
electrical engineer and Nobel laureate,
known as the inventor of the first
practical radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.pnghttp://www.gr
eatitalians.com/Images/Marconi.jpg

[2] Scan of original plain paper
manuscript from Marconi Calling, see
link for more information. Also see a
copy of the telegraph instructions.
PD
source: http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/paper
s/radiotelegraphmessage.png
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 22 23 24 25 		4021) The motion picture camera and
projector. Moving images are captured,
stored on plastic film, and projected
onto a screen.17 18 19 20
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
2. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
3. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
4. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
5. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
6. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
7. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
8. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
9. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
10. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
11. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
12. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
13. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
14. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
15. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
16. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
17. ^
Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures in
Colors", Technical World Magazine, Vol
11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
18. ^ Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas
Alva Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
19. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p53-57. {ULSF: copyright on work
was now renewed and so the book is now
in the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
20. ^ Josef Eder,
"History of Photography", 1945, p515.
21. ^
Ray Allister, pseudonym for Muriel
Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?}
22. ^ "William
Friese-Greene". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889}
23. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948. {ULSF: copyright on work was now
renewed and so the book is now in the
public domain in the USA. Notice the
pseudonym - perhaps there was fear of
being labeled a "rat"?} {06/21/1889}
24. ^ Francis
Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva Edison",
1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false {1882}
25. ^ Cecil Bembridge,
"Moving Pictures in Colors", Technical
World Magazine, Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e {1889}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

(Piccadilly) London, England21  
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.

[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
111 YBN
[06/21/1889 AD] 3 		4024) The theory that a picture seen by
the eye can be captured from
phosphorescence.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
2. ^ Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108
3. ^ "William Friese-Greene".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene {06/21/1889 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

[4] "A Machine Camera Taking Ten
Photographs a Second.", Scientific
American supplement, vol 29, Num 746,
04/19/1890, p11921
[5] Edgar Sanderson, John
Porter Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
(London and Provincial Photographic
Association) London, England2  
[1] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g

[2] William Friese-Green PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&
as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fal
se
111 YBN
[11/12/1889 AD] 5 		3966) The first "spectroscopic binary"
star is identified; two stars that
appear as one, but over time a spectral
line appears to double because of a
change in relative velocity of each
star.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp
2. ^ Robert Grant Aitken, "The Binary
Stars", D.C. McMurtrie, 1918, p27.
{examine the diagram - both stars orbit
around empty space - that is
impossible, clearly the two orbit each
other}
http://books.google.com/books?id=0wZDA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA27&dq=pickering+1889+ ursa
e+majoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQ
SAyenyCw
3. ^ "A New Spectroscopic
Binary",Nature, 10/01/1896, p527.
http://books.google.com/books?id=AWgAB3t
JTyIC&pg=PA527&dq=pickering+1889+ursae+m
ajoris&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=KC1kSfPtJI3WlQSAy
enyCw
4. ^ E.C. Pickering, "Statement of work
done at the Harvard observatory during
the years 1877-1882",
1882. http://books.google.com/books?id=
T5AEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
5. ^ E. C. Pickering, "On the spectrum
of zeta Ursae Majoris", American
Journal of Science, ser.3:v.39(1890).
http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MUAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=pickering+on+the+spectr
um+of+ursae+majoris+date:1890-1890&ei=eD
NkSbOnAZOMkAS-yKgp {11/12/1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, Edward Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Aug. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
923>
[2] "Edward Charles Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[3] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[4] "Edward Charles Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[5] "Edward Charles Pickering."
Encyclopedia of Occultism and
Parapsychology. The Gale Group, Inc,
2001. Answers.com 25 Aug. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-char
les-pickering
[6] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Char
les_Pickering
[7] "Edward Charles Pickering".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Edward_C
harles_Pickering
[8] "Edward Charles Pickering"
(obituary), Science, Feb 14, 1919,
p151-155. http://books.google.com/books
?id=jitZWhXV4cYC&pg=PA151-IA2&dq=at+the+
death+of+Edward+C.+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=
onepage&q=at%20the%20death%20of%20Edward
%20C.%20Pickering&f=false also in:
Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences http://books.google.com/books?
id=i8IeAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA52&dq=Edward+Ch
arles+Pickering&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Edw
ard%20Charles%20Pickering&f=false
[9] "Pickering, Edward Charles",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p704
[10] Edward
Charles Pickering, "Compilation of the
papers on physics",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vrkAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inau
thor:pickering+inauthor:edward&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[11] "meridian>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"meridian." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. 25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
eridian>
[12] "great circle." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
25 Aug. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/g
reat circle>
[13] Pickering, Edward C.,
"Standard photographic magnitudes of
bright stars." Cambridge, Mass. : The
Observatory, 1917.
http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/10
998010
[14] "Secchi, Pietro Angelo."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9066512>
[15]
http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/alumni/
antonia-maury.html
[16] "Antonia Maury". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Mau
ry
[17] Dorrit Hoffleit, "Remeniscences on
Antonia Maury and the
c-Characteristic",
1994. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1994ASPC...
60..215H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=
YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA4  
[1] Spectrum of Mizar, showing double
lines above and single lines below
(period 20.5) days from Frost, Yerkes
Observatory. (presumably the two lines
on the far left are the hydrogen lines
- but why do the other lines
align?[t]) PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mg48AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA512&dq=vogel+pickerin
g+spectroscopic+binary#v=onepage&q=vogel
%20pickering%20spectroscopic%20binary&f=
false

[2] Mizar and Alcor stars The image
was produced by WikiSky's image cutout
tool out of DSS2 data. See Copyright
notice. Source url:
http://server1.wikisky.org/imgcut.jsp?su
rvey=DSS2&img_id=all&angle=2&ra=13.39875
&de=54.92528&width=1800&height=1800&proj
ection=tan&jpeg_quality=0.9&interpolatio
n=bicubic CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/f/f4/Mizar_and_Alcor.jpg
111 YBN
[11/28/1889 AD] 9 10 11 		3818) The first planet of another star
is detected by the oscillation of a
spectral line; the star Algol {aL-GoL5
}.6
Unlike spectroscopic binary stars,
these spectra only show one oscillating
spectral line, because the light from
the companion is too dim to see.7
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
2. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
3. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
4. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
5. ^ "Algol." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 17 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/A
lgol>.
6. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences)
7. ^ Anton Pannekoek, "A History of
Astronomy", Courier Dover Publications,
1989,
p434-435. http://books.google.com/books
?id=O7D9AyU-nLYC&pg=PA435&lpg=PA435&dq=a
lgol+vogel&source=web&ots=8ZX6T6iHqP&sig
=FBWWwbfCBLrO80GS1idBcEWVxIU#PPA434,M1
8. ^ "Vogel, Hermann Karl."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
639>.
9. ^ Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, "Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1081&dq=intitle:
Sitzungsberichte+intitle:preussischen+da
te:1889-1889&lr=&ei=heBjSYaAN4H4lQTejf2E
Cw#PPA1045,M1 English
translation: "The Chairman reported on
the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner"
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) {11/28/1889}
10. ^ Hector Macpherson,
"A century's progress in astronomy",
Blackwood and sons, 1906,
p183. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4ftCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=cent
ury%27s+progress&ei=as5jScbVK4WcMuarpf8I
#PPA175,M1 {1889}
11. ^ Alexander Hellemans,
Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables of
Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p370. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Karl Vogel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 06 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-kar
l-vogel
[2] "Hermann Carl Vogel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Car
l_Vogel
[3] "Vogel, Hermann Carl", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p910
[4] "Untersuchungen uber die
Spectra der Planeten", Gekronte
Preisschrift von der K. Gesellsch. d.
Wiss. in Kopenhagen, Leipzig, 1874.
Later 1876 paper?: Vogel, H.C.
"Untersuchungen uber die Spectra der
Planeten", Pogg. Ann., 158, 1876,
p461-472. http://www3.interscience.wile
y.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112504372/PDFSTAR
T English translation: H. C. Vogel,
"Recent Research on the Spectra of
Planets", The Astrophysical Journal,
1895. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CWUsAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA196&dq=Recent+Rese
arches+on+the+Spectra+of+the+Planets+vog
el&as_brr=1&ei=P7ZjSd7uM5byMu_91f8I
[5] Review in 1895
"Science": http://books.google.com/book
s?id=73oCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=Spectra+of
+the+planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K
4zKM7HN-KwG
[6] "Vogel on the Spectra of the
Planets", Harper's Magazine,
1872. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OnkCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA783&dq=Spectra+of+the+
planets+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=47VjSfq7K4zKM7
HN-KwG#PPA783,M1
[7] Edwin Frost, "Hermann Carl Vogel"
(obituary), The Astrophysical Journal,
v.27, Jan. 1908,
p1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6J
csAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=The+Astrophysical+J
ournal+vogel&as_brr=1&ei=-rpjSdW8I4rONcK
PzZQI
[8]
http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedali
sts/vogel/
[9] "Antonia Maury." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antonia-mau
ry
(Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam)
Potsdam, Germany8  
[1] Vogel, H.C., Scheiner, ''Der
Vorsitzende berichtete über die
Resultate spectrographischer
Beobachtungen des Sterns Algol durch
die'', Sitzungsberichte der
Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1789,
p1045-1046. books.google.com/books?id=_
k8VAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1045 English
translation: ''The Chairman reported
on the results of spectrographic
observations of the star Algol by prof.
H. C. Vogel and Dr. Scheiner''
(Transactions of the Prussian Academy
of Sciences) PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=_k8VAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA1045

[2] Description Photograph of
Hermann Carl Vogel, the
astronomer Source Opposite page
129 of Astronomers of Today Date
1905 Author Hector
Macpherson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Vogel_Hermann_Carl.jp
g
111 YBN
[1889 AD] 4 5 		3549) The first practical smokeless
explosive powder, cordite is invented.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443.
3. ^ "Abel, Sir
Frederick Augustus." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
4. ^ "Sir Frederick Augustus Abel."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1022/Sir-Frederick-Augustus-Abel>.
{1889}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p442-443. {1889}

MORE INFO
[1] "Abel, Sir Frederick
Augustus." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2003. Answers.com 09
Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-a
ugustus-abel
[2] "Frederick Augustus Abel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_A
ugustus_Abel
[3] "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[4] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[5] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[6] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[7] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[8] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[9]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[10]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
London, England3 (presumably) 
[1] Photograph of sectioned British 18
pounder field gun shrapnel round, World
War I. Exhibit is on display at the
Canadian War Museum, Ottowa. Catalogue
information : Artifact Number
20020045-592 Museum CWM Place of Use
Country - United Kingdom, Municipality
- no entry Place of Origin Country -
no entry, Municipality - no
entry Inscription 18 PR II
48 Measurements Height 8.5 cm, Length
12.5 cm, Width 57.0 cm Events
1914-1919 First World War Service
Component British Expeditionary
Force Category 05: tools and equipment
for science and
technology Sub-category E140:
armament, ammunition Caption Artillery
Shell, 18-pounder Additional
Information (corrected) : This cutaway
of an 18-pounder shell reveals the
shrapnel balls which were embedded in
resin to hold them in a stable
position. The fuze in the nose was time
set to ignite the powder charge in the
cavity in the base of the shell as it
approached the target. At this point
the shell was usually angling towards
the ground. This small explosion
propelled the balls forward out of the
case and they spread apart in a cone at
increased velocity forward and towards
the ground. The effect was of a large
shotgun blast fired from in front of
and above the target. The usual target
was barbed wire defences and
troops. In the cartridge below the
shell is a simulated bundle of cordite,
the propellant charge which fired the
shell. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Brisanzgranate_1_db.j
pg

[2] Frederick Augustus Abel,
engraving. Photos.com/Jupiterimages PD
/Corel
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/73/101973-004-F0247DE2.jpg
110 YBN
[09/04/1890 AD] 4 5 		4301) The motion of nebulae such as
those of Orion are measured and shown
to be similar to those of the stars
which implies that these nebulae are
part of the Milky Way Galaxy.1 2
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567.
2. ^ J. E. Keeler,
"On the Motions of the Planetary
Nebulæ in the line of Sight.",
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf
3. ^ "Keeler, James Edward." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ J. E. Keeler, "On the Motions of
the Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf {09/04/1890}
5. ^ "Keeler, James
Edward." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 270-271.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23
Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1890}

MORE INFO
[1] "Keeler, James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
967>
[2] "James Edward Keeler." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-edwar
d-keeler-american-astronomer
[3] "James Edward Keeler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edwar
d_Keeler
[4] James Keeler, “A Spectroscopic
Proof of the Meteoritic Constitution of
Saturn’s Rings,” in Astrophysical
Journal, 1 (1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA3  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
109 YBN
[03/26/1891 AD] 4 5 6 		3522) The suggestion that the minimum
electric charge should be called an
"electron".1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438.
2. ^ George Johnstone
Stoney, "On the Cause of Double Lines
and of Equidistant Satellites in the
Spectra of Gases", Trans. Royal Dublin
Society (1891), series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df}
3. ^ "Stoney, George Johnstone",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
4. ^ George
Johnstone Stoney, "On the Cause of
Double Lines and of Equidistant
Satellites in the Spectra of Gases",
Trans. Royal Dublin Society (1891),
series 2, v4, p583.
{Stoney_George_1891_cause_of_spectra.p
df} {03/26/1891}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p438. {1891}
6. ^ "Stoney,
George Johnstone", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p841.
{1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Johnstone Stoney".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_John
stone_Stoney
[2] "Electron". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Electron

[3] G. Johnstone Stoney, "Of the
'Electron', or Atom of Electricity",
PT, v38, 1894,
p418-420. http://books.google.com/books
?id=TVQwAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:0GyjU2FgHeVMhRr9iumi5pf&lr=&as_
brr=1#PPA418,M1 and
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Ch
em-History/Stoney-1894.html
(Queen's University) Dublin, Ireland3
 
[1] George Johnstone Stoney PD/Corel
source: http://understandingscience.ucc.
ie/img/sc_George_Johnstone_Stoney.jpg

[2] Photo courtesy the Royal Dublin
Society George Johnston Stoney
1826-1911 PD/Corel
source: http://www.iscan.ie/directory/sc
ience/dundrum/images/previews/preview27.
jpg
109 YBN
[12/10/1891 AD] 4 5 		3822) Liquid oxygen and liquid ozone
are shown to be attracted to both poles
of a magnet.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ James Dewar,
Letter to President, Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247
3. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
4. ^ James Dewar, Letter to President,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 50, 1892,
p247,261. http://books.google.com/books
?id=P6gOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA247 {12/10/1891}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[3] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[8] J. Norman Lockyer, "Note on a
Recent Communication by Messrs. Liveing
and Dewar", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 29, (1879), pp.
45-47.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/113733?seq=1

[9] G. D. Liveing, J. Dewar,
"Investigations on the Spectrum of
Magnesium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Vol. 44, 1888,
p.241-252. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
pdfplus/114722.pdf
[10] J. Norman Lockyer, "Researches on
the Spectra of Meteorites. A Report to
the Solar Physics Committee",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vol. 43, 1887,
p.117. http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/0h52655555557735/
[11]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=James+Dewar&sortorder=a
sc&o=1
[12]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/?k=dewar&Author=J.+Dewar&sortorder=asc&
o=1
[13] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
(Royal Institution) London, England3
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

109 YBN
[1891 AD] 5 6 		4417) A camera and motor driven
telescope which compensates for the
motion of the Earth relative to distant
celestial objects is used for long
exposure photographs.1 2 500 asteroids
will be identified with this method, a
third of all known to exist.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
2. ^ "Wolf, Max."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595.
4. ^ "Wolf, Max."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p594-595. {1891}
6. ^
"Wolf, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
333>. {1891}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wolf, Maximilian Franz
Joseph Cornelius." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 14.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
481-482. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 4 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904711&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Max Wolf". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wolf
(University of Heidelberg) Heidelberg,
Germany4  
[1] Description Max
Wolf.jpg Maximilian Franz Joseph
Cornelius Wolf (June 21, 1863–October
3, 1932), German astronomer Date
Source Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte,
Berlin http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
icle-9077333/Max-Wolf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Max_Wolf.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 4 		3700) The "germ plasm" theory of
heredity; that all inherited traits
come only from the chromosomes.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p463-464.
2. ^ Weismann, A. Das
Keimplasma: Eine Theorie Der Vererbung.
Fischer,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f5U-AAAAYAAJ
3. ^ "Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p928.
4. ^
Weismann, A. Das Keimplasma: Eine
Theorie Der Vererbung. Fischer,
1892. http://books.google.com/books?id=
f5U-AAAAYAAJ

MORE INFO
[1] "Weismann, August (Friedrich
Leopold)." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
25 Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
462>
[2] "August Weismann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/august-weis
mann
[3] "August Friedrich Leopold
Weismann". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Frie
drich_Leopold_Weismann
[4]
Das%20Keimplasma.%20Eine%20Theorie%20der
%20Vererbung
[5]
http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.ht
m
(University of Freiburg) Freiburg,
Germany3  
[1] Weismann, August Friedrich
Leopold The Bettmann Archive PD/Corel

source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/23/39723-004-C1872D1B.jpg

[2] Source: Edwin G. Conklin, ''August
Weismann'' Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 54, No.
220. (Oct. - Dec., 1915), pp.
iii-xii. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/August_Weismann.jpg
108 YBN
[1892 AD] 3 4 5 6 7 8 		3823) The double-wall vacuum
container.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1892}
4. ^ "Sir
James Dewar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar {1892}
5. ^ "Dewar, James", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p248. {1892}
6. ^ "Dewar, Sir James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1892}
7. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1872}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p365. {1885}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[4] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[5]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[6]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[7] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
(Royal Institution) London, England2
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

108 YBN
[1892 AD] 5 6 		4326) The diesel engine: instead of a
spark, the heat from compressing the
fuel-air mixture raises the temperature
of the mixture to the point where
ignition happens.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571.
2. ^ U.S. Patent
0,542,846 http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&dq=542846
3. ^ U.S. Patent
0,608,845 http://www.google.com/patents
/about?id=vQVgAAAAEBAJ&dq=608845
4. ^ "Diesel, Rudolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>.
5. ^ "Diesel, Rudolf." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
393>. {1892}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Rudolf Diesel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-dies
el
[2] "Rudolf Diesel." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 5.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 7. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404701782&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Rudolf Diesel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Dies
el
(Carle von Linde firm) Berlin, Germany4
 
[1] figure from U.S. Patent
0,542,846 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=oV5wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Diesel
1883.jpg English: Rudolf Diesel,
inventor of the diesel engine Deutsch:
Rudolf Diesel, Erfinder des
Dieselmotors PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Diesel_1883.jpg
107 YBN
[1893 AD] 4 		6610) The death rate from cholera is
reduced by 70 per cent among 45
thousand people inoculated by a highly
virulent strain of heat-killed
cholera.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai
Wolfe." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 11-13.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901810&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p582.
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p582.

MORE INFO
[1] "Waldemar Mordecai Wolff
Haffkine". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldemar_Mo
rdecai_Wolff_Haffkine
India3  
[1] Waldemar Haffkine
(1860-1930) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/ar
chives/im/haf.jpg
106 YBN
[09/??/1894 AD] 5 		6617) A Cepheid variable star (a
variable star with a short and regular
period of luminosity1 ) is found to
have a period of radial velocity that
matches its period of luminosity. This
suggests that a dark companion causes
the variation of Cepheid stars.2 3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Pickering, Edward C. "Dimensions
of the Fixed Stars, with Especial
Reference to Binaries and Variables of
the Algol Type." Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Vol. 16. American Academy of Arts &
Sciences, 1880, p1-37;
p17-18. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=Cf8KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA17
2. ^ Albrecht, Sebastian. "A
spectrographic study of the
fourth-class variable stars Y Ophuichi
and T Vulpeculae." The Astrophysical
Journal 25 (1907):
330-348. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1907ApJ....25..330A
3. ^ Adams, Walter S., and Harlow
Shapley. "The Spectrum of δ Cephei."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 2.3 (1916):
136. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090965/
4. ^ Belopolsky, A. "The spectrum of
delta Cephei." The Astrophysical
Journal 1 (1895):
160-161. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.0
00.html
5. ^ Belopolsky, A. "The spectrum of
delta Cephei." The Astrophysical
Journal 1 (1895):
160-161. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.0
00.html

MORE INFO
[1] Campbell, W. W. "The motion
of zeta Geminorum in the line of
sight." The Astrophysical Journal 13
(1901):
90-97. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1901ApJ....13...90C/0000096.000
.html
[2] "Cepheid." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Apr.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cepheid
Pulkowa4  
[1] Belopolsky, A. ''The spectrum of
delta Cephei.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 1 (1895):
160-161. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.0
00.html PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1895ApJ.....1..160B/0000160.000
.html

[2] Albrecht, Sebastian. ''A
spectrographic study of the
fourth-class variable stars Y Ophuichi
and T Vulpeculae.'' The Astrophysical
Journal 25 (1907):
330-348. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full
/1907ApJ....25..330A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
907ApJ....25..330A
106 YBN
[10/??/1894 AD] 6 		4258) The speed of cathode rays is
shown to be about a thousand times
slower than the speed of light.3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity
of the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
2. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
3. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
4. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
5. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
6. ^ J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false {10/1894}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
"Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
(Trinity College) Cambridge, England5
 
[1] Figure From On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas.'' By J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental
Physics, Cambridge. Received January 2,
1891. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22the+velocity
+of+propagation%22+of+electric+discharge
+through+gases+thomson&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=o
nepage&q=%22the%20velocity%20of%20propag
ation%22%20of%20electric%20discharge%20t
hrough%20gases%20thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
106 YBN
[1894 AD] 4 		2657) The start of multiplexing: using
a single wire to transmit multiple
messages by only sending one character
at a time while alternating between a
group of messages.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot
2. ^ Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78
3. ^ "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph
4. ^ "Jean Maurice Emile Baudot".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-901
3803/Jean-Maurice-Emile-Baudot

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/colle
ction/tech.php?id=2345885&lid=1
[2] "Julius Wilhelm Gintl". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Wilh
elm_Gintl
[3] "telegraph". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-764
04/telegraph (1871)
France3  
[1] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p78. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78

[2] Crotch, A. The Hughes and Baudot
Telegraphs. Rentell, 1908,
p81. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=n9pAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA81
105 YBN
[01/31/1895 AD] 7 		3842) The element Argon and the series
of inert gases is identified.3

Argon is isolated from air and
identified from its unique spectrum.
Since Argon combines with no element,
Argon is recognized to be part of an
eighth group of elements that have a
valence of zero.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
2. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
3. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
4. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William Ramsay,
"Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p201,537-538.
6. ^ "Strutt, John
William, Third Baron Rayleigh", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p844.
7. ^ Lord Rayleigh, William
Ramsay, "Argon, a New Constituent of
the Atmosphere.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 1895,
p.265-287. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/1012472m98g64233/?p=3f7bb64
e1e0840a6b69bee16651602a9π=32 and
http://books.google.com/books?id=cqYOA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:r
oyal+date:1895-1895&as_brr=1&ei=PZN3SdS8
JYWekwTLxeyMAw#PPA265,M1 {Strutt_John_R
ayleigh_Lord_Ramsay_William_1894.pdf}
{01/31/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Baron Rayleigh." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[2] "Baron Rayleigh." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[3] "John Rayleigh". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Raylei
gh
[4] "Rayleigh scattering."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
822>
[5] "John William Strutt, 3rd baron
Rayleigh". Encyclopedia Britannica.
1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Wil
liam_Strutt,_3rd_baron_Rayleigh
[6] John Tyndall, "On Chemical Rays,
and the Light of the Sky.",
Philosophical Magazine, 1869,
p429-450. http://books.google.com/books
?id=PiHR6flNP-sC&pg=PA429
[7] J. W. Strutt, "On the Reflection of
Light from Transparent Matter.", Phil.
Mag., S. 4, Vol. 42, Num 278, Aug 1871,
p.81-97
[8] J. W. Strutt, "On the Light from
the Sky, its Polarization and Colour.",
Phil. Mag., S. 4, Vol. 41, Feb 1871,
p.107-120,274-279
[9] "Rayleigh scattering". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sc
attering
[10] By John William Strutt, Baron
Rayleigh, "Scientific papers
(1869-1919)", University Press,
1899. vol
1: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
2: http://books.google.com/books?id=Y2M
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
3: http://books.google.com/books?id=gWM
SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edition
s:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8T8X_O vol
4: http://books.google.com/books?id=S-s
PAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=strutt+
+scientific+papers&ei=r3F2Sa_lIYrUkwSUjJ
DKBg vol 5 &
6: http://books.google.com/books?id=Tht
WAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0YOgfc3cBhm9OyqKb8
T8X_O&lr=&pgis=1
[11] R. J. Strutt, "On the Tendency of
the Atomic Weights to approximate to
Whole Numbers.", Philosophical
Magazine, S. 6, V. 1, March 1901,
p311-314. http://books.google.com/books
?id=CJAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&dq=strutt+atom
ic+weight&ei=Wl53ScT8JIGklQS0xMHmBA#PPA3
11,M1
[12] "Baron Rayleigh." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
14 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/baron-rayle
igh
[13] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Relative
Densities of Hydrogen and Oxygen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1888,
p356-363. http://books.google.com/books
?id=gKQOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:royal++date:1888-1888&as_brr=1&e
i=PmR3Sd7HKYnikATOldjRBg#PPA356,M1
[14] (original footnote:) "The Relative
Values of the Atomic Weights of
Hydrogen and Oxygen," by J. P. Cooke
and T. W. Richards, 'Amer. Acad.
Proc.,' vol 23, 1887
[15] (original
footnote:) Address to Section A,
British Association 'Report,' 1882
[16]
(original footnote:) "On the
Composition of Water by Volume," by A.
Scott, 'Roy. Soc. Proc.,' June 16, 1887
(vol. 42, p. 396)
[17] Lord Rayleigh, "On an
Anomaly encountered in Determination of
the Density of Nitrogen Gas.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, 1894,
p340-344. http://books.google.com/books
?id=t6gOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+date:1894-1894&as_br
r=1&ei=n4B3SYiGFonikATOldjRBg#PPA340,M1
[18] Lord Rayleigh, "On the Densities
of the Principle Gases.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1893,
p134-151. http://books.google.com/books
?id=qwYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:proceedings+intitle:london+date:
1893-1893&as_brr=1&ei=KYN3Se-sN5bskgTq7b
XHBg#PPA134,M1
(Own Laboratory) Terling, England6
 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD

[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
105 YBN
[03/26/1895 AD] 10 11 12 		4141) The element (and inert gas)
helium is found on Earth,3 4 when
liberated from Uraninite dissolved in
sulfuric acid5 and identified by
spectrum.6 7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
2. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
4. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^
http://www.mindat.org/min-29957.html
Mindat
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538.
8. ^ "Ramsay, Sir
William." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
9. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
10. ^ William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{03/26/1895}
11. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>. {1895}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p537-538. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
(University College) London, England8 9
 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
105 YBN
[11/05/1895 AD] 17 18 		3936) X-rays are discovered.9 10

Radiation from a cathode ray tube is
found to pass through very thick paper
and even thin layers of metal, to cause
luminescence in a paper covered with
barium platinocyanide. These rays
cannot be bent by even a strong
magnetic field like cathode rays, but
yet apparently do not refract, polarize
or interfere like visible light does.11
 The rays are also found to be absorbed
by air less than cathode rays are.
These rays are called "X-rays"12 and
the first X-ray photographs are
captured; of the interiors of metal
objects and of the bones in a human
hand.13

X rays are extremely14 useful as a new
tool in health sciences to see and
penetrate into bodies.15
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
3. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
5. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
7. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
9. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
10. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
11. ^ Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, "Über eine neue Art von
Strahlen", Aus den Sitzungsberichten
der Würzburger Physik.-medic.
Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
12. ^ Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, "Über
eine neue Art von Strahlen", Aus den
Sitzungsberichten der Würzburger
Physik.-medic. Gesellschaft 1895.
also http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/%C3%
9Cber_eine_neue_Art_von_Strahlen Annale
n der Physik, vol. 300, Issue 1,
pp.1-11 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/journal/112488309/abstract English
translation: "On a New Kind of Rays",
Nature, Volume 53, Number 1369, Jan.
23, 1896,
p274. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nWojdmTmch0C&pg=PA274
OR http://www.nature.com/nature/journal
/v53/n1369/pdf/053274b0.pdf
OR Science,
02/14/1896 http://books.google.com/book
s?id=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&dq=%22A+NEW+FO
RM+OF+RADIATION%22&ei=cMXESaPkLIzOkATcx4
2ADg#PPA227,M1
OR http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/roent
gen.html
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
14. ^ Ted Huntington.
15. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
16. ^ "Röntgen,
Wilhelm Conrad." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 20 Mar. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9083
885>.
17. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p502-504.
{11/05/1895}
18. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1901/rontgen-bio.html
{11/05/1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[2] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[3] "Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 20 Mar. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilhelm-con
rad-r-ntgen
[4] "Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Kon
rad_R%C3%B6ntgen
[5] "Rontgen rays". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rontgen_
rays
[6] "Röntgen (Roentgen), Wilhelm
Conrad", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p751-752
[7] W. C. Röntgen, "Ueber die durch
Bewegung eines im homogenen
electrischen Felde befindlichen
Dielectricums hervorgerufene
electrodynamische Kraft", Ann. Phys.
Chem. 35, 264-270
(1888). http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112488000/PDFSTART
[8] W. C. Röntgen, "Beschreibung des
Apparates, mit welchem die Versuche
über die electrodynamische Wirkung
bewegter Dielectrica ausgeführt
wurden", Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
Volume 276, Issue 5, Date: 1890, Pages:
93-108. http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112506815/PDFSTART
[9] Edmund Taylor Whittaker, "History
of the theories of aether and
electricity: from the age of Descartes
to the close of the nineteenth
century", Longmans, Green, 1910,
p426. http://books.google.com/books?id=
vTHJah8btZIC&pg=PA426&dq=R%C3%B6ntgen+18
88+maxwell+dielectric&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=1t
PDSenwHKS6kgSD7-3-DQ#PPA426,M1
[10]
http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/
200708/history.cfm
[11] R. W. Wood, "The n-Rays.", Nature,
n1822, v70, 09/29/1904,
p530-531. http://books.google.com/books
?id=Qn0CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:nature+date:1904-1904&ei=wADJSd7
UN4TIlQScj-3_DQ#PPA530,M1
[12] Rene Blondlot, tr:Julien Francois
William Garcin, "'N' rays", Longmans,
Green, and co.,
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Jpg3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=N+ra
ys+a+collection+of+papers&ei=DsTISdm3N4T
ckASbmYHLAw
[13]
www.rexresearch.com/blondlot/nrays.htm
(University of Würzburg) Würzburg,
Germany16  
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
AND Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print
of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpghttp://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.gif

[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 4 5 		4717) Cathode rays aimed at an isolated
metal cylinder give the cylinder a
negative charge, and when the current
is reversed positive rays give the
cylinder a positive charge.1 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. books.google.com/books?id=NqwxAQ
AAMAAJ&pg=PA1130
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN {Perrin_Jea
n_1895.pdf} Summarized English
translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632.
3. ^ "Perrin, Jean
Baptiste." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 524-526.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903358&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p631-632. {1895}
5. ^
"Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>. {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[3] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[5] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
(École Normale) Paris, France3  
[1] Figure from J. Perrin, ''Nouvelles
proprietes des rayons
cathodiques.'',Comptes Rendus, V121,
1895, p1130. PD
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN

[2] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
105 YBN
[1895 AD] 4 		4826) A radio signal is sent and
received over 2 km (or 1 mile).1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
3. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
4. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1895}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[5] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[6] B. L. Jacot de
Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi:
Master of Space" (1935)
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[7] Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The
Man and His Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly,
"Marconi", 1972
(father’s estate) Bologna, Italy3
 
[1] Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese
(1874-1937), Italian electrical
engineer and Nobel laureate, known as
the inventor of the first practical
radio-signalling system. PD
source: http://www.greatitalians.com/Ima
ges/Marconi.jpg

[2] Guglielmo Marconi.jpg Guglielmo
Marconi, portrait, head and shoulders,
facing left. Date Copyright
1908 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg

104 YBN
[02/22/1896 AD] 3 		3940) X-rays are detected in sunlight.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight", Science,
p357-358.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA357
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=ERoCAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA596&lpg=PA596&dq=seneca+Egber
t+rontgen+rays+photographs&source=bl&ots
=UHuJje1bBR&sig=AhsihHq3R-zWgnvBxHKLsWcv
Wio&hl=en&ei=ptnESfXtL4H0sAPXxsDYBg&sa=X
&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
3. ^ Charles Dolley, "Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight", Science,
p357-358.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA357
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Charles Dolley, ''Rontgen Rays
Present in Sunlight'', Science,
p357-358.
http://books.google.com/books?id=4Z8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA357 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4Z8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA357
104 YBN
[03/02/1896 AD] 7 		4151) Radioactivity is discovered:
invisible rays are detected from a
uranium salt.2

The fluorescent chemical, potassium
uranyl {YR-i-nL3 } sulfate, is found to
emit x-rays (which appear on a
photographic plate wrapped in black
paper placed underneath it) even
without being made fluorescent by
sunlight.4

This emission of X-rays from potassium
uranyl sulfate without any external
source, implies that atoms are composed
of smaller particles.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
2. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les corps
phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
3. ^ "uranyl." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uranyl
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
6. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
7. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {02/24/1896}
{03/02/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France6
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD AND Antoine-Henri
Becquerel (1852-1908) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpght
tp://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui/figuras/q
uimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
104 YBN
[03/18/1896 AD] 4 		4276) The theory that x-rays are made
of material particles.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
2. ^ "Tesla, Nikola." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>.
3. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
4. ^ Nikola Tesla, "On Roentgen Rays -
Latest Results", Electrical Review —
March 18,
1896. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_
Roentgen_Rays_(2)_-_Latest_Results
{03/18/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[5] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[6] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[9] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[11] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[12] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[13] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[14] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[15] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[16] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[17] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[18] "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm
[19] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23,
c.8 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/A
rticles/jul_11_1935b.htm
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
[21] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[22] Tesla patent
#645576 http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
(Private Lab) New York City, NY, USA2 3
 (presumably) 
[1] Image from Tesla's 1897 patent
#65576 System of Transmission of
Electric Energy PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=8DFBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false

[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
104 YBN
[03/25/1896 AD] 3 		4152) The radiation emitted from
uranium salts is found to be deeply
penetrating and to discharge a charged
electroscope.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. books.google.com/books?id=QQPj
SZQQFQ4C&pg=PA689
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k30780.image.f691 summarized: "On
the invisible rays emitted by the salts
of Uranium.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
2. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false {03/25/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[2] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[4] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[6] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France2
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
104 YBN
[04/06/1896 AD] 3 		4335) That all substances struck by
X-rays emit secondary X-ray radiation
is discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 17 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
932>.
2. ^ "Michael Idvorsky Pupin." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
3. ^ Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant To
Inventor", 1922, p306-310. {04/06/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Michael Idvorsky Pupin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 17 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mihajlo-pup
in
[2] "Pupin, Michael Idvorsky." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 213. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 17 May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903540&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] Dugald C. Jackson, "Michael
Idvorsky Pupin (1858-1935)",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 72, No. 10
(May, 1938), pp. 379-385
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA2  
[1] Image of Pupin on Serbian
dollar COPYRIGHTED - FAIR USE
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/pup
in_money2.jpg

[2] Michael Idvorsky
Pupin.jpg Photo of Mihajlo Idvorski
Pupin, a Serbian born American
physicist PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4d/Michael_Idvorsky_Pupi
n.jpg
104 YBN
[05/12/1896 AD] 3 		4340) The fluoroscope: a fluorescent
screen that is illuminated in real-time
by x-ray beams.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
2. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
3. ^ New York Times, "FLUOROSCOPE A
SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S INVENTION SHOWN
AT THE ELECTRICAL EXPOSITION. Visitors
Ushered into a Darkened Room, Where
They Placed Their Hands Behind the
Screen and Saw Their Bones -- One Woman
Touched the Wires and Received a Slight
Shock -- A Talk with the Inventor --
Other Attractions of the Show.", May
12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF {E
dison_Fluoroscope_1896.pdf}
{05/12/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
[17]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
[18]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
[19]
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
New York City, NY, USA2
(presumably) 
[1] Normal (left) versus cancerous
(right) mammography image. Courtesy
of the National Cancer Institute.
http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics
/sect2.htm PD AND Uso do
fluoroscópio para diagnóstico na
clínica Rome Wagner (1897) PD AND A
fluoroscopia: O grande inventor e
cientista americano Thomas Alva Edison
(1847-1931) interessou-se pelos raios X
logo após a sua descoberta, e aplicou
seu extraordinário gênio inventivo ao
seu aperfeiçoamento e popularização.
Entre outras coisas, ele desenvolveu um
fluoroscópio portátil em 1896, que
consistia de uma tela fluorescente
sensível aos raios X, que podia
mostrar a imagem sem necessidade de
radiografar fotograficamente. Edison
pesquisou 8.000 compostos até
determinar que o tungstato de cálcio
era o melhor agente fluorescente, e
passou a comercializar o Vitascope
Fluoroscopy Unit, que se tornou
grandemente popular, com
demonstrações públicas. O
fluoroscópio logo mostrou sua
utilidade na medicina, ao permitir a
observação de imagens internas do
corpo em movimento, como o coração, o
aparelho fonador, etc. No mesmo ano de
1895, Michael Pupin desenvolveu um
método de obter radiografias usando
filmes fotográficos impressionados
diretamente pelo fluoroscópio de
Edison, reduzindo assim dramaticamente
o tempo de exposição necessários,
para alguns segundos. O fotógrafo
inglês Eadweard Muybridge também foi
o primeiro a fazer filmes de uma perna
de râ em movimento. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Mammo_breast_cancer.j
pghttp://www.cerebromente.org.br/n20/his
tory/xray-wagner2.jpghttp://www.cerebrom
ente.org.br/n20/history/xray-fluoroscope
.JPG

[2] Description Normaler Schluckakt
in der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif
104 YBN
[05/19/1896 AD] 3 		4715) The electric fluorescent lamp.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
2. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
3. ^ Edison US patent #865,367,
"Fluorescent Electric
Lamp". http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false {05/19/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Cros." The New
Oxford Companion to Literature in
French. Oxford University Press, 1995,
2005. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-cro
s
[2] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p137. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=stat
ion&f=false
[3] "Electrotype." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/E
lectrotype>
[4] "Galvanoplasty." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
08 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/G
alvanoplasty>
[5] Thomas A. Edison, "The Phonograph
and Its Future", The North American
review, Volume 126, 1878,
p527. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gTEAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA527&dq=the+phonograph+
and+its+future&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=the%
20phonograph%20and%20its%20future&f=fals
e
[6] "The Telegraph and Its Future",
Nature, 05/30/1878,
p116. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5soKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[7] The Telegraphic Journal,
07/01/1878,
p272. http://books.google.com/books?id=
YBEAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA272&dq=edison+phonogra
ph+uses+recording+phone+calls&as_brr=1#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] Edison "improvements to
phonograph..." patent
#200521 http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=SWg_AAAAEBAJ
[9] Francis Arthur Jones, "Thomas Alva
Edison: sixty years of an inventor's
life", 1907,
p138. http://books.google.com/books?id=
29HAPQBd-JsC&pg=PA5&dq=thomas+alva+ediso
n&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[10]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html
[11] "Phonograph". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph
[12] Video of constructing an Edison
Battery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
K84PywMwjZg
[13] "Nickel-iron battery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-iron
_battery
[14] "nickel-iron accumulator." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 18
Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nickel-iron
-accumulator-1
[15]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edtim
e.html
[16] "Storage Battery, Edison",
"Compendium of the world's progress
during the ...", 1902,
p736. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k1MAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA736&dq=thomas+edis
on+nickel+iron+battery&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=thomas%20edison%20nickel%20iron%20ba
ttery&f=false
[17]
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmrr
g.html
[18]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bl_Edison_Motion_Pictures.htm
[19]
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?am
mem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edm
p+4034))+@field(COLLID+edison)) http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PPBkVTIxjo
[20] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p576
[21] New York Times,
"FLUOROSCOPE A SUCCESS; MR. EDISON'S
INVENTION SHOWN AT THE ELECTRICAL
EXPOSITION. Visitors Ushered into a
Darkened Room, Where They Placed Their
Hands Behind the Screen and Saw Their
Bones -- One Woman Touched the Wires
and Received a Slight Shock -- A Talk
with the Inventor -- Other Attractions
of the Show.", May 12, 1896,
Wednesday. http://query.nytimes.com/gst
/abstract.html?res=9D04EFDF153BEE33A2575
1C1A9639C94679ED7CF http://query.nytime
s.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D04
EFDF153BEE33A25751C1A9639C94679ED7CF
Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, USA2
 
[1] Figure from US patent #865,367,
''Fluorescent Electric Lamp''. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=rqFOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/bb/Thomas_Edison%2C_1878.jpg
104 YBN
[11/??/1896 AD] 4 		4259) That x-rays ionize gases (cause
gases to become electrical conductors)
is found, and is an easy method to
produce gas ions.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010.
2. ^ J.
J. Thomson and E. Rutherford, "On the
passage of electricity through gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&pg=pa392
3. ^ J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity through
gases exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil.
Mag., S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&pg=pa392
4. ^ J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity through
gases exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil.
Mag., S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&pg=pa392 {11/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[4] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[6]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[8] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[9] J.J. Thomson, (With J. A.
MCCLELLAND.) On the leakage of
electricity through dielectrics
traversed by Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J.
Thomson, "On the discharge of
electricity produced by the
Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc. 59,
1896, 274
[11] J. J. Thomson, "On the
velocity of the cathode-rays".
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V38, N233,
Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
[12] "Rutherford, Ernest, Baron
Rutherford of Nelson, of Cambridge."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>
[13] "Ernest Rutherford." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[14] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Figure From On the Passage of
Electricity through Gases exposed to
Rontgen Rays. By J. J. THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S., Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics, Cambridge. with
Ernest Rutherford 11/1896 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=
thomson&f=false

[2] English: J. J. Thomson published
in 1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg
104 YBN
[12/29/1896 AD] 3 		4759) X-rays are used to visualize
gastrointestinal movements using a
drink made with bismuth which is opaque
to x-rays.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638.
2. ^ "Cannon, Walter
Bradford." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 71-77.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Cannon, Walter Bradford."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 71-77. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904846&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/29/1896}

MORE INFO
[1] "Cannon, Walter Bradford."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
018>
[2] "Walter Bradford Cannon." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-cann
on
[3] "Walter Bradford Cannon".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Brad
ford_Cannon
(Harvard Medical School) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] Description Normaler Schluckakt in
der Barium-Breischluck-Untersuchung.
Eine mit der Maus interaktiv
blätterbare Version gibt es
hier. Date 2011-05-28 20:03
(UTC) Source 34 files:
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg […]
Normaler_Schluck-33.jpg Author
Normaler_Schluck-00.jpg (and
others): Hellerhoff derivative
work: Anka Friedrich (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Normal_barium_swallow
_animation.gif

[2] Walter Bradford Cannon, MA, MD
(1871– 1945), circa 1908. Photo by J.
E. Purdue & Co, Boston, Mass. Source.
Prints and Photographs Collection,
History of Medicine Division, National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://ajph.aphapublications.org
/content/vol92/issue10/images/large/B418
3-02-0580-joe.jpeg
104 YBN
[1896 AD] 5 6 		4328) The disease "beriberi"
{BAR-E-BAR-E1 } is shown to be caused
by poor diet.2 This leads to the
discovery of vitamins and "beriberi"
will be the first known
"dietary-deficiency disease".3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "beriberi." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 20 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/b
eriberi>.
2. ^ "Eijkman, Christiaan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574.
4. ^ "Eijkman,
Christiaan." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 14
May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>.
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p573-574. {1896}
6. ^
"Eijkman, Christiaan." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
142>. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Christiaan Eijkman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/christiaan-
eijkman
[2] "Eijkman, Christiaan." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 310-312. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 14 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901294&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Christiaan Eijkman". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_
Eijkman
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1929/eijkman-bio.html
Javanese Medical School in Batavia (now
Jakarta)4 (presumably) 
[1] English: Christiaan Eijkman
(1858-1930) Date Unknown Source
http://www.kb.nl/hkc/nobel/eijkman/
eijkman.html Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Copyright is by Museum
Boerhaave,
http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/contact/pe
rs2a.html, their website states '(vrij
beschikbaar voor publicatie)' ='(freely
available for publication)' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/Christiaan_Eijkman.jp
g
103 YBN
[04/30/1897 AD] 14 15 		4260) Cathode rays are shown to be made
of particles (later called electrons).5
 This is the first particle (besides
light6 ) known to be smaller than an
atom.7 8

By deflecting cathode-rays with an
electromagnetic field, the ratio of
mass to electric charge of cathode ray
particles is measured to be 10-7 grams
per coulomb, 1000 times smaller than an
ion of hydrogen from electrolysis. In
addition, the theory that cathode rays
are made of small negatively charged
particles which are a part of all
atoms.9 10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391
4. ^ Thomson J J
"Cathode Rays", Royal Institution
Friday Evening Discourse, 30 April
1897, published in: Prof. J. J.
Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
5. ^ Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p391
8. ^ Thomson J J
"Cathode Rays", Royal Institution
Friday Evening Discourse, 30 April
1897, published in: Prof. J. J.
Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
9. ^ Thomson J J "Cathode Rays", Royal
Institution Friday Evening Discourse,
30 April 1897, published in: Prof. J.
J. Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
10. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {Falconer_1997.pdf}
11. ^ Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897, 269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
12. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {Falconer_1997.pdf}
13. ^ Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAA
IAAJ&pg=PA293
14. ^ Thomson J J "Cathode Rays", Royal
Institution Friday Evening Discourse,
30 April 1897, published in: Prof. J.
J. Thomson, "Cathode Rays", The
Electrician Volume 39, 21 May 1897,
p104-9.
books.google.com/books?id=LJFMAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA104 {Thomson_Joseph_John_18970521
.pdf}
15. ^ Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron", 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015) {Falconer_1997.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England12 13  
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg

[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
103 YBN
[08/07/1897 AD] 4 		6658) Cathode ray particles are
deflected by an electrostatic field. In
addition the velocity of cathode ray
particles is found to increase with
electric potential and with tube
exhaustion.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
2. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
3. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up
4. ^ Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. Volume 44, 08/07/1897, Issue
269,
p293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA293
AND http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
item/122313#page/321/mode/1up

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays". Philosophical
Magazine, S5, V38, N233, Oct 1894,
358. http://books.google.com/books?id=T
VQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity+
of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=onep
age&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20c
athode-rays&f=false
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[16] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[17]
Thomson, J. J., Phil Mag, S5, V48,
N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[18] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[19] "Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 340-350. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830901978&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[20] George William Clarkson Kaye, "X
rays", 1918,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=U
FhDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=lenard+showed+tha
t+for+fast-moving+1895&hl=en&ei=uzi2S_fj
BYOyswPx7MSBAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=lenard%20showed%20that%20for%20fast-mo
ving%201895&f=false
[21] Thomson, J.J., "Cathode-rays.",
Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897,
293. books.google.com/books?id=Zl0wAAAA
IAAJ&pg=PA293
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] obel Falconer, ''J J Thomson and
the discovery of the electron'', 1997
Phys. Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
{Falconer_1997.pdf} COPYRIGHTED AND
J.J. Thomson was Cavendish Professor
and head of the Cavendish Laboratory
from 1894 to 1919. J.J. is best known
for his work on the electron. Credit:
Cambridge University, Cavendish
Laboratory. PD
source: http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9
120/32/4/015http://www.aip.org/history/e
xhibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/sl
ide1_thomson_big.jpg

[2] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD AND J.J. Thomson was
Cavendish Professor and head of the
Cavendish Laboratory from 1894 to 1919.
J.J. is best known for his work on the
electron. Credit: Cambridge
University, Cavendish Laboratory. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=falsehttp://www.aip.org/history/exh
ibits/rutherford/images/sectionpics/slid
e1_thomson_big.jpg
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 13 14 15 		4088) The first electronic display (the
oscilloscope).7 8 9

A cathode ray tube is made with a mica
screen inside which is coated with
fluorescent material. This allows an
electron beam inside the tube to be
deflected by varying currents in
electromagnets, which moves a luminous
spot of light on the screen. This leads
to the television and computer
display.10 11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
2. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
3. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
5. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
6. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
8. ^ "Braun,
Ferdinand." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>.
9. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
10. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524.
12. ^ Ferdinand
Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur
Demonstration und zum Studium des
zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler
Ströme", Annalen der Physik und
Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false

13. ^ Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. books.google.com/books?id=QUXk
AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun_Ferd
inand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} English
translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464
14. ^ "Braun, Ferdinand." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
270>. {1897}
15. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p523-524. {1897}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Ferdinand Braun." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
[2] "Karl Ferdinand Braun". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdin
and_Braun
[3] "Braun, Ferdinand", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's
Sons, (2000), pp135
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/braun-bio.html
[5] catalog of
papers http://books.google.com/books?id
=E-ItAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334&dq=Karl+Ferdinand
+Braun+1874&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[6]
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_7615
83126/braun_karl_ferdinand.html
[7] "Karl Ferdinand Braun."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 02 Oct. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-ferdin
and-braun
(Physikal Institute) Strassburg,
France12  
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD AND Ferdinand Braun PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PDhttp://www.lecad.fs.uni-lj.si/tmce20
06/2012/pics/venue_html_68645264.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR Engl
ish translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
103 YBN
[1897 AD] 3 		4793) The theory that x-rays might be
used for telepathy.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Crookes, "Address by the
President", Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research, V12, 1897,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hBErAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:oe0pHgGQavIC&hl=en&ei=102RTLyFL4u8s
QOQnP39Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=6&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
2. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.
3. ^ William Crookes, "Address
by the President", Proceedings of the
Society for Psychical Research, V12,
1897,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hBErAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:oe0pHgGQavIC&hl=en&ei=102RTLyFL4u8s
QOQnP39Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=6&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
(private lab) London, England2
(presumably) 
[1] Description: Scan of a picture of
William Crookes Source: A History of
Science (vol. 5, facing page
106) Date: 1904 Author: Henry Smith
Williams PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Crookes_William.jpg

[2] Sir William Crookes Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSsirwil.jpg
102 YBN
[01/21/1898 AD] 7 8 9 		4436) Kanalstrahlen are shown to be
made of positively charged particles
with a mass to charge ratio similar to
a hydrogen ion. These positive
particles will later be called
protons.3 4 The speed of these
particles is determined to be around
1000 times slower than the speed of
light.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes
/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
2. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
3. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes
/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
4. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
5. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
6. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART

7. ^ Wien, Wilhelm. Die
electrostatische und magnetische
Ablenkung der Canalstrahlen....
Physikal. Ges. zu Berlin,
1898. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZAU5AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA10
8. ^ "Wilhelm Wien - Biography".
Nobelprize.org. 25 Jan 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes
/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html
9. ^ W. Wien, "Über die Berechnung der
Impulsbreite der Röntgenstrahlen aus
ihrer Energie", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 327, Issue 4, Date: 1907, Pages:
793-797. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112493860/PDFSTART
 {11/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wien, Wilhelm."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 10 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
933>
[2] "Wilhelm Wien". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wie
n
[3] Wien, "Über die Energievertheilung
im Emissionsspectrum eines schwarzen
Körpers", Annalen der Physik, 294
(June 1896), 662–669, also in
English trans: "On the Division of
Energy in the Emissionspectrum of a
Black Body", Philosophical Magazine,
5th ser., 43 (1897), 214–220
[4] W. Wien,
"Untersuchungen über die elektrische
Entladung in verdünnten Gasen",
Annalen der Physik, Volume 310, Issue
6, Date: 1901, Pages:
421-435. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485884/PDFSTART

[5] W. Wien, "Untersuchungen über die
elektrische Entladung in verdünnten
Gasen", Annalen der Physik, Volume 313,
Issue 6, Date: 1902, Pages:
244-266. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485582/PDFSTART

[6] W. Wien, "Ueber die Natur der
positiven Elektronen", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 314, Issue 11, Date:
1902, Pages:
660-664. http://www3.interscience.wiley
.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485776/PDFSTART

(Wurzburg University) Wurzburg,
Germany6  
[1] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1911 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/10/WilhelmWien1911.jpg
102 YBN
[05/02/1898 AD] 5 6 7 		4380) Thermite, the explosive mixture
of a metal oxide and aluminum powder is
discovered.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). "Über ein neues Verfahren
zur Darstellung von Metallen und
Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums ("On a
new method for the preparation of
metals and alloys by means of
aluminum"). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
books.google.com/books?id=Df0tAAAAIAAJ
&pg=PA19
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112324980/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRET
RY=0
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586.
3. ^ Goldschmidt,
Hans; Ruhr, Essen a. d. (1898). "Über
ein neues Verfahren zur Darstellung von
Metallen und Legirungen mittelst
Aluminiums ("On a new method for the
preparation of metals and alloys by
means of aluminum"). Justus Liebigs
Annalen der Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Df0tA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:a
nnalen+intitle:chemie+date:1898-1898&cd=
3#v=onepage&q&f=false http://www3.inter
science.wiley.com/journal/112324980/abst
ract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
4. ^ Patent number:
875345 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=nw1lAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
5. ^ Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). "Über ein neues Verfahren
zur Darstellung von Metallen und
Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums ("On a
new method for the preparation of
metals and alloys by means of
aluminum"). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Df0tA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:a
nnalen+intitle:chemie+date:1898-1898&cd=
3#v=onepage&q&f=false http://www3.inter
science.wiley.com/journal/112324980/abst
ract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 {05/02/1898}
6. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p586. {1898}
7. ^ "Hans
Goldschmidt". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Goldsc
hmidt {1893}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thermite". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermite
[2] Patent number:
733957 http://www.google.com/patents?id
=JP5rAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
(Business: TH. Goldschmidt)
Essen-on-the-Ruhr, Germany3 4  
[1] Goldschmidt, Hans; Ruhr, Essen a.
d. (1898). ''Ãœber ein neues
Verfahren zur Darstellung von Metallen
und Legirungen mittelst Aluminiums
(''On a new method for the preparation
of metals and alloys by means of
aluminum''). Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 301 (1): 19–28.
doi:10.1002/jlac.18983010103.
books.google.com/books?id=Df0tAAAAIAAJ
&pg=PA19
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112324980/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRET
RY=0 PD AND A thermite reaction
using iron(III) oxide English: A
thermite reaction using Ferric
Oxide. Date 2007-05-12 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:Choij using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was CaesiumFluoride at
en.wikipedia GNU AND Hans
Goldschmidt UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPGhttp
://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/common
s/0/0a/Thermite_mix.jpg

[2] A thermite reaction using
iron(III) oxide English: A thermite
reaction using Ferric Oxide. Date
2007-05-12 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Choij using CommonsHelper. Author
Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6f/ThermiteFe2O3.JPG
102 YBN
[05/10/1898 AD] 11 12 13 14 		3824) Hydrogen is liquefied.5 6 7 8

The boiling point of hydrogen is
measured as -238° C.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

4. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
6. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
7. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

8. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note on
the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
9. ^ James Dewar, "The Boiling Point of
Liquid Hydrogen, Determined by Hydrogen
and Helium Gas Thermometers",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London (1854-1905), Volume 68, 1901,
p.44-54. http://journals.royalsociety.o
rg/content/340096125j7x2310/?p=781b93c28
d204254b15249d65270245bπ=16 {Dewar_Jam
es_bp_H_1901.pdf}
10. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
11. ^ James Dewar, "Preliminary Note
on the Liquefaction of Hydrogen and
Helium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
63, 1898,
p.256-258. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/8225261k3nu62731/?p=1ddcc31
e84454208ace58c150d2b3b8dπ=34 {Dewar_J
ames_Liquid_Hydrogen_1898.pdf}
{05/10/1898}
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1898}
13. ^
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1898}
14. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[10]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England10
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg

[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg

102 YBN
[07/01/1898 AD] 4 		4255) The first radio controlled
vehicle; a remotely controlled boat.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_robots.ht
ml
2. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
3. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false
4. ^ Tesla Patent 613809 Method of and
apparatus for controlling mechanism of
moving vessels or
vehicles. http://www.google.com/patents
?id=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=
4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&
q=&f=false {07/01/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[2] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[4] "Tesla, Nikola." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 286-287. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 22 Feb.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904270&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[16] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[19] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[20]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Tesla's private lab) New York City,
NY, USA3  
[1] Interior of Tesla's
remote-controlled boat. PD
source: http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/ima
ges/rcimg02.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 07/01/1898
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=T1VrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
102 YBN
[09/01/1898 AD] 3 		4731) Uranium is found to emit at least
two kinds of radiation, one which is
quickly absorbed that is named "alpha"
radiation, and a second which has more
penetrative power that is named "beta"
radiation.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation
and the Electrical Conduction Produced
by It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
2. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
{09/01/1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Fig 1 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false

[2] Fig 2 from Rutherford, ''Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii
109-163 1899. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiat
ion+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produc
ed+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium
Radiation and the Electrical Conduction
Produced by It&f=false
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 4 5 		4109) The causal agent of tobacco
mosaic disease is recognized as a
completely new type of infectious
agent, smaller and different than
bacteria,1 which is named a "virus".2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ M W Beijerinck, "Ueber ein
Contagium vivum fluidum als Ursache der
Fleckenkrankheit der Tabaksblätter",
Amsterdam : J. Müller, 1898, 21
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=ly5XQAAACAAJ&dq=Ueber+ein+Contagium+viv
um+fluidum+als+Ursache+der+Fleckenkrankh
eit+der+Tabaksbla%CC%88tter English
translation: M. W. Beijerinck,
"Concerning a contagium vivum fluidum
as the cause of the spot disease of
tobacco leaves", Phytopathological
Classics, No. 7., American
Phytopathological Society, St. Paul,
MN. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&sour
ce=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ffeat
ure%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei=pb
PTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerinck+
1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVsYxI
E8Q {Beijerinck_Martinus_1898.pdf}
3. ^ "Beijerinck, Martinus Willem."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 15. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 13-15. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 12
Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p528-529. {1898}
5. ^
"virus." Encyclopædia Britannica.
2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
12 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9106
000>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Martinus Willem Beijerinck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinus_Wi
llem_Beijerinck
(Dutch Yeast and Spirit Factory) Delft,
Netherlands3  
[1] Table 2 from Beijerinck's 1898
paper PD
source: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&s
ource=web&ct=res&cd=1&ved=0CAcQFjAA&url=
http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsnet.org%2Fonline%2Ff
eature%2FTobacco%2FBeijerinck1898.pdf&ei
=pbPTSrS1I4j2sQPZ7anWCg&rct=j&q=Beijerin
ck+1898&usg=AFQjCNGDnguGRlFxH0cXq_iEhbVs
YxIE8Q

[2] Martinus Beijerinck in his
laboratory. Date 12 May
1921(1921-05-12) Source Delft
School of Microbiology Archives PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Mwb_in_lab.JPG
102 YBN
[1898 AD] 11 		4698) Electromagnetic writing and
reading of data. Sound is recorded by
varying the magnetization of tiny parts
of a single wound wire sequentially in
direct proportion to the electric
current produced by the sound. When
each part is moved past an
electromagnet the sound is played out
loud again in a telephone receiver.7 8
This will lead to video tapes and hard
disks.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
2. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
3. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
4. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
5. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
6. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
7. ^ Poulsen patent 661,619 Method of
Recording and Reproducing Sounds or
Signals http://www.google.com/patents/a
bout?id=e79kAAAAEBAJ&dq=661,619
8. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>.
11. ^ "Poulsen, Valdemar."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9061
097>. {1898}

MORE INFO
[1] "Valdemar Poulsen." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 30 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/valdemar-po
ulsen-danish-engineer
[2] "Valdemar Poulsen." Science and Its
Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 6: 1900 to 1949. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 612. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 30 July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3408503938&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Valdemar Poulsen". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Po
ulsen
[4] Compilation of Oberlin Smith
biographical and technical information
of his inventions
(Copenhagen Telephone Company)
Copenhagen, Denmark10  
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg

[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
101 YBN
[03/03/1899 AD] 4 		4900) The first life is saved by
wireless communication from a stranded
steamship.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Space", 1935, p51.
2. ^ B. Jacot,
"Marconi-Master of Space", 1935, p51.
3. ^
Ted Huntington.
4. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Space", 1935, p51. {03/03/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13]
http://www.answers.com/cellular%20phone
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651
[15] "Marconi,
Guglielmo." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 98-99.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19
Oct. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England2
(verify3 ) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
101 YBN
[03/17/1899 AD] 5 6 7 8 		4319) The first moon with a retrograde
motion is observed; Phoebe {FE-BE1 }, a
moon of Saturn.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Phoebe." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 09
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/phoebe
2. ^ "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
3. ^ Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
4. ^ Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
5. ^ Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P {03/17/1899}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p570-571. {1899}
7. ^
"Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>. {1899}
8. ^ "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Henry Pickering."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[2] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[4] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[6] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[7] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[8] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA4  
[1] English: Phoebe, as imaged by the
Cassini probe. Français : Mosaïque
de deux images de Phoebé prises par la
sonde Cassini. Date 11 June
2004(2004-06-11) Source
jpl.nasa.gov, image reference:
PIA06064.jpg Author Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Phoebe_cassini.jpg

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
101 YBN
[09/13/1899 AD] 4 		4732) A gas is found to be emitted from
Thorium which will later be shown to be
Radon1 . All substances touched by the
positive ions created by this gas are
shown to exhibit radioactivity that
lasts for several days.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395.
2. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
3. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
4. ^ Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html {09/13/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[4] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[5] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[6] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[7] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[9] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.

[2] Figure from Rutherford, ''A
Radioactive Substance emitted from
Thorium Compound'', Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
1-14 1900. PD
source: Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
101 YBN
[09/??/1899 AD] 5 		4739) That rays from radium cause
radioactivity in all objects placed
near them is discovered.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. and Mme. Curie, "Sur la
radioactivite provoquee par les rayons
de Becquerel", Comptes Rendus, 129,
1899,
p714-716. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k3085b.image.f714.langEN
2. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp. 213-223. Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/230
788
3. ^ "Curie, Marie (Maria Sklodowska)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 497-503. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Marie Curie, "Rayons émis par les
composés de l'uranium et du thorium"
("Rays emitted by compounds of uranium
and thorium"). Comptes Rendus 126:
1898,
1101–1103. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/
CadresFenetre?O=30000000030829&M=tdm {C
urie_18980412_N0003082_PDF_1101_1110.pdf
}
5. ^ Marjorie Malley, "The Discovery of
Atomic Transmutation: Scientific Styles
and Philosophies in France and
Britain", Isis, Vol. 70, No. 2 (Jun.,
1979), pp. 213-223. Published by: The
University of Chicago Press on behalf
of The History of Science
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/230
788 {shortly before 9/13/1899 according
to}

MORE INFO
[1] "Curie, Pierre."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 20 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
[2] "Pierre Curie." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
20 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pierre-curi
e-scientist
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 503-508. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 20 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901043&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Pierre Curie". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curi
e
[5] "Marie Curie." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[6] "Marie Curie." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 21 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p391
[8]
"Marie Curie". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

[9] "Marie Curie." History of Science
and Technology. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/marie-curie

[10] "pitchblende." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pitchblende

[11] "polonium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polonium
[12]
http://www.curie.fr/fondation/musee/mari
e-pierre-curie.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
[13] "Paul Villard and his Discovery of
Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
(École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne)
Paris, France3 4  
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG

[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
101 YBN
[12/11/1899 AD] 4 5 		4374) Radium rays are deflected by a
magnetic field. These rays will be
identified as Beta rays and shown to be
electrons.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
2. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magne´tique sur le rayonnement
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
rendus 129 (1899), 996–1001.
3. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {12/11/1899}
5. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "Influence d’un champ
magne´tique sur le rayonnement des
corps radio-actifs", Comptes rendus
129 (1899), 996–1001. {12/11/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] ([SO4(UO)K+H2O)
[7] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France3
 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
101 YBN
[12/??/1899 AD] 3 		4265) The negative ion is found to have
the same mass and charge for all
gases.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
2. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
3. ^ Thomson, J.J., "On the Masses of
the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.",
Phil. Mag, S. 5, V. 48, N. 295, Dec
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA547&dq=thomson+date:18
99-1899+intitle:philosophical&lr=&cd=2#v
=onepage&q=thomson%20date%3A1899-1899%20
intitle%3Aphilosophical&f=false
{12/1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p357
[5]
J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] "Thomson, Joseph John." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2010
[7] J.
J. Thomson, "On the Rate of Propagation
of the Luminous Discharge of
Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[8] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[9] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[10] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[11] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[12]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[13] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[14] Thomson, J.J.,
"Cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
293. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[18] Sir Joseph John
Thomson, Applications of dynamics to
physics and chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[19] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p188
[20] Russell McCormmach, "J.
J. Thomson and the Structure of Light",
The British Journal for the History of
Science, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Dec., 1967),
pp. 362-387.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4024961
[21] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[22] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
"Electricity and matter",
1903 http://books.google.com/books?id=q
toEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=elect
ricity+and+matter+date:1904-1904&cd=1#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[23]
http://books.google.com/books?id=AFIEAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=silliman+tho
mson+The+%22Present+Development%22+of+%2
2our+ideas+of+electricity%22&source=bl&o
ts=MplL4FZwlB&sig=syqjUWBgONoPdTsWsjAKp0
v4aVM&hl=en&ei=KLyeS-qmHIHkswPOjMiNCw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved
=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=silliman%20thom
son%20The%20%22Present%20Development%22%
20of%20%22our%20ideas%20of%20electricity
%22&f=false
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Experiments to
show that negative electricity is given
off by a metal exposed to
Rontgen-rays.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.
12, 312,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
yZ81AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=Experiments+to+
show+that+negative+electricity+is+given+
off+by+a+metal+exposed+to+Rontgen-rays&c
d=1#v=onepage&q=Experiments%20to%20show%
20that%20negative%20electricity%20is%20g
iven%20off%20by%20a%20metal%20exposed%20
to%20Rontgen-rays&f=false
(British Association Meeting) Dover,
England2  
[1] English: J. J. Thomson published in
1896. Deutsch: Joseph John Thomson
(1856–1940). Ein ursprünglich 1896
veröffentlichter Stahlstich. [edit]
Source From Oliver Heaviside: Sage
in Solitude (ISBN 0-87942-238-6), p.
120. This is a reproduction of a steel
engraving originally published in The
Electrician, 1896. It was scanned on an
Epson Perfection 1250 at 400dpi,
cleaned up (some text was showing
through the back) in Photoshop, reduced
to grayscale, and saved as JPG using
the 'Save for Web' optimizer.. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/JJ_Thomson.jpg

[2] J. J. Thomson in earlier days. PD

source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/05atomic/th
omson1.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 6 7 8 		3825) Hydrogen is solidified.1 2 3 4
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494.
2. ^ "Dewar, Sir
James." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 7 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
3. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

4. ^ James Dewar, "Solid Hydrogen",
Chemical News and Journal of Industrial
Science, Chemical news office., 1899,
v.80 (1900),
p132-133. http://books.google.com/books
?id=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical
+news+dewar+solidification+date:1899-189
9&ei=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT128,M1
5. ^ "Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p493-494. {1899}
7. ^
"Dewar, Sir James." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 7 Jan. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9030
182>. {1899}
8. ^ "James Dewar." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 07 Jan.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar
 {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "James Dewar." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 07 Jan. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-dewar

[2] "James Dewar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewar

[3] "Sir James Dewar". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Jame
s_Dewar
[4] George Downing Liveing, James
Dewar, "Collected Papers on
Spectroscopy", University Press,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
X75NAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jame
s+Dewar&lr=&as_brr=1&ei=OipmSfW-FJD6lQTf
3aCZAQ
[5] Armstrong, H. E. (1928). "Obituary
of James Dewar". Journal of the
Chemical Society: 1056 – 1076.
doi:10.1039/JR9280001056.
http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/a
rticle.asp?doi=JR9280001056
[6]
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues
/2008/August/DewarsFlask.asp
[7]
http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?c
oll_id=2955&inst_id=17
[8] Videos of magnetism of liquid
oxygen: http://video.google.com/videose
arch?hl=en&q=magnetism%20liquid%20oxygen
&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
[9] "Dewar, James", Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p248
[10]
James Dewar, Helen Rose Banks Dewar,
James Douglas Hamilton Dickson, Hugh
Munro Ross, Ernest Charles Scott
Dickson, "Collected Papers of Sir James
Dewar...", The University Press,
1927. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pR9WAAAAMAAJ&q=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+J
ames+Dewar&dq=Collected+Papers+of+Sir+Ja
mes+Dewar&lr=&ei=8r5nSZWNFoGklQSW5s3yCw&
pgis=1
[11] Willett Lepley Hardin, "The Rise
and Development of the Liquefaction of
Gases", The Macmillan company,
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
s5cAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR8&dq=dewar+solidificat
ion+date:1899-1899&lr=&ei=g79nSZrvFozSlQ
S2pvXrCA
(Royal Institution) London, England5
(presumably) 
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1

[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 5 		4177) The theory that mass and time
change for a body depending on its
motion relative to the speed of light,2
 and that no matter can travel faster
than the speed of light.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/sear
ch/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ele
ctromagnetic_phenomena
2. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/sear
ch/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ele
ctromagnetic_phenomena
3. ^ H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic
Phenomena in a System Moving with any
Velocity Less than that of Light",
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences
of Amsterdam, 1904,
p6. http://www.historyofscience.nl/sear
ch/detail.cfm?pubid=615&view=image&start
row=1 http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ele
ctromagnetic_phenomena
4. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 487-500. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 25
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hendrik Lorentz." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[2] "Hendrik Lorentz." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[3] "Hendrik Lorentz." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 25 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hendrik-lor
entz
[4] "Hendrik Lorentz". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lor
entz
[5] H. A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer
Theorie der elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). translated: Lorentz,
Einstein, Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret,
Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity",
1923
[6] Alfred M. Bork, "The 'FitzGerald'
Contraction",Isis, Vol. 57, No. 2
(Summer, 1966), pp.
199-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pd
fplus/227959.pdf
[7] H. A. Lorentz, "Michelson's
Interference Experiment", translated
from: "Versuch einer Theorie der
elektrischen und optoschen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern",
(Leiden, 1895). Lorentz, Einstein,
Minkowski, Weyl, tr: Perret, Jeffery,
"The Principle of Relativity", 1923.
text at:
http://www.lawebdefisica.com/arts/lorent
z/
[8] Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, "The
Einstein theory of relativity: a
concise statement", 1920.
http://books.google.com/books?id=DCUQA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:
lorentz#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[9] "Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9048
963>
[10] Janssen, Michel and A. J. Kox.
"Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 22. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 333-336. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 25 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[11] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[12] Frederick Seitz, "James
Clerk maxwell (1831-1879)",
Proceedings, American Philosophical
Society, vol 145, num 1, 2001,
p34. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
kQJFNlSbzAC&pg=PA34&dq=lorentz+transform
ations+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e
[13] Florian Cajori, "A history of
mathematics", Edition: 2, 919.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bBoPA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA479&dq=lorentz+transformati
ons+1904&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands4  
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN

[2] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 4 		4472) The pressure exerted by light is
measured using very light mirrors in a
vacuum.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609.
2. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr
Nikolayevich." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
3. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>. {1899}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pyotr Lebedev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Lebed
ev
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia2  
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
101 YBN
[1899 AD] 3 4 		4473) The mechanical pressure light
exerts on gas molecules is measured.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
2. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>.
3. ^ "Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
546>. {1899}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p609. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev."
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. Columbia University
Press., 2010. Answers.com 30 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pyotr-nikol
aevich-lebedev
[2] "Lebedev, Petr Nikolaevich."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 106-108. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902516&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Pyotr Lebedev". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Lebed
ev
[4] P. Lebedev, “Opytnoe issledovanie
svetovogo davlenia" ("An Experimental
Investigation of the Pressure of
Light"), Zhurnal Russkago
fiziko-khimicheskago obshchestva, 1901,
t33 vyp 7 otf and Annalen der Physik,
1901 bd 6 s 433-458
(Moscow State University) Moscow,
Russia2  
[1] Description Lebedev petr
nikolaevich.jpg English: Pyotr Lebedev
(1866—1912) Русский:
Лебедев, Пётр
Николаевич
(1866—1912) Date Before
1912 Source
http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/a
rticle/00041/42200.htm?text=%D0%9F%D0%B5
%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%
D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%20%D
0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B2
&stpar1=1.1.3 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lebedev_petr_nikolaev
ich.jpg
100 YBN
[01/29/1900 AD] 6 7 8 		4155) Beta rays of radioactivity are
identified as electrons by showing that
their charge to mass ratio is the same
as the electron.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Becquerel, Henri." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
2. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
3. ^ "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
4. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
5. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Contribution à
l’étude du rayonnement du radium",
Comptes Rendus, 130 (1900),
206–211. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA206
AND http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k3086n.image.f206.langFR find
English translation:
7. ^ "Becquerel, Antoine-. ^
Henri." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {03/26/1900}
8. ^ "Becoquerel,
Antoine-. ^ Henri." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
558-561. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 5 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1899-1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[8] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[9] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[10] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER."
By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France5
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
100 YBN
[03/26/1900 AD] 4 5 		4375) The velocity of the electrons of
beta rays is found to be more than half
the speed of light, much higher than
the electrons in cathode rays.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Henri Becquerel, "De´viation du
rayonnement du radium dans un champ
e´lectrique", Comptes rendus 130
(1900),
809–815. books.google.com/books?id=rs
QvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA809
AND http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?O=30000000030860 {03/26/1900}
2. ^ "Paul Villard
and his Discovery of Gamma Rays",
Physics in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1,
Number 4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ "Paul Villard and his Discovery
of Gamma Rays", Physics in Perspective
(PIP), Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {03/26/1900}
5. ^ Henri
Becquerel, "De´viation du rayonnement
du radium dans un champ e´lectrique",
Comptes rendus 130 (1900),
809–815. books.google.com/books?id=rs
QvlEt0e7QC&pg=PA809
AND http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?O=30000000030860 {03/26/1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henri Becquerel." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[2] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[5] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[6] ([SO4(UO)K+H2O)
[7] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[8] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magne´tique sur le rayonnement
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
rendus 129 (1899), 996–1001
[9] Henri Becquerel,
"Sur la dispersion du rayonnement du
radium dans un champ
magne´tique", Comptes rendus 130
(1900), 372–376; "Note sur la
transmission du rayonnement du radium
au travers des corps", ibid.,
979–984; and "Contribution a`
l’e´tude du rayonnement du
radium", Se´ances de la Socie´te´
franc¸aise de physique, (1900), p.
16–17
(École Polytechnique) Paris, France3
 
[1] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg

[2] Description Becquerel Henri
photograph.jpg English: Picture of
Henri Becquerel, the French
physicist Date 1918(1918) Source
Opposite page 229 of Moore's A
History of Chemistry Author F. J.
Moore Permission (Reusing this image)
See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Becquerel_Henri_photo
graph.jpg
100 YBN
[05/18/1900 AD] 6 7 8 		4371) A non-deflected radiation more
penetrative than x-rays is identified
from radium which will later be named
"gamma" rays.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Villard, Paul. "rayonnement du
radium" S�ances de la Soci�t�
fran�aise de physique (1900):
45. http://books.google.com/books?id=xm
cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45
2. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul Villard and
his Discovery of Gamma Rays", Physics
in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number
4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585.
4. ^ Paul Villard,
"Sur le rayonnement du radium", Comptes
rendus 130 (1900), 1178–1179.
books.google.com/books?id=rsQvlEt0e7QC
&pg=PA1178
5. ^ "Villard, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 31-32. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904493&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Villard, Paul. "rayonnement du
radium" Séances de la Société
française de physique (1900):
45. http://books.google.com/books?id=xm
cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45
7. ^ Leif Gerward, "Paul Villard and
his Discovery of Gamma Rays", Physics
in Perspective (PIP), Volume 1, Number
4 / December, 1999, pp
367-383. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/cvuhkrat5a8db2yf/ {04/09/1900}
8. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p584-585. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "atom." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
6>
[2] "Paul Villard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Villar
d
[3] Paul Villard, "Rayonnement du
radium", Se´ances de la Socie´te´
franc¸aise de physique, (1900),
p. 45–46
(chemistry laboratory of the École
Normale) Paris, France4 5  
[1] Villard, Paul. ''rayonnement du
radium'' Séances de la Société
française de physique (1900):
45. http://books.google.com/books?id=xm
cEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45 PD AND Paul,
Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=xmcEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA45http://www.hill
iontchernobyl.com/Images/Villard1.jpg

[2] Paul, Ulrich Villard, UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hilliontchernobyl.com
/Images/Villard1.jpg
100 YBN
[07/02/1900 AD] 3 4 		3784) The first flight of a
motor-driven gas-filled airship, an
aluminum blimp.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
2. ^ "Zeppelin,
Ferdinand, Graf (count) von."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Jan.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9078
333>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p483-484.
{07/02/1900}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p397. {07/02/1900}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://aboutfacts.net/History13.htm
Lake Constance, Germany2  
[1] Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin begins
the construction of his 1st airship. He
flies for the 1st time during the
summer, above the lake Constance in
Friedrichshafen, in 1900. He was
getting ready to enter the contest for
the Deutsch Prize Picture Source:
U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission PD
source: http://aboutfacts.net/History/Hi
story13/Zeppelin1900.jpg

[2] Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich
Graf von Zeppelin
(1838-1917). PD/Corel
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Zeppelin/DI48G1_hi.jp
g
100 YBN
[10/19/1900 AD] 4 5 		4327) "Quantum theory", the theory that
all energy exists in discrete units,
and the famous equation E=hv.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
2. ^ "Max Planck." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 13 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
3. ^ "Planck, Max." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 13 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9108
525>.
4. ^ M. Planck, "Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum," Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYM
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and "Uber das Gesetz
der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum", Annalen Der Physik, 4
(1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6A
qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: Max Planck, Alexander
Ogg, "On the Law of Distribution of
Energy in the Normal Spectrum",
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac
.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p571-573. {1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max Planck." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
13 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-planck
[2] "Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Er
nst_Ludwig_Planck
[3] "quantum mechanics." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 14 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-7750
2>
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany3
 
[1] M. Planck, ''Zur Theorie des
Gesetzes der Energieverteilung in
Normalspektrum,'' Verhandlungen der
Deutsches Physikalisches Gesellschaft 2
(1900), pp.
237-245. books.google.com/books?id=zYYM
AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA237 and ''Uber das
Gesetz der Energieverteilung im
Normalspectrum'', Annalen Der Physik, 4
(1901),
p553-563. books.google.com/books?id=j6A
qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA553
AND http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/
journal/112485869/abstract
and http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k15314w.image.f635.langEN {Planck_Max
_Annalen_der_Physik_1900.pdf} English
translation: Max Planck, Alexander
Ogg, ''On the Law of Distribution of
Energy in the Normal Spectrum'',
1903. http://theochem.kuchem.kyoto-u.ac
.jp/Ando/planck1901.pdf PD AND [1]
Max Planck PD (presumably
source: books.google.com/books?id=zYYMAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA237From Henry Crew, "The
Rise of Modern Physics", Williams and
Wilkens, 1928, edition 1, p372.

[2] Max Planck PD (presumably
source: From Henry Crew, "The Rise of
Modern Physics", Williams and Wilkens,
1928, edition 1, p372.
100 YBN
[1900 AD] 6 		4303) Around 120,000 galaxies (at the
time called nebulae) are identified and
photographed.1 2 3 Spiral galaxies are
found to out number all other celestial
objects.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=B4UqAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA177&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_brr=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20s
piral%20nebulae&f=false
2. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=5yEDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA85&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&l
r=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=
1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_brr
=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20ne
bulae&f=false
3. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn8CAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA208&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is
=1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_br
r=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20n
ebulae&f=false
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Keeler, James Edward."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 270-271. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Apr.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902267&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn8CAAA
AYAAJ&pg=PA208&dq=keeler+spiral+nebulae&
lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is
=1898&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1900&as_br
r=0&cd=5#v=onepage&q=keeler%20spiral%20n
ebulae&f=false {c1900}

MORE INFO
[1] "Keeler, James."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 23 Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
967>
[2] "James Edward Keeler." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/james-edwar
d-keeler-american-astronomer
[3] "James Edward Keeler". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edwar
d_Keeler
[4] James Keeler, “A Spectroscopic
Proof of the Meteoritic Constitution of
Saturn’s Rings,” in Astrophysical
Journal, 1 (1895),
416–427 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1895ApJ.....1..416K and
http://books.google.com/books?id=ExzOA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA416&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Proo
f+of+the+Meteoric+Constitution+of+Saturn
%27s+Rings&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=1895&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is
=1895&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Spec
troscopic%20Proof%20of%20the%20Meteoric%
20Constitution%20of%20Saturn%27s%20Rings
&f=false
[5] J. E. Keeler, "On the Motions of
the Planetary Nebulæ in the line of
Sight.", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, V2, N2,
11/29/1890. http://articles.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_ke
y=AST&bibcode=1890PASP....2..265K&letter
=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_pa
per=YES&page=265&epage=265&send=Send+PDF
&filetype=.pdf
[6] James Edward Keeler , "Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector",
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD3yQ
AAACAAJ&dq=photographs+of+Nebulae+and+Cl
usters,+Made+with+the+Crossley+Reflector
&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(Lick Observatory) Mount Hamilton, CA,
USA5  
[1] Image of photograph of galaxy from
James Edward Keeler , ''Photographs
of nebulae and clusters made with the
Crossley reflector'',
1908. http://openlibrary.org/b/OL724344
3M/Photographs_of_nebulae_and_clusters_m
ade_with_the_Crossley_reflector PD
source: http://www.archive.org/stream/ph
otographsofneb00keelrich#page/n53/mode/2
up

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description Keeler
James.jpg American astronomer James
Keeler Date 1903(1903) Source
Biographical Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences Author
Charles S. Hastings PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/18/Keeler_James.jpg
99 YBN
[02/14/1901 AD] 4 		6342) X-rays are shown to kill Guinea
pigs.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
2. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
3. ^ Ronald L. Kathren, "William H.
Rollins (1852-1929) X-ray Protection
Pioneer", J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1964
Jul;19:287-94. http://jhmas.oxfordjourn
als.org/content/XIX/3/287.full.pdf
{Ronald_William_Rollins_196407xx.pdf}
4. ^ William Rollins, "X-Light Kills",
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173
Boston, Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] William Rollins, ''X-Light Kills'',
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
February 14, 1901,
p173. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0sUEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173

[2] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
99 YBN
[10/10/1901 AD] 6 7 		4148) The first synthetic protein is
created when3 two amino acid molecules
are condensed into dipeptides.4
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
2. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 4
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
5. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
6. ^ "Fischer, Emil Hermann." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>. {1901}
7. ^ "Emil Fischer -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 11 May 2013
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/c
hemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html


MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Emil Fischer."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[2] "Emil Hermann Fischer". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Herman
n_Fischer
[3] Untersuchungen über Aminosäuren,
Polypeptide und Proteine, 1899–1906
(Berlin,
1906); http://books.google.com/books?id
=YwXiXA-UN0UC&dq=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCbe
r+Aminos%C3%A4uren,+Polypeptide+und+Prot
eine&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=o
_b7eX-MYN&sig=NBTkQPTKqSIIuIrisZiCgoRR_Y
k&hl=en&ei=iCDySqWpCIn4tAOJrMneAQ&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CA
8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[4] Untersuchungen in der Puringruppe,
1882–1906 (Berlin, 1907);
http://books.google.com/books?id=L5JPy
TLCkA8C&pg=PA611&dq=Untersuchungen+in+de
r+Puringruppe#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5] "Fischer, Emil." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
371>
[6] "Hermann Emil Fischer." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-emi
l-fischer
[7] Fischer, E. "Die Hydrolyse der
Proteinstoffe." Zeitschrift für
Lebensmitteluntersuchung und-Forschung
A 5.24 (1902):
1207-1208. http://link.springer.com/art
icle/10.1007%2FBF02506767?LI=true
[8] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
"Ueber einige Derivate des Glykocolls."
Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest Fourneau.
''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract

[2] Fischer, Emil, and Ernest
Fourneau. ''Ueber einige Derivate des
Glykocolls.'' Berichte der deutschen
chemischen Gesellschaft 34.2 (1901):
2868-2877. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstrac
t {Fischer_19011010.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/cber.190103402249/abstract
99 YBN
[12/12/1901 AD] 3 4 		4832) The first radio message is sent
over the Atlantic Ocean.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
2. ^ "Guglielmo Marconi."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/364287/Guglielmo-Marconi>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p650-651.
{12/12/1901}
4. ^ "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/12/1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
Poldhu, Cornwall, England to St.
John’s, Newfoundland2  
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
99 YBN
[12/31/1901 AD] 5 6 		4120) Yellow fever is shown to be
caused by a virus;1 2 the first
disease found in humans to be
attributed to a virus.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
2. ^ A Compilation of
Various Publications Results of the
Work of Major Walter Reed, Medical
Corps, United States Army, and the
Yellow Fever Commission, Senate
document no. 822 from the Third Session
of the 61st Congress (Washington, D. C,
1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p531.
4. ^ A Compilation of
Various Publications Results of the
Work of Major Walter Reed, Medical
Corps, United States Army, and the
Yellow Fever Commission, Senate
document no. 822 from the Third Session
of the 61st Congress (Washington, D. C,
1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
5. ^ A Compilation of Various
Publications Results of the Work of
Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps,
United States Army, and the Yellow
Fever Commission, Senate document no.
822 from the Third Session of the 61st
Congress (Washington, D. C, 1911),
p70. http://books.google.com/books?id=N
JIaAAAAMAAJ&dq=A+Compilation+of+Various+
Publications+Results+of+the+Work+of+Majo
r+Walter+Reed&printsec=frontcover&source
=bl&ots=pXL0Ysd1Zx&sig=yClltkysOqVf3sQoY
Mst7Gbnjro&hl=en&ei=DfncSo6AIoOIswPZ84Gc
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
{12/31/1901 and 01/02/1902}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p531. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Reed, Walter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 19 Oct. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9063
004>
[2] "Reed, Walter." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 11.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
345-347. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Gale. University of California
- Irvine. 19 Oct. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(Society of American Bacteriologists)
Chicago, Illinois, USA4  
[1] Walter Reed (1851-1902) American
physician Source :
en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg Walter Reed
at rank of major (19th century
photograph) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 3 4 		4054) The theory that new species can
arise as a result of mutation.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Hugo de Vries." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Sep.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
2. ^ "Vries, Hugo de." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 23 Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9075
778>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p515-516. {1901}
4. ^
"Vries, Hugo De", Concise Dictionary of
Scientific Biography, edition 2,
Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000),
p914-915. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hugo de Vries." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[2] "Hugo de Vries." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hugo-de-vri
es
[3] "Hugo Marie De Vries". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Marie_
De_Vries
[4] The Midland naturalist: journal of
the Midland Union of Natural ...,
Volume 7, 1884,
p63. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y
gAXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA65&dq=Vries+plasmol
ysis+date:1884-1884&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q
=Vries%20plasmolysis%20date%3A1884-1884&
f=false
[5] Hugo De Vries, "Untersuchungen
über die mechanischen Ursachen der
Zellstreckung, ausgehend",
1877. http://books.google.com/books?id=
NOUfAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vrie
s+Zellstreckung+date:1877-1877&as_brr=1#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[6] Albert Philson Brubaker, Augustus
Adolph Eshner, "Text-book of human
physiology", 1905,
p37. http://books.google.com/books?id=J
iKto86vysIC&pg=PA37&dq=Vries+plasmolysis
&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Vries%20plasmolysi
s&f=false
[7] "isotonic." Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
23 Sep. 2009.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/i
sotonic>
[8] Hugo de Vries, "Die
mutationstheorie: Versuche und
beobachtungen über die ..., Volume 2",
p169. http://books.google.com/books?id=
gEUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=papaver+somnife
rum+mephisto+de+vries&as_brr=1#v=snippet
&q=papaver%20somniferum%20mephisto&f=fal
se
[9] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638
[10] "Carl Correns."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/carl-corren
s
(University of Amsterdam) Amsterdam,
Netherlands2  
[1] Image from English translation of
1991 work , p218 Die Mutationstheorie:
bd. Die Entstehung der Arten durch
Mutation PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=larm
arkiana&f=false

[2] Image from English translation of
1991 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=cdOhB5p3HkIC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 4 		4156) The element uranium is identified
as the radioactive portion of uranium
compounds.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p539-540.
2. ^ Henri Becquerel,
"Sur la radioactivité de l’uranium."
133 (1901),
977–980. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3089k.image.f977.langFR abstr
act in English at: Chemical Society,
London, Volume 82, Part 2,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A8EwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=%22on
+the+radioactivity+of+uranium%22+1901&so
urce=bl&ots=WKmlqSWW5Y&sig=mAlddpkYQ1XWz
Kl7UPuY17J47sM&hl=en&ei=UYX0SqP8FKagM4r4
9aIB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22on%20
the%20radioactivity%20of%20uranium%22%20
1901&f=false
3. ^ "Becoquerel, Antoine-. ^ Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>.
4. ^ Henri Becquerel, "Sur la
radioactivité de l’uranium." 133
(1901),
977–980. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/1
2148/bpt6k3089k.image.f977.langFR abstr
act in English at: Chemical Society,
London, Volume 82, Part 2,
p117. http://books.google.com/books?id=
A8EwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=%22on
+the+radioactivity+of+uranium%22+1901&so
urce=bl&ots=WKmlqSWW5Y&sig=mAlddpkYQ1XWz
Kl7UPuY17J47sM&hl=en&ei=UYX0SqP8FKagM4r4
9aIB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22on%20
the%20radioactivity%20of%20uranium%22%20
1901&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Becquerel, Henri."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014
051>
[2] "Henri Becquerel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[3] "Henri Becquerel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
05 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/becquerel
[4] "Antoine Henri Becquerel".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Hen
ri_Becquerel
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html
[6] Henri Becquerel (1896). "Sur les
radiations émises par
phosphorescence". Comptes Rendus 122:
420–421.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30
780/f422.chemindefer. translated by
Carmen
Giunta: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
becquerel.html and
http://books.google.com/books?id=gJMZA
QAAIAAJ&pg=PA339&dq=%22On+the+rays+emitt
ed+by+phosphorescence%22& (this
appears to be not as accurate as the
one above)
[7] H. Becquerel, "Sur les
radiations invisibles émises par les
corps phosphorescents", Comptes Rendus
122 (1896), p.
501. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/b
pt6k30780.image.f503 translated: "On
the invisible rays emitted by
phosphorescent
bodies" http://books.google.com/books?i
d=TwoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA451&dq=On+the+invisi
ble+rays+emitted+by+phosphorescent+bodie
s.&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20invis
ible%20rays%20emitted%20by%20phosphoresc
ent%20bodies.&f=false (this appears to
be not as accurate as the one
below) and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giu
nta/becquerel.html
[8] H. Becquerel, "Sur les radiations
invisibles émises par les sels
d’uranium," ibid., Comptes Rendus 122
(1896), p.
689-694. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k30780.image.f691 summarized:
"On the invisible rays emitted by the
salts of Uranium.", Minutes of
proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume
125. http://books.google.com/books?id=D
3IMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=on+invisible+rad
iations+emitted+by+uranium+salts+becquer
el&lr=#v=onepage&q=on%20invisible%20radi
ations%20emitted%20by%20uranium%20salts%
20becquerel&f=false
[9] "Sur diverses propriété des
rayons uraniques", 123 (1896),
855–858;
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k
30799.image.f855.langFR Summarized in
English as: "On the Different
Properties of Uranium Rays",
Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Volume 25,
p740. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kfk3AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:LCCN08015098&lr=#v=onepage&q=Becque
rel&f=false
[10] Henri Becquerel, "Influence d’un
champ magnétique sur le rayonnemen;
des corps radio-actifs", Comptes
Rendus, 129 (1899),
996–1001; http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/
12148/bpt6k3085b.image.f996.langFR Summ
ary in English: Journal of the
Chemical Society, Volume 78, Part 2,
p126. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Vn6KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA126&dq=Effect+of+a+mag
netic+field+on+the+radiation+from+radio-
active+substances+becquerel&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=Effect%20of%20a%20magnetic%20field%2
0on%20the%20radiation%20from%20radio-act
ive%20substances%20becquerel&f=false
[11] ON THE RADIO ACTIVITY OF MATTER."
By HENRI BECQUEREL, ,
1903. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TinLdn_MceIC&pg=PA197&dq=%22the+radio-ac
tivity+of+matter%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%2
0radio-activity%20of%20matter%22&f=false

[12] "abcoulomb." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 06
Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/abcoulomb
[13] "Becquerel, [Antoine-] Henri."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 558-561. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 5
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[14]
http://translate.google.com/translate_t#

(École Polytechnique) Paris, France3
 
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg

[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 5 6 		4515) That there are different blood
types is recognized1 and the ABO blood
group system is created2 .3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p621-622.
2. ^ "Landsteiner,
Karl." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 12
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>.
3. ^ Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
4. ^ Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
5. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 12 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
068>. {1901}
6. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[3] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
(Pathological-Anatomical Institute)
Vienna4  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 5 6 		5510) The theory that the mass of an
electron increases with velocity.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) summary: http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=SplZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA302 English: T
ranslated as "Magnetic and Electric
Deflectiability of the Becquerel Rays
and the Apparent Mass of the Electron"
in: Boorse and Motz, "The World of the
Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walter_1901xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ "Kaufmann, Walter (or Walther)."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 263-265. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Mar.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902262&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ W. Kaufmann, "Die
elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons
", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1902, 4
(1b):
54-57. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Die_
elektromagnetische_Masse_des_Elektrons
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4V
dMAAAAMAAJ&q=kaufmann#v=snippet&q=kaufma
nn&f=false
4. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) summary: http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=SplZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA302 English: T
ranslated as "Magnetic and Electric
Deflectiability of the Becquerel Rays
and the Apparent Mass of the Electron"
in: Boorse and Motz, "The World of the
Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
5. ^ Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und
elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der
Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare
Masse der Elektronen" (Göttingen
Nachrichten 8, S. 143—155.
1901). (Nachrichten der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Göttingen:
Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
) summary: http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=SplZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA302 English: T
ranslated as "Magnetic and Electric
Deflectiability of the Becquerel Rays
and the Apparent Mass of the Electron"
in: Boorse and Motz, "The World of the
Atom", 1966, v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
6. ^ W. Kaufmann, "Die
elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons
", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1902, 4
(1b):
54-57. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Die_
elektromagnetische_Masse_des_Elektrons
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4V
dMAAAAMAAJ&q=kaufmann#v=snippet&q=kaufma
nn&f=false {01/04/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Kaufmann
(physicist)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Kauf
mann_(physicist)
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany4  
[1] Figure 34-2 from: Kaufmann, ''Die
magnetische und elektrische
Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und
die scheinbare Masse der Elektronen''
(Göttingen Nachrichten 8, S.
143—155. 1901). (Nachrichten der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen: Mathematisch-Physikalische
Klasse ) English: Translated as
''Magnetic and Electric Deflectiability
of the Becquerel Rays and the Apparent
Mass of the Electron'' in: Boorse and
Motz, ''The World of the Atom'', 1966,
v1,
p506. {Kaufmann_Walther_1901xxxx.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Description Walter
kaufmann.png English: Walter Kaufmann
(1871-1947) Date ca.
1905(1905) Source
Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek,
Göttingen Author Walter
Kaufmann PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Walter_kaufmann.png
99 YBN
[1901 AD] 2 		6253) The electric motor vacuum
cleaner.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p59. {1901}

MORE INFO
[1] "vacuum cleaner." How
Products are Made. The Gale Group, Inc,
2002. Answers.com 26 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vacuum-clea
ner
 
[1] On August 30th 1901 Hubert Cecil
Booth, a British engineer, received a
British patent for a vacuum cleaner. It
took the form of a large, horse-drawn,
petrol-driven unit which was parked
outside the building to be cleaned with
long hoses being fed through the
windows. Until then vacuum cleaners
blew the dust away, but Booth came up
with the idea of sucking away dust,
instead of blowing. Furthermore Booth
equipped his cleaner with a filter,
which kept the dust in the machine. All
modern vacuum cleaners are based on
Booth's principle. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.morclean.co.uk/catego
ries/images/first-vacuum-cleaner.jpg

[2] Description Hubert Cecil
Booth Source
http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/
results.asp?image=10300549 Article
Hubert Cecil Booth COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c9/Hubert_Cecil_Booth.jpg
98 YBN
[03/17/1902 AD] 3 4 		4398) The electron velocity (and
electric potential) created by the
photoelectric effect is shown to depend
only on the frequency of light.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ P. Lenard, "Ueber die
lichtelektrische Wirkung", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 313, Issue 5, Date:
1902, Pages:
149-198 http://www3.interscience.wiley.
com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART
 {Lenard_Philipp_photoelectric_1902.pdf}
{03/17/1902}
4. ^ "Lenard, Philipp." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 180-183. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902551&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Joseph F. Mulligan, "Heinrich
Hertz and Philipp Lenard: Two
Distinguished Physicists, Two Disparate
Men", Physics in Perspective (PIP),
Volume 1, Number 4 / December,
1999. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ey675vh58f3p0965/
[2] "Lenard, Philipp." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
736>
[3] "Philipp Lenard." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/philipp-len
ard
[4] "Philipp Lenard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Len
ard
(University of Kiel) Kiel, Germany2
 
[1] Figure from March 1902 Lenard paper
- presumably the important paper on the
photoelectric effect PD
source: http://www3.interscience.wiley.c
om/cgi-bin/fulltext/112485664/PDFSTART

[2] Description Phillipp Lenard in
1900.jpg German physicist Phillipp
Lenard Date According this
source, picture is taked in
1900 Source Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Original source AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives, American
Institute of Physics. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Phillipp_Lenard_in_19
00.jpg
98 YBN
[03/28/1902 AD] 4 		4857) The theory of the "cubic atom",
which explains the cycle of 8 elements
on the periodic table, and the
stability of inert gases when all 8
vertices are occupied.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
2. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=RgDzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA767&lp
g=PA767&dq=%22A+number+of+years+ago,+to+
account+for+the+striking+fact%22&source=
bl&ots=poniqAOQyg&sig=WFu6ffeH4l_mrhTDnV
SY3Jv0GgU&hl=en&ei=4pbQTNXlBoS4sQOal_XVC
A&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&sqi=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%
20number%20of%20years%20ago%2C%20to%20ac
count%20for%20the%20striking%20fact%22&f
=false {Lewis_Gilbert_19160126.pdf}
{03/28/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[3]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[4] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[5] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[6] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA3  
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
98 YBN
[03/??/1902 AD] 7 		4734) Radioactivity is recognized as
atomic decay in which one atom decays
into another kind (also known as
transmutation3 ).4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
4. ^ Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
5. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
7. ^ Rutherford and Soddy, "The
Radioactivity of Thorium Compounds II,
The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity",
Transactions of the Chemical Society,
v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false {c03/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[15] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[16] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[17] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[18]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[19] Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[20] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[21] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick
Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows
of the Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada6
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
98 YBN
[10/17/1902 AD] 5 		4253) That paternal and maternal
chromosomes are pairs, and are the
physical basis of the Mendelian
{meN-DElE-eN1 } laws of heredity is
shown.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mendelian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mendelian
2. ^ "Sutton, Walter Stanborough."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 156-158. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904215&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
4. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
5. ^ Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4
(1902). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/wss-02.pdf
{10/17/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561
[2] "Wilson, Edmund
Beecher." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 1
Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
122>
[3] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[4] "Edmund Beecher Wilson." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wilson-edmu
nd-beecher
[5] "Edmund Beecher Wilson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Beec
her_Wilson
[6] "Wilson, Edmund Beecher." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 423-436. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830904681&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] E. B. Wilson, “The Chromosomes in
Relation to the Determination of Sex in
Insects” ; Publications. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/ebw-05.pdf
[8] N. M. Stevens, “Studies in
Spermatogenesis With Especial Reference
to the ‘Accessory Chromosome’”
Publications. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, no. 36
(1905). http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/holdings/s/nms-05-spe
rmatogenesis-1.pdf
[9] "Clarence Erwin McClung:
1870-1946", D. H. Wenrich, Science, New
Series, Vol. 103, No. 2679 (May 3,
1946), pp.
551-552. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
72760?&Search=yes&term=Clarence&term=McC
lung&term=Erwin&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fa
ction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DClarence
%2BErwin%2BMcClung%26jc%3Dj100000%26wc%3
Don%26Search.x%3D11%26Search.y%3D6%26Sea
rch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=27&returnArticle
Service=showArticle
[10] "Nettie Stevens." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
02 Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/stevens-net
tie-marie
[11] "Walter Sutton". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutt
on
[12] "Walter S. Sutton." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 02 Mar. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/575830/Walter-S-Sutton>
[13] Sutton, "Morphology of the
Chromosome Group in Brachystola magna",
Kansas University Quarterly, 4 (1902).
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/wss-02.pdf
[14] "McClung, Clarence Erwin."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 586-590. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Mar.
2010. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&
id=GALE%7CCX2830902724&v=2.1&u=univca20&
it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[15] “Notes on the Accessory
Chromosome,” in Anatomischer
Anzeiger, 20 (1901), 220–226;
http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetic
s/classical/cem-01.pdf
[16] “The Accessory Chromosomes: Sex
Determinant?” in Biological Bulletin,
3 (1902),
43–84 http://www.esp.org/foundations/
genetics/classical/cem-02.pdf
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA4  
[1] From Sutton 1902 paper see
captions PD
source: http://www.esp.org/foundations/g
enetics/classical/wss-02.pdf

[2] Description Walter
sutton.jpg English: A portrait of
Walter S. Sutton taken prior to
1916. Date prior to
1916 Source
http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/re
sources/timeline/1902_Boveri_Sutton.jpg
Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Walter_sutton.jpg
98 YBN
[10/27/1902 AD] 		3983) The speed of x-rays is shown to
be the same as the speed of light.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. R. Blondlot, "Sur la vitesse
de propagation des rayons X.", Comptes
Rendus,
p666-670. http://books.google.com/books
?id=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=
intitle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902
-1902#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false
translated from French to
English: R. Blondlot, "Velocity of
Propagation of X-Rays", The
Electrician, 11/21/1902,
p189-190. {Blondlot_Rene_velocity_of_xr
ay_19021121.pdf}
2. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
3. ^ "The Velocity of Propagation of
X-Rays", Nature, 12/25/1902,
p185. http://books.google.com/books?id=
I8wKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=intitle:nature+
date:1902&lr=&ei=FJzHSZ_eAo_ElQSC6LyADg#
PPA185,M1
4. ^ "Blondlot, Rene-Prosper", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), pp106-107.

MORE INFO
[1] "Prosper-René Blondlot".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosper-Ren
%C3%A9_Blondlot
University of Nancy, Nancy, France4
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1, Blondlot's apparatus for
comparing the speed of x-rays to those
of visible light. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=iV0DAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=int
itle:COMPTES+intitle:RENDUS+date:1902-19
02#v=onepage&q=blondlot&f=false

[2] René Blondlot (1849-1930)
source: http://nsa02.casimages.com/img/2
008/06/02/0806020221453517545.jpg
98 YBN
[11/10/1902 AD] 3 		4736) Alpha rays are found to be
deflectable by strong magnetic and
electric fields in the opposite
direction of cathode rays and so are
positively charged bodies.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Magnetic
and Electric Deviation of the Easily
Absorbed Rays from Radium", Phil. Mag.,
S6, V 4, Feb 1903, pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false {11/10/1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada2
 
[1] Figure 4 from Ernest Rutherford,
''The Magnetic and Electric Deviation
of the Easily Absorbed Rays from
Radium'', Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb
1903, pp177-187. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=EFQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+
Magnetic+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+E
asily+Absorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=b
l&ots=hd6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoND
mYkoHIHw&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnet
ic%20and%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20t
he%20Easily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20R
adium&f=false

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
98 YBN
[1902 AD] 3 4 		4784) A method of sewing together
(suturing) the ends of blood vessels is
developed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Carrel, Alexis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>.
2. ^ "Alexis Carrel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p645-646. {1902}
4. ^
"Alexis Carrel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el {1902}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
[2] "Carrel, Alexis." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 90-92. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900797&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Alexis Carrel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carr
el
(University of Lyons) Lyons, France2
 
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
97 YBN
[03/23/1903 AD] 7 8 		4493) The airplane. The first powered,
sustained, and controlled airplane
flight.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
2. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
3. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
4. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
5. ^ "Wright, Wilbur and Orville."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 6 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-8026
>.
6. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ "Wright, Wilbur." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 520-521. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 6 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904733&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/17/1903}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p613-614,634-635.
{12/17/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Wright Brothers."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 06 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/
[2] "Wright brothers". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brot
hers
[3] Patent 821393 FLYING-MACHINE
ORVILLE
WRIGHT http://www.google.com/patents?id
=h5NWAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[4] "airfoil." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 06 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/airfoil
[5] Wright, Wilbur and Orville. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-127561>
[6] aviation: flight of the first
military airplane, 1909. Video.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 6
July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/art-15290>
Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA6
 
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg

[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
97 YBN
[05/28/1903 AD] 		3677) The radiation from radium is
shown to be less when colder.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ William Crookes, James Dewar,
"Note on the Effect of Extreme Cold on
the Emanations of Radium.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 72,
1903/1904. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/qr2141ju61876835/?p=6170db3
0116342c2baad5cb1d8856256π=42 {Crookes
_William_Cold_on_Radium_1903.pdf}
2. ^ "Crookes, William", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p215-217.

MORE INFO
[1] "Crookes, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10
Dec. 2008
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9027
981>
[2] "William Crookes." History of
Science and Technology. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 10
Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[3] "William Crookes." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[4] "William Crookes." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 10 Dec. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-cro
okes
[5] "William Crookes". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cro
okes
[6] "Sir William Crookes". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sir_Will
iam_Crookes
[7] William Crookes, "On Repulsion
Resulting From Radiation II", Phil.
Trans. v165,
1875. http://journals.royalsociety.org/
content/h27121h181kw0683/?p=08857aca5970
4138b30b219bb3f34264π=74
[8] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity of
Uranium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
66,
1899/1900. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/xq86537371533504/?p=6252ebf
0708c43989b840947812e5afcπ=79
[9] William Crookes, "Radio-Activity
and the Electron Theory", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London
(1854-1905), Volume 69,
1901/1902. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p776420j202m5870/?p=997105d
000c043068b518e34de34f8c4π=68
[10] William Crookes, "The Emanations
of Radium", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London (1854-1905), Volume
71,
1902/1903. http://journals.royalsociety
.org/content/p5726123522547p2/?p=5f8b4c2
c717e4aa79e1608ab6d0ecf81π=5
[11] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, Contributor Ethel Mary Terry,
"Introduction to General Chemistry",
McGraw-Hill book company, inc., 1920,
p574. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#PPA574,M
1
[12] "Spinthariscope". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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[13]
http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/
spinstory.htm
[14] Crookes, W., "Certain Properties
of the Emanations of Radium.".
Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903
(private lab) London, England2
(presumably) 
[1]
source:

[2] 1856 at the age of 24 PD
source: http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/w
c1850.jpg
97 YBN
[06/??/1903 AD] 4 		4893) The scattering of x-rays by gases
is shown to depend on the molecular
weight of the gas.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
2. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

3. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

4. ^ Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false
 {06/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[4] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
(University College) Liverpool,
England3  
[1] Figure 3 from Charles G. Barkla,
''Secondary radiation from gases
subject to X-rays'', Phil. Mag.,S6, V5,
N30, June 1903, p685 – 698. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radi
ation+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en
&ei=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwA
A#v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20fr
om%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=fal
se

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
97 YBN
[07/28/1903 AD] 3 		4145) That helium is emitted from
radium is shown spectroscopically.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ William Ramsay and Frederick
Soddy, "Experiments in Radioactivity,
and the Production of Helium from
Radium, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, (1903) volume: 72
page:
204 http://books.google.com/books?id=0a
JU57E6ioEC&pg=PA204&dq=%22experiments+in
+radioactivity%22#v=onepage&q=%22experim
ents%20in%20radioactivity%22&f=false
2. ^ "Ramsay, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9062
617>.
3. ^ William Ramsay and Frederick
Soddy, "Experiments in Radioactivity,
and the Production of Helium from
Radium, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, (1903) volume: 72
page:
204 http://books.google.com/books?id=0a
JU57E6ioEC&pg=PA204&dq=%22experiments+in
+radioactivity%22#v=onepage&q=%22experim
ents%20in%20radioactivity%22&f=false
{07/28/1903}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[13] William Ramsay, Morris W. Travers,
"On the Extraction from Air of the
Companions of Argon and on Neon",
Report of the 68th Meeting of the
British Association,
p828. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_es4AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:01os3IjvDjZbiTyuxyZKf7&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=&f=false
[14] "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
[15] "Frederick Soddy." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 24 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[16] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
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[17] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
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[18] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
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oddy
[19]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[20] Frederick Soddy, "Science and
life: Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[21] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick
Soddy." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows
of the Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
(University College) London, England2
 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
97 YBN
[12/05/1903 AD] 11 12 13 14 15 		4462) The Saturnian {Sa-TR-nE-iN5 }
model of the atom (negatively charged
electrons rotate around a large mass
positively charged particle).6 7 8
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Saturnian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saturnian
2. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
"Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392
5. ^ "Saturnian." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/saturnian
6. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
"Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
8. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392
9. ^ "Nagaoka, Hantaro." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 606-607. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903102&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
10. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392
11. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392 {12/1903}
12. ^ Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
"Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.", Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false
13. ^ H. Nagaoka, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904, p43.
books.google.com/books?id=P80KAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PA392 {later nature article:)
01/18/1904}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p605-606. {1904}
15. ^
"atom." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 28
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-4835
7>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hantaro Nagaoka." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hantaro-nag
aoka
[2] "Hantaro Nagaoka". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantaro_Nag
aoka
[3] G. A. Schott, "A Dynamical System
illustrating the Spectrum Lines and the
Phenomena of Radio-activity", Nature,
V69, N1793, March 10, 1904,
p43. http://books.google.com/books?id=3
3YCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA437&dq=Nagaoka&hl=en&ei
=OxEpTL-bFIHanAfIz_R1&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=o
nepage&q=Nagaoka&f=false
(Tokyo University) Tokyo, Japan9 10
 
[1] Hantaro Nagaoka PD AND
Proceedings of the Tokyo
Mathematico-Physieal Society, 2nd ser.,
2 (1904), 92–107; and H. Nagaoka,
''Kinetics of a System of Particles
illustrating the Line and the Band
Spectrum and the Phenomena of
Radioactivity.'', Philosophical
Magazine, 6th ser., 7 (1904),
445–455.
http://books.google.com/books?id=mNbPA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA445#v=onepage&q&f=false PD

source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpghttp://books.google.com/books?id=mN
bPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445

[2] Hantaro Nagaoka PD
source: http://www.riken.go.jp/r-world/i
nfo/release/riken88/text/image/06/hantar
o.jpg
97 YBN
[1903 AD] 3 		4768) Chromatography: different
substances in a liquid pigment mixture
move through a column of absorptive
material at different rates separating
into colored bands.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mikhail Tsvet." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mikhail-tsv
et
2. ^ "Tsvet, Mikhail Semyonovich."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
644>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p641. {1903}

MORE INFO
[1] Swackhammer, Deborah L.
"Chromatography." Environmental
Encyclopedia. Ed. Marci Bortman, Peter
Brimblecombe, and Mary Ann Cunningham.
3rd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2003.
248. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 27 Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX3404800298&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Sem
enovich_Tsvett
(University of Warsaw) Warsaw, Poland2
 
[1] Description Tswett
01.jpg English: Mikhail Semyonovich
Tsvet in 1901 Deutsch: Michail
Semjonowitsch Tswett,
1901 Русский: Михаил
Семенович Цвет Date
1901(1901) Source ISBN
3-9801965-0-X PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Tswett_01.jpg
96 YBN
[06/29/1904 AD] 4 5 6 		4707) The amount of inert gas emitted
by radium is found to be directly
proportional to the amount of uranium
in any given sample, which is evidence
that uranium decays into radium.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Bertram Borden Boltwood."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
3. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
4. ^ Boltwood, "On the Ratio of Radium
to uranium in some Minerals", American
Journal of Science, S4, V18, N104,
August
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lUQPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&dq=Boltwood&hl=en&e
i=spxYTMG3J4K-sQOx-KyrCA&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#
v=onepage&q=Boltwood&f=false
{06/29/1904}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1904}
6. ^ "Bertram
Borden Boltwood." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 03 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>
[2] "Boltwood, Bertram Borden."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 257-260. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900510&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
(Mining Engineering and Chemistry
company) New Haven, Conneticut, USA3
 
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 3 4 		3647) The practical color photograph.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Photography#Reproduction of
Coloured Objects by means of Three
Photographic Positives". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Photogra
phy#Reproduction_of_Coloured_Objects_by_
means_of_Three_Photographic_Positives
2. ^ Richter, J. Inventing the Camera.
Crabtree Publishing Company, 2006.
Breakthrough Inventions
Series. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=jRC1nQ2mKW8C&pg=PT16
3. ^ "autochrome." The Oxford Companion
to the Photograph. Oxford University
Press, 2005. Answers.com 10 Oct. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/autochrome
{announced:)1904}
4. ^ French patent 339,223, Dec. 17,
1903. Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, 1905. {source is
wikipedia, so verify}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lumière brothers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09
Oct. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1403398/Lumiere-brothers>
[2]
http://www.worldisround.com/articles/237
8/photo1.html
France 
[1] This Color Photograph was made in
1907 in France. Today some of the most
beautiful color photographs are the
oldest: produced by the the Autochrome
Process. The emulsion was made with
dried potato dust. PD/Corel
source: http://www.worldisround.com/phot
os/0/11/18_o.jpg

[2] Auguste and Louis Lumière,
inventors of the movie camera,
three-color screen photography, and
first movie producers. Photo Blanc &
Demilly PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn08.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 3 4 5 		4077) The vacuum tube diode (or
"rectifier", which can "rectify"
alternating current into direct
current).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522.
2. ^ "John Ambrose
Fleming." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p521-522. {1904 (US
Patent has 04/19/1905 filing date}
4. ^
"Fleming, Sir John Ambrose."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Sept. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
540>. {1904 (US Patent has 04/19/1905
filing date}
5. ^ Fleming Valve patent U.S.
Patent
803,684 http://www.google.com/patents?v
id=803684 {1904 (US Patent has
04/19/1905 filing date}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Ambrose Fleming."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[2] "John Ambrose Fleming." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 29 Sep. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-ambros
e-fleming
[3] "John Ambrose Fleming". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambros
e_Fleming
[4] "Fleming, John Ambrose", Concise
Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons,
(2000), p319
[5] J. A. Fleming, "On a
Phenomenon of Molecular Radiation in
Incandescence Lamps.",
p283. http://books.google.com/books?id=
5X4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA283&dq=on+phenomenon+m
olecular+radiation#v=onepage&q=on%20phen
omenon%20molecular%20radiation&f=false
(University College) London, England2
 
[1] Fleming's US Patent filed
04/19/1905 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=WRFjAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false

[2] Description Sir John Ambrose
Fleming PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Sir_John_Ambrose_Fleming.j
pg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 6 		4366) The word "hormone" is coined for
substances released from the endocrine
{eN-De-KriN1 } gland, then carried by
the blood, that profoundly influence
the function of another part of the
body.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "endocrine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 22
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/endocrine
2. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
3. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
4. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>.
5. ^ "Bayliss, Sir William Maddock."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9013
882>.
6. ^ "Starling, Ernest Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 25 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
463>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Starling." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-star
ling
[2] "Starling, Ernest Henry." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 617-619. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904123&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Ernest Henry Starling". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Henr
y_Starling
[4] "William Bayliss." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 May.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bayliss-sir
-william-maddock
[5] "Bayliss, William Maddock."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 535-538. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900317&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "William Maddock Bayliss".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mad
dock_Bayliss
(University College) London, England4 5
 
[1] Starling, Ernest Henry. Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
25 May 2010 . PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
40331&rendTypeId=4

[2] Source: Physiology Society [1]
(pdf) Description: Professor William
Bayliss of University College, London
(died 1924) In the event that the
image was taken after 1923, fair use is
claimed, because there is no
free-licence equivalent, and its use by
Wikipedia will not affect its monetary
value, assuming it has any. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/74/WilliamBayliss1.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 4 5 		4447) That calcium absorption lines do
not share in the spectral line movement
of binary stars is evidence of calcium
in between the stars that absorbs the
light.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Hartmann, Johannes Franz."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 146-147. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 June
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901881&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf}
3. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf}
4. ^ Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H {Hartmann_Johannes_
19040310.pdf} {03/10/1904}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p602. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Franz Hartmann." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-fr
anz-hartmann
[2] "Johannes Franz Hartmann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Fr
anz_Hartmann
(Potsdam Observatory) Potsdam, Getmany3
 
[1] [t Note I don't see the calcium
lines for the star that are
shifted] Photo from: Hartmann,
Johannes, ''Untersuchungen uber das 80
cm-Objektiv des Potsdamer Refraktors'',
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm. PD
source: Hartmann, Johannes,
"Untersuchungen uber das 80 cm-Objektiv
des Potsdamer Refraktors",
Publikationen des Astrophysikalischen
Observatoriums zu Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2.
Stuck = Nr. 46; Publicationen des
Astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu
Potsdam ; 15. Bd., 2. Stuck., Potsdam :
Astrophysikalisches Observatorium zu
Potsdam : In, 106 p., 6 leaves of
plates : ill. ; 29 cm.

[2] Description
Hartmann.jpg English: Johannes Franz
Hartmann (1865 – 1936) Date ca
1915 Source
http://www.aip.de/image_archive/Insti
tute.Portraits.html Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Hartmann.jpg
96 YBN
[1904 AD] 5 		5099) Radar: Radio light is used to
determine the location of distant
objects.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
2. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
3. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>.
4. ^ US patent 810,150 dated Jan. 16,
1906. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
2Ao_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ "radar." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 03
Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/488278/radar>. {1904}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p732-733
[2] Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p735
[3] "Watson-Watt,
Robert Alexander." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 18.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
977-978. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905388&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Robert Watson-Watt." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-wats
on-watt
[5] Frank Adcock, Improvement in Means
for Determining the Direction of a
Distant Source of Electro-magnetic
Radiation, UK Patent 130490, August 7,
1919
[6] Robert A. Watson-Watt and J.F.
Herd: “An Instantaneous Direct
Reading Goniometer,” J. IEE (London),
vol. 64, p. 11, 1926, also Wireless
World vol. 18 p. 366, 1926
[7]
http://www.watsonwatt.org/theman.htm
[8] "Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 03 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637658/Sir-Robert-Alexander-Watson-Wat
t>
Düsselsorf, Germany4
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf

[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
95 YBN
[05/01/1905 AD] 3 		4740) A single gram of radium is
estimated to emit over a billion Alpha
and a billion Beta particles each
second.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford, "Charge Carried by
the α and β Rays of Radium", Phil
Mag, August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
2. ^
Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the α
and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208.
3. ^ Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208. {05/01/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada2
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
95 YBN
[06/30/1905 AD] 6 		4929) The special theory of
relativity.3

The theory that the speed of light is
constant independently of the motion of
all other objects. The theory that
motion changes mass and time is
adopted, but that an aether medium for
light is unnecessary.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
2. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
3. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
4. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
5. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
6. ^ A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0630.pdf} "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf {Einstein_A
lbert_English_19050630.pdf}
{06/30/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von
der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[12] Panovsky, "Classical Electricity
and Magnetism", 1953, p266
[13]
Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The
Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p407
Bern, Switzerland5  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[09/27/1905 AD] 3 		4930) The theory that the intrinsic
energy of all matter is dependent on
the speed of light, and the famous
equation E=mc2 (originally m=L/c2).1
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, "Ist die Tr�gheit
eines K�rpers von seinem
Energieinhalt abh�ngig?", Annalen der
Physik (ser. 4), 18,
639-641. http://www.physik.uni-augsburg
.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905
_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_190509
27.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
2. ^ A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
3. ^ A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf {Einstein_Albert_1905
0927.pdf} "Does the Inertia of a Body
Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf {Einstein
_Albert_English_19050927.pdf}
{09/27/1905}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] "List of scientific publications by
Albert Einstein". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sci
entific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
[8] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[9] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von
der molekularkinetischen Theorie der
Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten
Teilchen", Annalen der Physik (ser. 4),
17, 549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[13] Charles Lane Poor,
Bern, Switzerland2  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
95 YBN
[12/22/1905 AD] 4 		4796) That the color of a star is
related to its size is recognized, the
relative brightness of a star is
determined by scaling its apparent
brightness by its distance, and the
theory of stellar evolution: that stars
lose brightness over time changing
color in the direction of blue to red.
In addition, red and yellow stars are
thought to be divided into two groups,
one with high brightness and the other
with low brightness1 .2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tassoul, J.L., and M. Tassoul.
�A� Concise History of Solar and
Stellar Physics. Princeton University
Press, 2004,
p53. http://books.google.com/books?id=n
RtUait0qTgC&pg=PA53
2. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
"Source book in astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false
3. ^ "Hertzsprung, Ejnar." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 350-353. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 21 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901979&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Hertzsprung, "Zur Strahlung der
Sterne", Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
"Source book in astronomy",
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248&dq=Astronomica
l+observatory+Hertzsprung+a+detailed+sur
vey+of+spectra+Maury&hl=en&ei=I0aZTJyrJ4
_sngfv2tAh&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=As
tronomical%20observatory%20Hertzsprung%2
0a%20detailed%20survey%20of%20spectra%20
Maury&f=false

MORE INFO
[1] "Ejnar Hertzsprung."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21
Sep. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/263944/Ejnar-Hertzsprung>
[2] "Ejnar Hertzsprung." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ejnar-hertz
sprung
[3] "Ejnar Hertzsprung". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertz
sprung
[4] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p406
[5]
Gilbert Lewis, "The Chemistry of the
Stars and the Evolution of Radioactive
Substances", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
V34, N202, 1911,
p309. http://books.google.com/books?id=
PBILAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314&dq=on+the+radiatio
n+of+the+stars+hertzsprung&hl=en&ei=lfSc
TPWIPI2qsAP_6dzVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onep
age&q=on%20the%20radiation%20of%20the%20
stars%20hertzsprung&f=false
[6] Harlow Shapley, "Source book in
astronomy", 1900-1950, p.262
[7] Hertzsprung,
"Zur Strahlung der Sterne", Zeitschrift
für wissenschaftliche Photographie, 5
(1907), p86–107, 12/24/1906.
http://books.google.com/books?id=8czNA
AAAMAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Zur+Strahlung+der+Ste
rne&hl=en&ei=XUSZTN__DpPqnQfnzN29Dw&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0
CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zur%20Strahlung%2
0der%20Sterne&f=false
[8] Hertzsprung, Ejnar. "Effective
wavelengths of absolutely faint stars."
The Astrophysical Journal 42 (1915):
111-119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu//full/1915ApJ....42..111H/0000111.0
00.html
(University of Copenhagen, and at the
Urania Observatory in Frederiksberg)
Copenhagen, Denmark3 (verify) 
[1] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431

[2] Hertzsprung, ''Zur Strahlung der
Sterne'', Zeitschrift für
wissenschaftliche Photographie, 3
(1905),
p429-422. http://books.google.com/books
?id=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA429 partial
translation in: Harlow Shapley,
''Source book in astronomy'',
1900-1950 http://books.google.com/books
?id=S9pt_DRjngUC&pg=PA248 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=J8zNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA431
95 YBN
[1905 AD] 3 		4034) The color motion film camera and
projector.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948, p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on
work was now renewed and so the book is
now in the public domain in the USA.
Notice the pseudonym - perhaps there
was fear of being labeled a "rat"?}
2. ^ Ray
Allister, pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?}
3. ^ Ray Allister,
pseudonym for Muriel Forth,
"Friese-Greene: Close-up of an
Inventor", Marsland Publications, 1948,
p111-112. {ULSF: copyright on work was
now renewed and so the book is now in
the public domain in the USA. Notice
the pseudonym - perhaps there was fear
of being labeled a "rat"?} {1905}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id
/508948/index.html (note: seems
somewhat biased against
Frieses-Greene[t])
[2] Earl Theisen, "The Depicting of
Motion Prior to the Advent of the
Screen", Journal of the Society of
Motion Picture Engineers, Volumes
20-21, 1943,
p249. http://www.archive.org/stream/jou
rnalofsociety20socirich/journalofsociety
20socirich_djvu.txt http://books.google
.com/books?id=Ct-BAAAAIAAJ&q=THE+DEPICTI
NG+OF+MOTION+PRIOR+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++TH
E+SCREEN&dq=THE+DEPICTING+OF+MOTION+PRIO
R+TO+THE+ADVENT+OF+++THE+SCREEN&as_brr=0

[3]
http://www.precinemahistory.net/1885.htm

[4] "The Optical magic lantern journal
and photographic enlarger",
1889. http://books.google.com/books?id=
sHIzQAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:Optical+intitle:
magic
[5] Edgar Sanderson, John Porter
Lamberton, Charles Morris, "Six
thousand years of history, Part 20,
Volume 10 ",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
b6nWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[6] Friese-Greene, "Photographs Made
with the Eye", "The Photographic
times", Volume 19, 1889,
p108-109. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-bUaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA469&dq=Friese-Gree
ne+date:1889-1889&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=F
riese-Greene&f=false
[7] "William Friese-Greene". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fri
ese-Greene
[8] Francis Rolt-Wheeler, "Thomas Alva
Edison", 1915,
p159. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ZKIDAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thom
as+alva+edison&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=tasi
meter&f=false
[9] Cecil Bembridge, "Moving Pictures
in Colors", Technical World Magazine,
Vol 11, 1909,
p290. http://books.google.com/books?id=
CQfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA291&dq=Friese-Greene&a
s_brr=1#v=onepage&q=Friese-Greene&f=fals
e
[10] "Color film (motion picture)".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_film_
(motion_picture)
(private studio) Brighton, England2
(presumably) 
[1] Picture taken on a single film.
Each half og which was taken through a
separate color filter. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false

[2] Diagram showing how the color
scheme of Friese-Greene's color camera
works. {ULSF: There are two images
side by side on the film, each
capturing light of a different
color} PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Dp4EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=friese-greene+
color&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=friese-greene
%20color&f=false
94 YBN
[07/20/1906 AD] 4 		4743) Alpha particles are found to have
a charge to mass ratio near 1/2 that of
Hydrogen, and are identified as
helium.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and
Velocity of the α Particles Expelled
from Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag,
October 1906, Elizabeth Pennisi,
"Drafting a Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
2. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
3. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
4. ^ Rutherford, "The Mass and Velocity
of the α Particles Expelled from
Radium and Actinium", Phil Mag, October
1906, Elizabeth Pennisi, "Drafting a
Tree", Science, (2003).v7,
pp348-71. http://books.google.com/books
?id=DdDPLGzgHoIC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%
22we+may+thus+reasonably+conclude+that+t
he%22&source=bl&ots=t9nf5WYBb6&sig=K8QHH
IgO4d34v4OotnKwBEdZ-HU&hl=en&ei=rf1yTMWY
B4qWsgPRytCDDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=%22we%20may%20thus%20reasonably%20conc
lude%20that%20the%22&f=false
{07/20/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Radioactivity", ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Charge Carried by the
α and β Rays of Radium", Phil Mag,
August 1905, s6, v10, pp193-208
(McGill University) Montreal, Canada3
 
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
94 YBN
[12/21/1906 AD] 13 14 15 		4788) The electric switch and vacuum
tube amplifier.9 10

A third electrode is inserted into a
diode (called "the grid"). A varying
very weak voltage on the grid can be
converted into a similarly varying but
much stronger electron flow from the
filament to the plate.11
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
2. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
4. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
6. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
7. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
8. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
9. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p411.
10. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647.
12. ^ Lee De Forest,
"Space Telegraphy", Patent number:
879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907,
Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
13. ^ Lee De Forest, "Space
Telegraphy", Patent number: 879532,
Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date:
Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {12/21/1906}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p646-647. {1906}
15. ^ "Lee
De Forest." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st {1907 (patented}

MORE INFO
[1] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[3] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
(De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New
York City, New York, USA12  
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
94 YBN
[12/24/1906 AD] 4 		4479) Amplitude modulation (or "AM")
radio communication.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612.
2. ^ "Fessenden,
Reginald Aubrey." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
3. ^ "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9034
132>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612. {12/24/1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901414&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Reginald Aubrey Fessenden".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Au
brey_Fessenden
(National Electric Signaling Company
and General Electric?) Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Reginald Fessenden PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Fessenden.JPG

[2] Reginald Aubrey Fessenden UNKNOWN

source: http://www.modestoradiomuseum.or
g/images/fessenden.jpg
94 YBN
[12/27/1906 AD] 3 4 5 		4710) Radioactivity is used to
determine the age of rocks. From the
quantity of lead in uranium ores and
the known rate of uranium
disintegration, some rocks are found to
be at least 2.2 billion years old.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630.
2. ^ "Bertram Borden
Boltwood." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
3. ^ Bertram B. Boltwood, "On the
Ultimate Disintigration products of the
Radio-active Elements. Part II The
Disintegration Products of Uranium",
The American Journal of Science, S4,
V23, N134, N134, Feb 1907,
p77. http://books.google.com/books?id=b
HAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Boltwood+age+lead
&hl=en&ei=qaJYTKLBJo32tgPJpZHECw&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEM
Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Boltwood%20age%20lea
d&f=false {12/27/1906}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p630. {1907}
5. ^ "Boltwood,
Bertram Borden." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9080
518>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bertram Borden Boltwood."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 03 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/boltwood-be
rtram-borden
[2] "Bertram Borden Boltwood".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Bor
den_Boltwood
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA2  
[1] Title Bertram Borden Boltwood,
Sheffield Scientific School Class of
1892. Image
Number 1047 Creator Unknown Date of
Creation 1917 Original
Material Photographic print Copyright
Holder Copyright status for this item
is unknown. Description Yale professor
of physics and radiochemistry.
Published in Ybc 892, v. 2
(1917). Record Unit Name Photographs
of Yale affiliated individuals
maintained by the Office of Public
Affairs, Yale University, 1879-1989
(inclusive). Collection
ID mssa.ru.0686 Box Number 8 Folder
Number 302 File
Name 001047.jpg Credit
Line Photographs of Yale affiliated
individuals maintained by the Office of
Public Affairs, Yale University,
1879-1989 (inclusive). Manuscripts &
Archives, Yale University PD
source: http://images.library.yale.edu/m
adid_size3/22593/001047.jpg
94 YBN
[1906 AD] 4 		4471) A diagnostic test for syphilis is
created.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608-609.
2. ^ A. Wassermann,
A. Neisser and C. Bruck, "Eine
serodiagnostische Reaktion bei
Syphilis", Deutsche medizinische
Wochenschrift. 32 (1906), 745–746.
3. ^
"Wassermann, August von." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9076
201>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p608-609. {1906}

MORE INFO
[1] "August von Wassermann".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_von_
Wassermann
(Robert Koch Institute for Infectious
Diseases) Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Treponema pallidum.jpg English:
Electron micrograph of Treponema
pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail
rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Treponema pallidum is the causative
agent of syphilis. In the United
States, over 35,600 cases of syphilis
were reported by health officials in
1999. Français : Le tréponème
pâle, agent de la syphilis. Polski:
Krętki blade. Magyar: A
kórokozó. עברית: חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. חיידקים
גורמי עגבת. Hrvatski:
Spiroheta Treponema pallidum koja
izaziva sifilis. Bosanski: Treponema
pallidum, uzročnik sifilisa. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Treponema_pallidum.jp
g

[2] Description August
Wassermann.jpg English: August
Wassermann Polski: August
Wassermann Date before
1925 Source IHM Author
anonymous/unknown Permission (Reu
sing this file) The National
Library of Medicine believes this item
to be in the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/August_Wassermann.jpg

93 YBN
[05/??/1907 AD] 12 		4269) The mass spectrometer, a device
that can separate atoms with an
electric charge (ions) by their mass is
invented.5

Positive rays are deflected by magnetic
and electric fields so that ions of
different ratios of charge to mass
strike different parts of a
phosphorescent screen.6 7 8 9 10
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
5. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
6. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
7. ^ Thomson, J. J., "A new method of
chemical analysis (Royal Institution
lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy. Instn. 20,
1911,
p140. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
8. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. s6, v21,
n122, Feb 1911,
p225. {Thomson_Joseph_John_191102xx.pdf
}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563.
10. ^ Thomson, J. J.,
"On Rays of Positive Electricity",
Phil. Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
11. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561
12. ^ Thomson, J. J., "On Rays of
Positive Electricity", Phil. Mag., S6,
V13, N77, May 1907,
p561. books.google.com/books?id=vVjKOdk
tZhsC&pg=PA561 {05/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England11  
[1] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD
AND figs 10-12 from: Thomson, J.
J., ''On Rays of Positive
Electricity'', Phil. Mag., S6, V13,
N77, May 1907, p561. PD AND [10]
figures 2-15 from: # Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity # J. J.
Thomson # Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1,
1913), pp. 1-20 PD AND English
physicist J J Thomson Date GWS -
The Great War: The Standard History of
the All Europe Conflict (volume four)
edited by H. W. Wilson and J. A.
Hammerton (Amalgamated Press, London
1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alsehttp://www.jstor.org/stable/93452?&S
earch=yes&term=electricity&term=positive
&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction
%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof%2Bp
ositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836%26w
c%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0%26S
earch%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&returnArti
cleService=showArticlehttp://upload.wiki
media.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Tho
mson.jpg

[2] fig 2 from: Thomson, J. J., ''On
Rays of Positive Electricity'', Phil.
Mag., S6, V13, N77, May 1907, p561. PD

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vVjKOdktZhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UOM39015024088414#v=onepage&q=&f=f
alse
93 YBN
[11/13/1907 AD] 8 		354) The helicopter.6 A helicopter
achieves free flight while carrying a
passenger.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
2. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
3. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
4. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
5. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
6. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
7. ^ "helicopter." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/259992/helicopter>.
8. ^
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/
Dictionary/Cornu/DI18.htm {11/13/1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Cornu." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/138077/Paul-Cornu>
 
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg

[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
93 YBN
[11/26/1907 AD] 5 6 		6263) An image is displayed on a
Cathode-Ray Tube.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
2. ^ Stephen Herbert, "A history of
early television, Volume 1", 2004,
p4. books.google.com/books?id=89jS4JNWu
ZwC
3. ^ Boris Rosing, "Art of Electric
Telescopy", Patent number: 1161734,
Filing date: Apr 5, 1911, Issue date:
Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ
4. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
5. ^ "television." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/television
{1907}
6. ^ "Boris Rosing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Rosin
g {11/26/1907 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1] Hallwachs, Wilhelm. “Ueber
die Electrisirung von Metallplatten
durch Bestrahlung mit electrischem
Licht.” Annalen der Physik 270.8A
(1888):
731-734. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
/doi/10.1002/andp.18882700809/abstract
[2] William Hallwachs, "On the
electrification of metal plates by
irradiation with electrical light",
Philosophical Magazine Series 5, Volume
26, Issue 158,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nZIOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA78
[3]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/index.shtml
Petrograd3 , Russia4  
[1] Figure from: Boris Rosing, ''Art
of Electric Telescopy'', Patent number:
1161734, Filing date: Apr 5, 1911,
Issue date: Nov 23,
1915 http://www.google.com/patents?id=I
KRQAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=IKRQAAAAEBAJ&pg=PA12

[2] Description Boris
Rozing Date 2010-07-03
10:15:57(UTC) (Original uploaded at
2008-07-28 23:55:26) Source
Original uploaded on
ru.wikipedia Author Original
uploaded by Vlas (Transfered by
Ravit) Description Русский:
Борис Розинг (,
советский физик Date
до 1920-х Source
http://www.tvcom.kherson.ua/cikavo.
files/istoriya_tv/istoriya_tv.files/rozi
ng.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Boris_Rozing.jpg
93 YBN
[1907 AD] 8 9 		4438) The theory of space and time as a
four dimensional structure called
"space-time".4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Minkowski, Hermann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
2. ^ Minkowski, Hermann (1908/9). "Raum
und Zeit". Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung: 75–88.
English translation: Space and
Time. In: The Principle of Relativity
(1920), Calcutta: University Press,
70-88 http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/R
aum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
4. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
5. ^ Minkowski, Hermann (1908/9). "Raum
und Zeit". Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung: 75–88.
English translation: Space and
Time. In: The Principle of Relativity
(1920), Calcutta: University Press,
70-88 http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/R
aum_und_Zeit_(Minkowski)
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599.
7. ^ "Minkowski,
Hermann." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 11
June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>.
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p599. {1907}
9. ^
"Minkowski, Hermann." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 11 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
860>. {1907}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Minkowski." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[2] "Hermann Minkowski." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 11 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-min
kowski
[3] "Hermann Minkowski". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Min
kowski
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany7  
[1] Description De Raum Zeit Minkowski
012.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist ein Scan des
historischen Buches: English: This is
a scan of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski Permission (Reusing this
file) Out of copyright as author
died more than 70 years ago PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/De_Raum_Zeit_Minkowsk
i_012.jpg

[2] Description De Raum zeit
Minkowski Bild.jpg Deutsch: Dies ist
ein Auszug der Seite 5 des
Buches: English: This is a detail of
page 5 of the historical
document: Title: Raum und Zeit
(Jahresberichte der Deutschen
Mathematiker- Vereinigung, Leipzig,
1909.) Date 1909 Source
Deutsch: Der Scan wurde anhand einer
orginal Buchvorlage
vorgenommen English: scan from
original book Author Hermann
Minkowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/De_Raum_zeit_Minkowsk
i_Bild.jpg
92 YBN
[03/26/1908 AD] 4 		5881) The theory that an electron is a
chemical element.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf}
2. ^ Ramsay, William, 1852-1916. "The
electron as an element ; Compounds of
electrons ; The disruption of the
so-called elements." 1915.
http://hdl.handle.net/1911/8591.
and http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed030p2.2
{Ramsay_William_1915xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf}
4. ^ Ramsay, William, "Presidential
address. Elements and electrons",
Journal of the Chemical Society,
Transactions, 1909, V95,
624-637 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/CT909
9500624 and
http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/article
landing/1909/ct/ct9099500624 {Ramsay_Wi
lliam_19080326.pdf} {03/26/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[13] "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
[14] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[15] WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html
[16] W. Ramsay, "The electron as an
element", Journal of Chemical Education
1953 30 (1),
2 http://pubs.acs.org/action/showCitFor
mats?doi=10.1021%2Fed030p2.2
(University College) London, England3
(presumably) 
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg

[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
92 YBN
[05/30/1908 AD] 3 		4902) Secondary x-ray radiation emitted
from objects bombarded with x-rays, is
found to have a constant absorption
with no regard to the intensity of the
primary x-ray beam.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
"Homogeneous secondary R�ntgen
Radiations". Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550�584. books.google.com/books?id=NL
BJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA550
2. ^ C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
"Homogeneous secondary R�ntgen
Radiations". Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550�584. books.google.com/books?id=NL
BJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA550
3. ^ C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
"Homogeneous secondary R�ntgen
Radiations". Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550�584. books.google.com/books?id=NL
BJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA550 {05/30/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Glover Barkla."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/53462/Charles-Glover-Barkla>
[2] "Charles Glover Barkla." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-glo
ver-barkla
[3] "Charles Glover Barkla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glo
ver_Barkla
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
[5] H. S. Allen, "Charles Glover
Barkla. 1877-1944" (pp.
341-366) Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/769087
[6] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
radiation from gases subject to
X-rays", Phil. Mag.,S6, V5, N30, June
1903, p685 –
698. http://books.google.com/books?id=o
tXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA685&dq=Secondary+radiat
ion+from+gases+subject+to+X-Rays&hl=en&e
i=urb-TLaEO4ausAOu6YywCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q=Secondary%20radiation%20from
%20gases%20subject%20to%20X-Rays&f=false

[7] Barkla and Sadler, “secondary
X-Rays and the Atomic weight of
Nickel.”, Philosophical Magazine, 6th
ser., 14 (Sept, 1907),
408–422. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=EhQXBZ1r44AC&pg=PA408&dq=%22seconda
ry+X-Rays+and+the+Atomic+weight+of+Nicke
l%22&hl=en&ei=l2MJTdDmJ4XEsAOe8ujiDg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22secondary%20X
-Rays%20and%20the%20Atomic%20weight%20of
%20Nickel%22&f=false
[8] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Proc.
Roy. Soc. 74, 1905,
p474-475. http://books.google.com/books
?id=E41_hSvBIcEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=
editions:LCCN93660113&lr=#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[9] Polarized Röntgen radiation. Phil.
Trans. A, 204, 1905,
p467-479. http://books.google.com/books
?id=x01GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA467&dq=intitle:Phi
losophical+intitle:transactions+Barkla&h
l=en&ei=9hgATZ7tI8bCngeJwtDlDQ&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=intitle%3APhilosophica
l%20intitle%3Atransactions%20Barkla&f=fa
lse
[10] William Henry Bragg, "Universe of
Light", Dover edition, 1933, 1959, p233
[11]
J. L. Heilbron, "H. G. J. Moseley: the
life and letters of an English
physicist, 1887-1915", 1974.
http://books.google.com/books?id=vO0d-SB
w6DEC&pg=PA62&dq=barkla+bragg&hl=en&ei=g
rQKTZ-2I4_CsAOGyPDACg&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=barkla%20bragg&f=false
[12] Charles G. Barkla, "Polarisation
in Secondary Rontgen Radiation", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 6, 1906
77:247-255;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0021 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/77/51
6/247.full.pdf+html
[13] Charles G. Barkla, "Secondary
Röntgen radiation", Proceedings of the
Physical Society of London, 20, 200,
February 1906, also Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
11, Issue 66, 1906, Pages 812 –
828. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
5EOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA812&dq=%22Secondary+R%C
3%B6ntgen+radiation%22+intitle:philosoph
ical&hl=en&ei=y0wRTbaFLY64sAP-4JWnDw&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=
0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false http://
www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~db
=all~content=a910485134~fulltext=7132409
30
[14] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "Secondary
Rontgen Rays and Atomic Weight", nature
73, 365-365 (15 February
1906) http://books.google.com/books?id=
zim4QGZtzrgC&pg=PA365&lpg=PA365&dq=%22I+
have+shown+that+all+the+phenomena+of+sec
ondary+radiation%22&source=bl&ots=jolG27
0T2e&sig=tafArmh0ggQUxaIqvvYRt7Nf_LU&hl=
en&ei=jvoLTcffOZC6sQPc4oiJCw&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AE
wAA#v=onepage&q=%22I%20have%20shown%20th
at%20all%20the%20phenomena%20of%20second
ary%20radiation%22&f=false and http://
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v73/n1894/
pdf/073365c0.pdf
[15] CHARLES G. BARKLA, "The Nature of
X-Rays", Nature, Volume 78 Number 2010
pp7, May 7,
1908. doi:10.1038/078007b0 http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v78/n2010/pdf/
078007b0.pdf
[16] Barkla and Sadler, "The Absorption
of Röntgen Rays", Phil. Mag., 17 (May
1909), 739–760;
[17] Sadler, “Transformations
of Röntgen Rays,” Phil. Mag., 18
(July 1909), 107–132;
[18] Barkla, “The
Spectra of the Fluorescent Röntgen
Radiations", Phil. Mag., 22
(Sept.1911), 396–412
[19] C. G. BARKLA & C. A.
SADLER , "Absorption of X-Rays", nature
78, 245-245 (16 July
1908) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v78/n2020/pdf/078245c0.pdf
[20] "Barkla, Charles Glover." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 456-459. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900268&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[21] Barkla, “Notes on X-Rays and
Scattered Rays", Phil. Mag., S 6, Vol
15, N86, Feb 1908,
p.288. http://books.google.com/books?id
=DZMOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:hr4qP1z5lYIC&hl=en&ei=350STeHQHZSs
sAOFq4W7Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ba
rkla&f=false
(University of Liverpool) Liverpool,
England2  
[1] C. G. Barkla and C. A. Sadler,
''Homogeneous secondary Röntgen
Radiations''. Philosophical Magazine
Series 6 16.94 (1908):
550–584;557. books.google.com/books?i
d=NLBJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA557 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=NLBJAA
AAYAAJ&pg=PA557

[2] Description Charles Glover
Barkla.jpg English: Charles Glover
Barkla Date 1917(1917) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1917/barkla-bio.html
Author Nobel
Foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Charles_Glover_Barkla
.jpg
92 YBN
[06/06/1908 AD] 7 		3616) The first images sent and
received by radio.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
2. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
3. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
4. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
5. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
6. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf}
7. ^ KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING
PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY
THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific
American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6,
1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.;
p. 412 (1 page)
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?index=
0&did=176336491&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&
VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&T
S=1222470748&clientId=48051 {Knudsen_Ha
ns_1908.pdf} {06/06/1908}

MORE INFO
[1] John Joseph Fahie, "A History
of Wireless Telegraphy", Dodd, Mead &
Co.,
1902. http://books.google.com/books?hl=
en&id=WE41AAAAMAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Wirel
ess+Telegraphy&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=web&ots=08aQE8FQHe&sig=0AB8rC1DTmKfhhs
RE55cYSIq2PM&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=
2&ct=result
London, England6  
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
92 YBN
[06/27/1908 AD] 5 6 7 		4190) Helium is liquefied;1 2 the gas
that requires the lowest temperature
for liquefaction at 4 degrees above
absolute zero.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
2. ^ Kamerlingh
Onnes, H., "The liquefaction of
helium.", Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings,
vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547.
4. ^ "Heike
Kamerlingh Onnes." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 05 Dec.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
5. ^ Kamerlingh Onnes, H., "The
liquefaction of helium.", Koninklijke
Nederlandsche Akademie van
Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
{06/27/1908}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p546-547. {1908}
7. ^
"Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
478>. {1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[2] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[3] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heike_Kamer
lingh_Onnes
[4] "Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 220-222. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html
[6] "Liquid Gases". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Liquid_G
ases
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands4  
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
92 YBN
[1908 AD] 5 6 		4238) Cellophane (a clear, flexible
film made from cellulose1 ).2 3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "cellophane." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557.
3. ^ "cellophane." A
Dictionary of Food and Nutrition.
Oxford University Press, 1995, 2003,
2005. Answers.com 17 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
4. ^
http://www.stiftungbrandenberger.ch/drbr
d_e.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p557. {1908}
6. ^
"cellophane." A Dictionary of Food and
Nutrition. Oxford University Press,
1995, 2003, 2005. Answers.com 17 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cellophane
{1908}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Frederick Cross".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fre
derick_Cross
[2] E. F. Armstrong, "Charles Frederick
Cross. 1855-1935", Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 1,
No. 4 (Dec., 1935), pp.
459-464. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76
8976?cookieSet=1
[3] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan, J. F. Briggs, "A text-book
of paper-making", Edition: 4 - 1916 -
507
pages. http://books.google.com/books?id
=mqRAAAAAIAAJ&dq=Charles+Frederick+Cross
&as_brr=1&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[4] Charles Frederick Cross, Edward
John Bevan , "Researches on
cellulose" Volume I
(1895-1900) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=jYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&s
ource=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=fals
e Volume II
(1900-1905) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=zYY6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=7#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume III
(1905-1910) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=MZ49AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=8#
v=onepage&q=&f=false Volume IV
(1910-1921) http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_J09AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Charles+Frederick+Cross&as_brr=1&cd=6#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
[5]
http://www.plastiquarian.com/crossbevan.
htm
[6] http://www.plastiquarian.com/ca.htm
Paris, France4 (presumably) 
[1] Dr. J. E. Brandenberger PD
source: http://www.stiftungbrandenberger
.ch/images/drbrand.JPG
91 YBN
[02/08/1909 AD] 4 5 		4428) The first thermosetting plastic,
a plastic that does not soften when
heated; "Bakelite".1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Baekeland, Leo Hendrik."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 9 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9011
719>.
2. ^ L. H. Baekeland, "The Synthesis,
Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1 (3), DOI:
10.1021/ie50003a004, March 1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
3. ^ L. H. Baekeland, "The Synthesis,
Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1 (3), DOI:
10.1021/ie50003a004, March 1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004
4. ^ "Baekeland Leo Hendrik." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 385. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900218&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {02/08/1909}
5. ^ L. H. Baekeland,
"The Synthesis, Constitution, and Uses
of Bakelite." Ind. Eng. Chem., 1909, 1
(3), DOI: 10.1021/ie50003a004, March
1909,pp
149–161. {Baekeland_Leo_19090208.pdf}
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie
50003a004 {02/08/1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 09 Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/leo-baekela
nd
[2] "Leo Hendrik Baekeland". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Hendrik
_Baekeland
[3]
http://www.google.com/patents?id=hLVBAAA
AEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&source=gb
s_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
(announced at: American Chemical
Society lecture) New York City, NY,
USA3 (presumably) 
[1] Description English: Picture of
Bakelite radio. Taken in September 2007
by Robert Neild (Robneild) at the
Bakelite Museum, Orchard Mill,
Williton, Somerset, UK.Ŗ Date
2007-09-12 (original upload
date) Source Transfered from
en.wikipedia Transfer was stated to be
made by User:Storkk. Author Original
uploader was Robneild at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0;
Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bakelite_radio.
jpg/768px-Bakelite_radio.jpg

[2] Leo Baekeland UNKNOWN
source: http://juliensart.be/bakeliet/Le
o%20Hendrik%20Baekeland.jpg
91 YBN
[04/06/1909 AD] 3 4 		4244) Humans reach the North Pole of
Earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560.
2. ^ "Robert E.
Peary." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p560. {04/06/1909}
4. ^ "Robert E.
Peary." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 19 Feb.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary {04/06/1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert E. Peary." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 19 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-e-pe
ary
[2] "Robert Edwin Peary". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Edwi
n_Peary
[3] "Robert Edwin Peary." Science and
Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh
Lauer. Vol. 5: 1800 to 1899. Detroit:
Gale, 2000. 97. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
Greenland2  
[1] Matthew Henson (centre) and other
members of Robert E. Peary's North Pole
expedition, April 1909. Robert
Peary—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Henson, Matthew Alexander.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 18 Feb. 2010
. 04/1909 PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/new-multimed
ia/bigimages/polexp002.jpg

[2] Description Robert Edwin
Peary.jpg English: Robert Edwin Peary
(1856 - 1920), polar explorer, on the
main deck of steamship Roosevelt Date
c 1909; first upload: Nov 16, 2004
- de:Wikipedia Source Library of
Congress, Prints and Photographs
Division: LC-USZ62-8234;
LC-USZC4-7507 http://www.loc.gov/rr/pri
nt/list/235_pop.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Robert_Edwin_Peary.jp
g
91 YBN
[09/??/1909 AD] 5 		4729) The mass and size of an electron
are determined;2 A mass of 10-27 grams
and size of 30 pm.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910),
p50. http://www.archive.org/details/bro
wnianmovement00perr
2. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910),
p50. http://www.archive.org/details/bro
wnianmovement00perr
3. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis (1910),
p50. http://www.archive.org/details/bro
wnianmovement00perr
4. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr
5. ^ Perrin, Mouvement Brownien et
Realite Moleculaire", Annales de chimie
et de physique, S8, 09/1909,
p5. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bp
t6k349481.image.r=annales+de+chimie+et+d
e+physique.f3.langEN {Perrin_Jean_thoug
ht_dust_particles_1909.pdf} Perrin,
tr: Soddy, "Brownian Movement and
Molecular Reality", London: Taylor and
Francis
(1910). http://www.archive.org/details/
brownianmovement00perr

MORE INFO
[1] "Jean Baptiste Perrin."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[2] "Jean Baptiste Perrin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptis
te_Perrin
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
[4] Herbert Newby McCoy, Ethel Mary
Terry, "Introduction to general
chemistry",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
qA1DAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage#v=onepag
e&q=perrin&f=false
[5] J. Perrin, "Nouvelles proprietes
des rayons cathodiques.",Comptes
Rendus, V121, 1895,
p1130. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k3077p.image.f1130.langEN Englis
h translation: "New Properties of the
kathode Rays.", Minutes of proceedings,
Volume 124 By Institution of Civil
Engineers (Great Britain),
p552. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BS_yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA552&dq=comptes+Perrin&
hl=en&ei=aO5ZTK-uJo6-sQPM-OGCCA&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ
6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=comptes%20Perrin&f=fa
lse
[6] Report of the annual meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Issue 66, 1896,
p702. http://books.google.com/books?id=
lOs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA701&dq=cathode+rays+Pe
rrin&hl=en&ei=Ku1ZTLbSAYK-sQOt-KyrCA&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=cathode%20rays%2
0Perrin&f=false
[7] "Perrin, Jean." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 4 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
322>
[8] Jean Perrin, translated by
Frederick Soddy, "Brownian movement and
molecular reality",
1910. http://books.google.com/books?id=
eARJAAAAIAAJ&q=perrin+einstein&dq=perrin
+einstein&hl=en&ei=gAZbTOXsEpHUtQP10oDcD
Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA
[9] Perrin, "Grandeur des molecules et
charge de l'electron.", Comptes Rendus,
V147, 1908,
p594-596. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12
148/bpt6k31014.image.f594.langEN
[10] American Chemical Society.
Chemical Abstracts Service, Chemical
abstracts, Volume 3, Part 1, 1908,
p862.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VopMA
AAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chemical+
abstracts&hl=en&ei=2BNbTIyKEIy8sQOs7eEG&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&v
ed=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=perrin&f=fals
e
[11] "mastic." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 05 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mastic
[12] M. Chaudesaigues , "Le mouvement
brownien et la formule d'Einstein",
Comptes Rendus, V147,
1908. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31014.image.f1044.langEN
[13] "Jean Baptiste Perrin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jean-baptis
te-perrin
[14] Perrin, "Le Atoms",
1914. http://books.google.com/books?id=
p206AAAAMAAJ&dq=le%20atoms%20perrin&sour
ce=gbs_slider_thumb translated to
English: "Atoms",
1916 http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
_kJAAAAIAAJ&dq=le+atoms+perrin&source=gb
s_navlinks_s
(École Normale, University of Paris)
Paris, France4  
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg

[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
91 YBN
[1909 AD] 6 		4899) A wireless radio telephone is
publicly demonstrated.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
2. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
3. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
4. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master of
Spacep119.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ B. Jacot, "Marconi-Master
of Spacep119. {1909}

MORE INFO
[1] "Guglielmo Marconi."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 19 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guglielmo-m
arconi
[2] "Guglielmo Marconi". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_M
arconi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html
[4] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
proceedings of the institution of
electrical engineers, v28, 1899,
p273. http://books.google.com/books?id=
UQAUAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=proc
eedings+of+the+institution+of+electrical
+engineers&hl=en&ei=5yu-TOTnFIugsQOn9bzI
DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=
2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=marconi&f=
false
[5] G. Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphy",
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 16 (1899– 1901),
247–256
[6] G. Marconi, "Syntonic Wireless
Telegraphy", Royal Society of Arts.
Journal, 49 (1901), 505
[7] Orrin E.
Dunlap, Jr., "Marconi: The Man and His
Wireless" (1937)
[8] W. P. Jolly, "Marconi",
1972, p78
[9] British patent No. 12,039,
Date of Application 2 June 1896;
Complete Specification Left, 2 March
1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later
claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his
own ideas which he failed to
patent) http://www.earlyradiohistory.us
/1901fae.htm
[10] U.S. Patent 0,586,193
"Transmitting electrical signals",
(using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code
key) filed December 1896, patented
July,
1897. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=586193
[11] U.S. Patent 0,763,772 "Apparatus
for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned
system; this innovation was predated by
N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S.
Stone) http://www.google.com/patents?id
=L5tvAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[12] B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B.
Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935), p273.
http://books.google.com/books?id=xiFDA
AAAIAAJ&q=Marconi:+Master+of+Space&dq=Ma
rconi:+Master+of+Space&hl=en&ei=GFG_TMyW
PJSfnQf_yqSJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re
sult&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA
[13] "Marconi, Guglielmo." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 98-99. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 19 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902815&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Marconi Company) London, England4
(verify5 ) 
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)

[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 4 		4476) That hereditary characters are
located on a specific chromosome is
recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ T. H. Morgan, "Sex-Limited
Inheritance in Drosophila", in Science,
32 (1910),
120–122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1635471 {Morgan_Thomas_Hunt_1910.pdf}
3. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 1 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9053
728>.
4. ^ "Morgan, Thomas Hunt." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 515-526. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 1 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Thomas Hunt Morgan."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 01 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thomas-hunt
-morgan
[2] "Thomas Hunt Morgan". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt
_Morgan
(Columbia University) New York City,
NY, USA3  
[1] Description Thomas Hunt
Morgan.jpg English: This image is one
of several created for the 1891 Johns
Hopkins yearbook of 1891, see Shine and
Hobel. 1976. Thomas Hunt Morgan. The
University Press of Kentucky ISBN
081319995X for other examples of photos
from the same sitting. Date
1891(1891) Source
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ Author
Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan.jp
g

[2] Thomas Hunt Morgan Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSthomah.jpg
90 YBN
[1910 AD] 3 		4961) A pressure of 20,000 atmospheres
is obtained.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Bridgman, Percy Williams."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ "Percy Williams Bridgman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/percy-willi
ams-bridgman {1909}
3. ^ "Bridgman, Percy
Williams." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 457-461.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900627&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Percy Williams Bridgman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/79392/Percy-Williams-Bridgman>
[2] American Scientist, Vol. 31, 1943
[3] P.
W. Bridgman, "The Technique of High
Pressure Experimenting", Proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Vol. 49, No. 11 (Feb., 1914),
pp. 627-643. Published by: American
Academy of Arts & Sciences Article
Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20025490
[4] Bridgman, "The Physics of High
Pressure" (1931)
[5] P. W. Bridgman, "The
Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge",
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: P. W. Bridgman,
''The Measurement of High Hydrostatic
Pressure. I. A Simple Primary Gauge'',
Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Vol. 44, No. 8
(Feb., 1909), pp.
201-217. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20
022420 {Bridgman_Percy_19081209.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2002
2420?&Search=yes&searchText=j50000063&se
archText=j50000062&searchText=bridgman&l
ist=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicRe
sults%3Fhp%3D25%26la%3D%26so%3Dold%26wc%
3Don%26acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26jcpsi%3D1%2
6artsi%3D1%26Query%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26sbq%3D%2528bridgman%2529%
2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2BOR%2Bj5
0000062%2529%26prq%3D%2528p.w.%2Bbridgma
n%2529%2BAND%2Bjid%253A%2528j50000063%2B
OR%2Bj50000062%2529%26si%3D26%26jtxsi%3D
26&prevSearch=&item=43&ttl=927&returnArt
icleService=showFullText

[2] Description The image of
American physicist and Nobel laureate
Percy Williams Bridgman
(1882–1961) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 03:02, 26
December 2008 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Percy_Williams_Bridgman.jp
g
89 YBN
[01/??/1911 AD] 2 		4321) The theory that most of human
thinking is of images.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
2. ^ Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[4] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
[6] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[7] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[8] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[9] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p570-571
[11] "William Henry
Pickering." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2010. Answers.com 11
May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[12] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[13] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably) 
[1] Ames, C. H., ''Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer'',
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A PD
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
11PA.....19...31A

[2] Edited image of American
Astronomer William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg
89 YBN
[04/19/1911 AD] 3 		4691) The paths of ionizing rays (for
example by α and β particles) are
captured photographically using a cloud
chamber (a device that expands gas).1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a Method of
Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
2. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a Method of
Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
3. ^ C. T. R. Wilson, "On a Method of
Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp.
285-288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/932
05
and http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/85/578/285
{Wilson_Charles_1911.pdf}
{04/19/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Wilson, C.T.R.."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 16 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9077
118>
[2] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[3] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 16 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tho
mson-rees-wilson
[4] "Wilson, Charles Rees." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 420-423. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 16 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904680&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Tho
mson_Rees_Wilson
[6]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/wilson.html
[7] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the Formation
of Cloud in the Absense of Dust",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Volume 8, 1895,
p306. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cZI1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA306&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[8] C. T. R. Wilson, "The Effect of
Rontgen's Rays on Cloudy
Condensation.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London Society, Volume
59, 03/03/1896,
p338. http://books.google.com/books?id=
SAgWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA338&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=euJATNWWBojSsAOeyJz8DA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEw
Ag#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[9] C. T. R. Wilson, "Condensation of
Water Vapour in the Presence of
Dust-free Air and other Gases",
Philosophical transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Volume 189,
March 15,
1897. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GFFGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA265&dq=CTR+Wilson&hl=e
n&ei=Eu9ATInoDI_ksQPC2OiZDQ&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDUQ6AEw
Aw#v=onepage&q=CTR%20Wilson&f=false
[10] C. T. R. Wilson, "On the
Comparative Efficiency as Condensation
Nuclei of Positively and Negatively
Charged Ions", Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A January 1, 1900 193:289-308;
doi:10.1098/rsta.1900.0009 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/193/2
89.full.pdf+html?sid=67702728-a318-49e2-
a811-a9d4c98f896b
(Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England2  
[1] Figure 1 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285

[2] Figure 2 from Wilson's 1911
paper: C. T. R. Wilson, ''On a Method
of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising
Particles through a Gas', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 85, No.
578 (Jun. 9, 1911), pp. 285-288 PD
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/85/578/285
89 YBN
[04/28/1911 AD] 5 		4192) Electrical superconductivity at
low temperatures is recognized.1 2 3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Onnes, H. K., Verslagen van de
Afdeeling Natuurkunde der Kon. Akad.
van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, 28
April 1911, p1479-1481. and:
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie
van Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 13,
May 26, 1911, p.1274-1276. English
translation: The resistance of pure
mercury at helium temperatures.
Communications from the Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory of the University of
Leiden No. B 120, 3
(1911) {Kamerlingh_Onnes_19110428.pdf}
2. ^ H. A. Radovan, N. A. Fortune, T.
P. Murphy, S. T. Hannahs, E. C. Palm,
S. W. Tozer & D. Hall, Magnetic
enhancement of superconductivity from
electron spin domains, Nature 425,
51-55 (4 September
2003). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6953/full/nature01842.html#B1

3. ^ Science abstracts: Physics, Volume
14 By Physical Society of London,
Physical Society (Great Britain),
American Physical Society, Institution
of Electrical
Engineers http://books.google.com/books
?id=bu0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&dq=The+resista
nce+of+pure+mercury+at+helium+temperatur
es&lr=&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=The%20r
esistance%20of%20pure%20mercury%20at%20h
elium%20temperatures&f=false
4. ^ "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
5. ^ Onnes, H. K., Verslagen van de
Afdeeling Natuurkunde der Kon. Akad.
van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, 28
April 1911, p1479-1481. and:
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie
van Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 13,
May 26, 1911, p.1274-1276. English
translation: The resistance of pure
mercury at helium temperatures.
Communications from the Kamerlingh
Onnes Laboratory of the University of
Leiden No. B 120, 3
(1911) {Kamerlingh_Onnes_19110428.pdf}
{04/28/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes."
History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[2] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2003. Answers.com 05 Dec. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/heike-kamer
lingh-onnes
[3] "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heike_Kamer
lingh_Onnes
[4] "Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 220-222. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html
[6] "Liquid Gases". Encyclopedia
Britannica. 1911.
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Liquid_G
ases
[7] Kamerlingh Onnes, H., "The
liquefaction of helium.", Koninklijke
Nederlandsche Akademie van
Wetenschappen Proceedings, vol. 11,
p.168-185. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q
=helium&f=false (English
translation:) http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=s6iyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA8-PA55&dq=Onne
s+Communications+from+the+Physical+Labor
atory+at+the+University+of+Leiden+date:1
908-1908#v=onepage&q=Onnes%20Communicati
ons%20from%20the%20Physical%20Laboratory
%20at%20the%20University%20of%20Leiden%2
0date%3A1908-1908&f=false http://www.di
gitallibrary.nl/proceedings/search/detai
l.cfm?pubid=2616&view=image&startrow=1
[8] "Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 4 Dec. 2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9044
478>
(Leiden University) Leiden,
Netherlands4  
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false

[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
89 YBN
[04/??/1911 AD] 4 		4746) The atomic nucleus theory: that
all atoms have a very small positively
charged sphere (or "nucleus") in their
center. The size of an atom is
estimated to be around 100 pm.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Rutherford, ""The Scattering of
the α and β Rays and the Structure of
the Atom", Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 4, 55, May 1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "The Structure
of the Atom", Phil Mag, March 1914, S6,
27, pp488-98.
3. ^ Rutherford, ""The Scattering
of the α and β Rays and the Structure
of the Atom", Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 4, 55, May 1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html
4. ^ Rutherford, ""The Scattering of
the α and β Rays and the Structure of
the Atom", Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 4, 55, May 1911,
pp669-88. http://www.chemteam.info/Chem
-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911
.html {04/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] "Rutherford,
Ernest, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of
Cambridge." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 10
Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9109
507>
[27] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England3  
[1] Figure 1 from Rutherford, ''''The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD AND Description
Ernest Rutherford2.jpg English:
Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIFhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jpg

[2] Figure 1 from Rutherford,
''''The Scattering of the α and β
Rays and the Structure of the Atom'',
Proceedings of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, 4, 55, May
1911, pp669-88. PD
source: http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Hi
story/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911-fi
g1.GIF
89 YBN
[06/??/1911 AD] 3 		3944) The theory that a machine could
record the sounds of thought, and could
also write sounds back to the brain
which are heard in thought.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
2. ^ Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +",
"Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +",
"Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p165-168.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}{
06/1911}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.biotele.com/trecorder.htm
[2] "Electrical Experimenter".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_
Experimenter
[3] Hugo Gernsback
Papers http://library.syr.edu/digital/g
uides/g/gernsback_h.htm
[4] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 03,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-03/feature1/
[5] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
2. Writing, publishing and inventing.",
Society for Amateur Scientists (Society
for Amateur Scientists), September 10,
2004. http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssu
es/2004-09-10/feature1/index.html
[6] Michael A. Banks, "Hugo Gernsback:
The man who invented the future. Part
3. Merging science fiction into science
fact.". Society for Amateur Scientists
(Society for Amateur Scientists),
October 1, 2004.
http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues/20
04-10-01/feature1/index.html
[7]
http://www.magazineart.org/publishers/ge
rnsback.html
[8]
http://www.magazineart.org/main.php/v/he
althandfitness/sexology
[9]
http://home.utah.edu/~u0202363/hugo_pub.
pdf
New York City, NY2  
[1] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165. {inoldentimes001.pdf} PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.

[2] Image from: Hugo Gernsback,
''Ralph 124C 41 +'', ''Modern
Electrics'', Modern Electrics
Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3,
June 1911. Taken from ''Modern
Electrics'', Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
{Gernsback_Modern_Electrics_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
89 YBN
[11/13/1911 AD] 3 		4270) The products of chemical
reactions are detected using an mass
spectrometer.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}
3. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} {11/13/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "A new method of
chemical analysis (Royal Institution
lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy. Instn. 20,
1911, p140
[26] Thomson, J. J., "The unit
theory of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 16, 1912, 643
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Thomson, J. J., ''Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.'',Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg

[2] Thomson, J. J., ''Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.'',Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911,
p455. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND {ULSF: Note from a later
paper} figure 12 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticlehttp://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/J.J
_Thomson.jpg
89 YBN
[12/14/1911 AD] 3 		4772) Humans reach the South Pole of
Earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Amundsen, Roald." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 30 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9007
288>. ?
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p642.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p642.
{12/14/1911}

MORE INFO
[1] "Roald Amundsen."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 30 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/roald-amund
sen
[2] "Roald Engelbregt Gravning
Amundsen". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Engel
bregt_Gravning_Amundsen
South Pole2  
[1] Description Nlc
amundsen.jpg English: Roald
Amundsen Date Source Roald
Amundsen's The North West Passage:
Being a Record of a Voyage of
Exploration of the ship Gjøa,
1903-1907; Roald Amundsen. New York:
Dutton, 1908. National Library of
Canada Author [show]Ludwik
Szacinski (1844–1894) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Nlc_amundsen.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 7 8 		4846) The industrial use of bacteria to
produce useful products: bacteria are
grown to produce large quantities of
acetone and butyl alcohol.1 2 3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ N. Qureshi, "Agricultural
residues and energy crops as
potentially eceonomical and novel
substrates for microbial production of
butanol (a biofuel)", in Hemming, D.
Plant Sciences Reviews 2010. CAB
International, 2011. CAB Reviews,
p.249. http://books.google.com/books?id
=xEiC1BZ_Ih8C&pg=PA249
2. ^ Ben-Menahem, A. Historical
Encyclopedia of Natural and
Mathematical Sciences. Springer, 2009.
Springer Reference,
p3216. http://books.google.com/books?id
=9tUrarQYhKMC&pg=PA3216
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654.
4. ^ Fernbach, A.,
and E. H. Strange. "Acetone and higher
alcohols (amyl, butyl or ethyl alcohols
and butyric, propionic or acetic acid)
from starches, sugars and other
carbohydrates." British Patent (1911):
15203-15204. US version:
http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&
vid=USPAT1044368
5. ^ Dworkin, M., and S. Falkow. The
Prokaryotes: Vol. 1: Symbiotic
Associations, Biotechnology, Applied
Microbiology. Springer, 2006. The
Prokaryotes: A Handbook on the Biology
of Bacteria?: Ecophysiology, Isolation,
Identification, Applications. Symbiotic
Associations, Biotechnology, Applied
Microbiology,
p676. http://books.google.com/books?id=
hqh43LFTGBQC&pg=PA676
6. ^ N. Qureshi, "Agricultural residues
and energy crops as potentially
eceonomical and novel substrates for
microbial production of butanol (a
biofuel)", in Hemming, D. Plant
Sciences Reviews 2010. CAB
International, 2011. CAB Reviews,
p.249. http://books.google.com/books?id
=xEiC1BZ_Ih8C&pg=PA249
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p653-654. {1911}
8. ^ N.
Qureshi, "Agricultural residues and
energy crops as potentially eceonomical
and novel substrates for microbial
production of butanol (a biofuel)", in
Hemming, D. Plant Sciences Reviews
2010. CAB International, 2011. CAB
Reviews,
p.249. http://books.google.com/books?id
=xEiC1BZ_Ih8C&pg=PA249

MORE INFO
[1] "Chaim Weizmann."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/639181/Chaim-Weizmann>
[2] "Chaim Weizmann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chaim-weizm
ann
[3] "Weizmann, Chaim." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 14. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 247-248. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904599&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
Pasteur Institute5 and (University of
Manchester) Manchester, England6
 
[1] Chaim Weizmann UNKNOWN
source: http://cojs.org/cojswiki/images/
2/2f/Chaim_Weizmann.jpg

[2] Description
ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg English: Chaim
Weizmann. Date 2006-09-24
(original upload date) Source
Crop of Image:Weizmann Truman
1948.jpg Author Original uploader
was SlimVirgin at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-USGOV. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/91/ChaimWeizmann1948.jpg

89 YBN
[1911 AD] 8 		4908) The theory of atomic isotopes. An
isotope is an element that is
chemically identical to another
element, and occupies the same position
on the periodic table, but has a
different atomic mass.3 4 5

Also that the emission of a helium
nucleus (an alpha particle) reduces the
initial element to a different element
two less in number on the Periodic
Table is recognized.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
2. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665.
4. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The chemistry of mesothorium", J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
5. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
6. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
7. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
8. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/552022/Frederick-Soddy>
[2] "Frederick Soddy." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[4] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[7] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[10] Frederick Soddy, “Contribution
to a Discussion on Isotopes,” in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 99
(1921), 98
[11] D. Strömholm and T.
Svedberg, Zeitschrift für Anorganische
chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12] Frederick
Soddy, The chemistry of the
radio-elements, Part 1,
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Ho86AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland7  
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
.pdf

[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 4 		4937) The first cancer causing virus is
discovered.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
2. ^ "Peyton Rous."
Encyclop�dia Britannica.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/510908/Peyton-Rous>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p678-679.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p678-679. {1911}
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] Francis Peyton Rous
(1879-1970) PD
source: http://www.historiadelamedicina.
org/imagenes/ro.jpg
89 YBN
[1911 AD] 6 7 		5093) A neutral molecular particle beam
is created by heating a metal inside an
evacuated container; molecules in the
vapor then diffuse through a small hole
in an internal wall.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine
thermique", Comptes Rendus,
1911. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k3105c/f592.image {Dunoyer_Louis_19
11xxxx.pdf} "On the kinetic theory of
gases and the production of a radiation
source material of thermal origin"
2. ^ L.
Dunoyer, "Sur la réalisation d’un
rayonnement matériel d’origine
purement thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf
3. ^ "Dunoyer De Segonzac, Louis
Dominique Joseph Armand." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 253-254. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901261&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine",
Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On the kinetic
theory of gases and the production of a
radiation source material"
5. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf
6. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur la théorie
cinétique des gaz et la réalisation
d'un rayonnement matériel d'origine",
Comptes Rendus, 1911. "On the kinetic
theory of gases and the production of a
radiation source material"
7. ^ L. Dunoyer, "Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale" "On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics", Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf

MORE INFO
[1] L. Dunoyer, Comptes Rendus,
152 (1911), 592–595; 153 (1911).
333–336; 154 (1912), 815–818,
1344–1346; 155 (1912), 144–147,
270–273; 157 (1913), 1068–1070; 158
(1914), 1068–1071, 1265–1267,
written with R. W. Wood; Bulletin de la
Société française de physique, four
memoirs between 1912 and 1914; Journal
de physique et radium, 185 (1913);
Collection de mémoirs relatifs à la
physique (1912); Radium, seven memoirs
between 1910 and 1914
(University of Paris) Paris, France4 5
 
[1] Figure 1 from: L. Dunoyer, ''Sur
la réalisation d’un rayonnement
matériel d’origine purement
thermique. Cinétique
expérimentale'' ''On realization of a
material radiation of purely thermal
origin. Experimental kinetics'', Le
Radium,
1911. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4_
142_1.pdf PD
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/24/24/64/PDF/ajp-radium_1911_8_4
_142_1.pdf
88 YBN
[01/05/1912 AD] 4 		5301) Electrophoresis (electricity is
used to separate particles in
liquids).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
2. ^ Arne Tiselius, "A new apparatus
for electrophoretic analysis of
colloidal mixtures", Trans. Faraday
Soc., 1937, 33,
524-531. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content
/ArticleLanding/1937/TF/tf9373300524
3. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
4. ^ Botho Schwerin, "Patent number:
1229203, Filing date: Jan 5, 1912,
Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse {01/05/1912}
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany3  
[1] Figure 1 from; Botho Schwerin,
''Patent number: 1229203, Filing date:
Jan 5, 1912, Issue date: Jun
1917 http://www.google.com/patents?id=C
pBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=CpBAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
88 YBN
[03/03/1912 AD] 4 		4528) The brightness of Cepheid
variable stars is shown to decrease
linearly with the logarithm of their
period of variation; so the brighter
the star, the longer the period. By
comparing the intrinsic brightness from
the period of variation to the apparent
brightness, the distance to the
variable star can be calculated.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 105-106. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 14 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902515&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Leavitt, H. S. & Pickering, E. C.,
"Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the
Small Magellanic Cloud.", Harvard
College Observatory Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false
3. ^ "Leavitt, Henrietta Swan."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 14 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9047
538>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p623. {03/03/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[2] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henrietta-s
wan-leavitt
[3] "Henrietta Swan Leavitt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_S
wan_Leavitt
[4] Henrietta Leavitt, "1777 Variables
in the Magellanic Clouds",Annals of
Harvard College Observatory, 60, no. 4,
Annals of Harvard College Observatory,
vol. 60, pp.87-108,
300,1908. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1908AnHar..60...87L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=zZ
sRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=%22in+the
+spring+of+1904,+a+comparison%22&source=
bl&ots=yphbDnmQ7x&sig=8LvFhlMjNu6d4M8r8b
oi5nb8CRg&hl=en&ei=w0k-TKORGIrqnQf35q3CA
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1
&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%20the
%20spring%20of%201904%2C%20a%20compariso
n%22&f=false
[5] Solon I. Bailey, "Henrietta Swan
Leavitt" (obituary), Popular Astronomy,
V30, N4, April
1922. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rzYiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197&dq=Solon
+I.+Bailey+in+Popular+Astronomy++leavitt
&source=bl&ots=VNqmN_m2oF&sig=xP3jSu5j8h
h_vECKwmtWn_aMaCg&hl=en&ei=7k8_TKiMHY3Ss
AOc0N32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA3  
[1] Table 1 from: Leavitt, H. S. &
Pickering, E. C., ''Periods of 25
Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic
Cloud.'', Harvard College Observatory
Circular, vol. 173,
pp.1-3. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1912HarCi.173....1L
and http://books.google.com/books?id=z7
4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+following+
statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25+va
riable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXGsAO
CzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re
snum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Th
e%20following%20statement%20regarding%20
the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20sta
rs%22&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=z74RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22The+followi
ng+statement+regarding+the+periods+of+25
+variable+stars%22&hl=en&ei=0VM_TMG8BYXG
sAOCzK32CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2
2The%20following%20statement%20regarding
%20the%20periods%20of%2025%20variable%20
stars%22&f=false

[2] Henrietta Swan Leavitt in other
words what she basically made her so
important was because she made a kind
of mesurment used to show that there is
a relationship between the variable
stars and their period. COPYRIGHT BUT
FREE TO USE FOR ANY PURPOSE
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/3b/Leavitt_aavso.jpg
88 YBN
[04/20/1912 AD] 3 		4918) The terms "giant" and "dwarf" are
introduced to describe two kinds of
stars with the same spectrum but
different luminosity, and the first
"white dwarf" star is described.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.", Popular
Astronomy, V22, May 1914, V22, N5,
WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R
2. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name.
3. ^ Henry Norris Russell, "Relations
Between the Spectra and Other
Characteristics of the Stars.",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, V51, N207,
Oct-Dec 1912, pp569-579.
http://books.google.com/books?id=bWccA
AAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:
RnNgEDJS0qgC&hl=en&ei=1LsVTbKAA4T4sAPzif
HHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
 also see the later article by the same
name. {04/20/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Henry Norris Russell."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513190/Henry-Norris-Russell>
[2] "Henry Norris Russell." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/henry-norri
s-russell
[3] "Henry Norris Russell". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Norri
s_Russell
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA.2  
[1] Figure 1 from Henry Norris
Russell, ''Relations Between the
Spectra and Other Characteristics of
the Stars.'', Popular Astronomy, V22,
May 1914, V22, N5, WN215,
p275. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
14PA.....22..275R http://books.google.c
om/books?id=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22
the+single+apparent+exception+is+the+fai
nt%22&hl=en&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi
=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20
single%20apparent%20exception%20is%20the
%20faint%22&f=false continued
at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
PA.....22..331R PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4QryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA286&dq=%22the+single+
apparent+exception+is+the+faint%22&hl=en
&ei=iSDnTP63MoWglAe-96SkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC4
Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22the%20single%20ap
parent%20exception%20is%20the%20faint%22
&f=false

[2] Henry Norris Russell UNKNOWN
source: http://www.optcorp.com/images2/a
rticles/full-russell.jpg
88 YBN
[05/04/1912 AD] 4 		4939) The diffraction of x-rays by
atomic planes in a crystal of zinc
sulfide is discovered. The wavelength
(or particle interval) of x-rays is
determined to be around 10 picometers
which is smaller than ultraviolet
light, and this suggests that x-rays
are very high frequency light.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Friedrich, W., P. Knipping, and
M. V. Laue. "Interferenz-Erscheinungen
bei Röntgenstrahlen", Sitzungsberichte
der Mathematisch–physikalische Klasse
der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Munchen, , V42, 1912,
p303-322. Reprinted in: W. Friedrich,
P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} English:
"Interference Phenomena with Rontgen
Rays." J. J. Stezowski, in "Structural
Crystallography in Chemistry and
Biology", 1981,
p23-39. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=pKEsAAAAYAAJ
2. ^ Friedrich, W., P. Knipping, and M.
V. Laue. "Interferenz-Erscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Sitzungsberichte der
Mathematisch–physikalische Klasse der
Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Munchen, , V42, 1912,
p303-322. Reprinted in: W. Friedrich,
P. Knipping, M. Laue,
"Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen", Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} English:
"Interference Phenomena with Rontgen
Rays." J. J. Stezowski, in "Structural
Crystallography in Chemistry and
Biology", 1981,
p23-39. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=pKEsAAAAYAAJ
3. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Laue, Max von." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 50-53. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902495&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {05/04/1912} {announced)
05/04/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Max von Laue." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-von-lau
e
[2] "Max von Laue". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Lau
e
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1914/laue-bio.html
[4] M. Laue, "Die Mitführung des
Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem
Relativitätsprinzip", Annalen der
Physik, Volume 328, Issue 10, pages
989–990,
1907. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19073281015/abstract {La
ue_Max_19070730.pdf}
(University of Munich) Munich, Germany3
 
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf

[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
88 YBN
[07/16/1912 AD] 4 		5203) Cathode rays are shown to
disintegrate molecules and atoms.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf}
2. ^ M. W. Garrett, "Experiments upon
the Reported Transmutation of Mercury
into Gold", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
September 1, 1926
112:391-406. http://rspa.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/112/761/391.full.pd
f+html {Garrett_M_W_19260714.pdf}
3. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf}
4. ^ WILLIAM RAMSAY, "Experiments with
Kathode Rays", Nature 89, 502-502 (18
July 1912)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
89/n2229/abs/089502b0.html {Ramsay_Will
iam_19120716.pdf} {07/16/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Ramsay." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[2] "William Ramsay." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[3] "William Ramsay." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 04 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-ram
say
[4] "William Ramsay". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ram
say
[5]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html
[6] William Ramsay, "The gases of the
atmosphere: the history of their
discovery", 1896. 1896
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=zRBDAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay&source
=gbs_navlinks_s 1905
edition: http://books.google.com/books?
id=bjQJAAAAIAAJ&dq=William+Ramsay
[7] William Ramsay, "On a Gas Showing
the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed
Cause of D3, One of the Lines in the
Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note.",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Vol. 58, (1895), pp.
65-67. http://books.google.com/books?id
=EggWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65&dq=On+a+Gas+Showin
g+the+Spectrum+of+Helium,+the+Reputed+Ca
use+of+D+3,+One+of+the+Lines+in+%E2%80%A
6+date:1895-1895#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[8] "helium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/helium
[9] Ramsay, "On a new constituent of
atmospheric air", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, volume: 63,
1898,
p405. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[10]
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Arch
ive/elements-116-118.html
[11] William Crookes, "On the Position
of Helium, Argon, and Krypton in the
Scheme of Elements.", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, (1898)
volume: 63 page:
408. http://books.google.com/books?id=x
AAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+constit
uent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:1898
-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20constit
uent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%2
0date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[12] Ramsay, "On the Companions of
Argon", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, volume: 63, 1898,
p437. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xAAWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405&dq=On+a+new+consti
tuent+of+atmospheric+air+ramsay+date:189
8-1898#v=onepage&q=On%20a%20new%20consti
tuent%20of%20atmospheric%20air%20ramsay%
20date%3A1898-1898&f=false
[13] "xenon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 04 Nov.
2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/xenon
[14] "Ramsay, William." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 11. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 277-284. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 4 Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
(University College) London, England3
 
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on

[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
88 YBN
[08/??/1912 AD] 5 6 7 		4274) That the same element can hold
different electric charges is shown.1 2
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Thomson, J-J_. "XIX. Further
experiments on positive rays." The
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of
Science 24.140 (1912): 209-253.
http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bib
liography/58679#/summary {Philosophical
_Magazine_Volume24_1912.pdf}
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Multiply-charged
atoms.", Phil. Mag. 24, 1912,
668. http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM19
12.2/Main/icm1912.2.0275.0278.ocr.pdf h
ttp://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/biblio
graphy/58679#/summary {Philosophical_Ma
gazine_Volume24_1912.pdf}
3. ^ "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
4. ^ Thomson, J. J., Multiply-charged
atoms (International Congress of
Mathematicians, Cambridge, August
1912).
5. ^ Thomson, J-J_. "XIX. Further
experiments on positive rays." The
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of
Science 24.140 (1912): 209-253.
http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bib
liography/58679#/summary {Philosophical
_Magazine_Volume24_1912.pdf}
6. ^ Thomson, J. J. "LXV.
Multiply-charged atoms." The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 24.142
(1912):
668-672. http://www.biodiversitylibrary
.org/bibliography/58679#/summary {Philo
sophical_Magazine_Volume24_1912.pdf}
7. ^ Thomson, J. J., "Multiply-charged
atoms.", Phil. Mag. 24, 1912,
668. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org
/bibliography/58679#/summary {Philosoph
ical_Magazine_Volume24_1912.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[13] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[14] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[15] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[16]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[17] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[18] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[19]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[20] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[21] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[22] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[23] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911, p455
[25] Thomson, J. J., "A new
method of chemical analysis (Royal
Institution lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy.
Instn. 20, 1911, p140
[26] Thomson, J. J.,
"The unit theory of light.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 16, 1912, 643
[27]
Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity (Bakerian lecture).", Proc.
Roy. Soc. A. 89, 1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
[28] Thomson, J. J., "Further
applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical problems.", Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913, p201
[29]
Thomson, J. J., "On rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 13, May 1907,
561. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
VjKOdktZhsC&pg=PA561&dq=%22positive+elec
tricity%22+thomson+intitle:philosophical
&hl=en&ei=QvunS8rYCYywsgOqy4SpDQ&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDk
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22positive%20electr
icity%22%20thomson%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical&f=false
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Thomson, J. J. ''LXV.
Multiply-charged atoms.'' The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science 24.142
(1912):
668-672. http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/I
CM1912.2/Main/icm1912.2.0275.0278.ocr.pd
f {Thompson_p668_1912.pdf} PD AND En
glish physicist J J Thomson Date
GWS - The Great War: The Standard
History of the All Europe Conflict
(volume four) edited by H. W. Wilson
and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated Press,
London 1915) (So, it is taken before
1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM
1912.2/Main/icm1912.2.0275.0278.ocr.pdfh
ttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com
mons/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg

[2] figure 1 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
88 YBN
[10/??/1912 AD] 5 		4912) That beta decay (the emission of
a high-speed electron) results in an
atom moving up one place on the
periodic table is recognized.1 2 3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Alexander Russell, "The Periodic
System and the Radio-Elements.", The
Chemical News, V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
}
2. ^ Alexander Smith Russell, Chemical
News, 1913, 107, p49.
3. ^ Frederick Soddy,
"The Radio-elements and the Periodic
Law", Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
4. ^ Alexander S. Russell, "The
Penetrating Power of the γ -Rays from
Radium C", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character Vol. 88, No. 600 (Jan. 29,
1913), pp. 75-82
http://www.jstor.org/stable/93161
5. ^ Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html {10/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and A. S.
Russell, "The Excitation of γ -Rays by
the α -Rays of Ionium and
Radiothorium", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character Vol. 88, No. 602
(Mar. 31, 1913), pp. 217-229
[2] J. Chadwick,
A. S. Russell, "Excitation of γ rays
by α rays", Nature, v90, n2252,
p463. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v90/n2252/pdf/090463a0.pdf
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland4 (verify) 
[1] Table from: Alexander Russell,
''The Periodic System and the
Radio-Elements.'', The Chemical News,
V107, N2775, 01/31/1913,
p49-52. {Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
} PD
source: Russell_Alexander_19130131.pdf
88 YBN
[11/11/1912 AD] 11 12 		4404) Diffraction is explained as
particle reflection.6 7 The dispersion
of light by a crystal (grating, or
prism) into a spectrum of increasing
frequencies is given a corpuscular
explanation: that particles of the same
spacing as planes of atoms in a crystal
(or grating grooves in a grating), at a
specific angle of incidence, all
reflect in the same direction.8

The grating equation is applied to the
phenomenon of X-ray diffraction by
crystals and this is used to make
accurate determinations of the
wavelengths (or particle intervals) of
X-rays.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pdf}

2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
4. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
7. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf}
10. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
11. ^ Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} {11/11/1912}
12. ^ William Lawrence Bragg,
"The Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false {12/08/1904}
{12/08/1912} {and Nature article:
12/08/1912}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
(Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England10  
[1] Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f PD
source: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of
Short Electromagnetic Waves by a
Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. http://tedhuntington.com/ulsf/do
cs_pd/Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.pd
f

[2] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
pdf
88 YBN
[1912 AD] 4 		6262) The first radio broadcast: from
the Metropolitan Opera House in New
York City.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p612,646-647.
2. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p74.
3. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p74.
4. ^ Yenne and
Grosser, "100 Inventions That Shaped
World History", 1993, p74. {01/13/1910}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lee De Forest." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 09 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[2] "De Forest, Lee." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 6-7. Gale Virtual Reference
Library. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901119&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Lee De Forest". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Fore
st
[4] diathermy. (n.d.) Dorland's Medical
Dictionary for Health Consumers.
(2007). Retrieved September 9 2010 from
http://medical-dictionary.thefreediction
ary.com/diathermy
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p411
[6]
Lee De Forest, "Space Telegraphy",
Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan
29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[7] "Lee De Forest." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
09 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lee-de-fore
st
[8] "De Forest, Lee." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 9 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9029
588>
(Metropolitan Opera House) New York
City, New York, USA3  
[1] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg

[2] Lee de Forest 1873 -
1961 UNKNOWN
source: http://washington.uwc.edu/about/
mech.johnson/mech4gen/images/deForest.JP
G
87 YBN
[01/27/1913 AD] 3 4 		4272) The theory of isotopes is
experimentally confirmed. Different
isotopes of neon are deflected onto
different parts of a photograph using a
mass spectrometer.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>.
2. ^ Thomson, J. J., "The unit theory
of light.", Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1912, 643.
{Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p561-563. {1912}
4. ^
Thomson, J. J., "Further applications
of positive rays to the study of
chemical problems.", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Joseph John Thomson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Joseph_
John_Thomson
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html
[3] "Sir Joseph John Thomson." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 03
Mar. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-joseph-
john-thomson-1
[4] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[5] J. J. Thomson, "On the Rate of
Propagation of the Luminous Discharge
of Electricity through a Rarefied
Gas", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. January 1,
1890 49:84-100;
doi:10.1098/rspl.1890.0071 http://books
.google.com/books?id=jAUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8
4&dq=%22the+velocity+of+propagation%22+o
f+electric+discharge+through+gases+thoms
on&as_brr=1&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22the%20ve
locity%20of%20propagation%22%20of%20elec
tric%20discharge%20through%20gases%20tho
mson&f=false
[6] J. J. Thomson, "On the velocity of
the cathode-rays.", Phil. Mag. 38,
1894,
p358. http://books.google.com/books?id=
TVQwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA358&dq=On+the+velocity
+of+the+cathode-rays&as_brr=1&cd=3#v=one
page&q=On%20the%20velocity%20of%20the%20
cathode-rays&f=false
[7] J. J. Thomson and E. Rutherford,
"On the passage of electricity gases
exposed to Rontgen-rays.", Phil. Mag.,
S.5, V. 42, N. 258, Nov 1896,
p392. http://books.google.com/books?id=
cbRw3OxLhUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:UOM39015024088687&lr=#v=onepage&q=t
homson&f=false
[8] J.J. Thomson, "Experiments to show
that negative electricity is given off
by a metal exposed to R6ntgen-rays."
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 12, 1903, p312
[9]
J.J. Thomson, (With J. A. MCCLELLAND.)
On the leakage of electricity
through dielectrics traversed by
Rontgen-rays. Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc. 9, 1896, 126
[10] J. J. Thomson, "On
the discharge of electricity produced
by the Rontgen-rays." Proc. Roy. Soc.
59, 1896, 274
[11] Sir Joseph John Thomson,
Applications of dynamics to physics and
chemistry,
1888. http://books.google.com/books?id=
zWYSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=%22electricity+b
ehaves+in+some+respects%22&cd=2#v=onepag
e&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%20some
%20respects%22&f=false http://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=cOLUiUml_qgC&pg=PA32&lp
g=PA32&dq=%22electricity+behaves+in+some
+respects%22&source=bl&ots=HRChO2-Ci-&si
g=yjqoyERWPc1b8Byyk6rU7JtujMQ&hl=en&ei=m
YyaS6vTA4TCsgOW6PCtAQ&sa=X&oi=book_resul
t&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=o
nepage&q=%22electricity%20behaves%20in%2
0some%20respects%22&f=false
[12] "Joseph John Thomson. 1856-1940",
Rayleigh G. Strutt, Obituary Notices of
Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 3,
No. 10 (Dec., 1941), pp. 587-609, The
Royal
Society http://www.jstor.org/stable/769
169
Thomson_Joseph_John_obituary_1941.pdf
[13] Henry Crew, "The Rise of Modern
Physics", Williams and Wilkens, 1935,
edition 2, p319-320
[14] "Thomson, Joseph John."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 362-372. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Mar.
2010
[15] Thomson, J. J., "The Existence of
Bodies Smaller Than Atoms", Notices of
the proceedings at the meetings of the
members of the ..., Volume 16,
04/19/1901. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=YvoAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA574&dq=The+e
xistence+of+bodies+smaller+than+atoms+th
omson&lr=&cd=2#v=onepage&q=The%20existen
ce%20of%20bodies%20smaller%20than%20atom
s%20thomson&f=false
[16] Thomson J J 1897a 'Cathode Rays'
Royal Institution Friday Evening
Discourse, 30 April 1897, published in
The Electrician 21 May 1897, p104–9
[17]
Isobel Falconer, "J J Thomson and the
discovery of the electron", 1997 Phys.
Educ. 32
226 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-912
0/32/4/015)
[18] "Thomson, Sir J.J.." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 3 Mar. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9072
205>
[19] Thomson, J. J., "On the ions
produced by incandescent platinum.",
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. II, 1901, 509
[20]
Thomson, J. J., "On the Masses of the
Ions in Gases at Low Pressures", Phil
Mag, S5, V48, N295, Dec 1899,
p547. http://books.google.com/books?id=
il4wAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA557&dq=On+the+ions+pro
duced+by+incandescent+platinum&cd=1#v=on
epage&q=On%20the%20ions%20produced%20by%
20incandescent%20platinum&f=false
[21] Do the gamma-rays carry a charge
of negative electricity? Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. 13, 1905,
p121. http://books.google.com/books?id=
7x7WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA396&dq=Thomson+do+the+
gamma+rays+intitle:philosophical+carry+c
harge&hl=en&ei=6bqiS9H4BoS8sgO9g6X6Aw&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20do%20
the%20gamma%20rays%20intitle%3Aphilosoph
ical%20carry%20charge&f=false
[22] Thomson, Joseph John, "On the
number of corpuscles in an atom.",
Phil. Mag. II, 769,
1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=
GNjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA769&dq=thomson+On+the+
number+of+corpuscles+in+an+atom&as_brr=1
&cd=1#v=onepage&q=thomson%20On%20the%20n
umber%20of%20corpuscles%20in%20an%20atom
&f=false
[23] J. J. Thomson, "Bakerian Lecture:
Rays of Positive Electricity",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93452
?&Search=yes&term=%22Rays+of+Positive+El
ectricity%22&list=hide&searchUri=%2Facti
on%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522Rays%2
Bof%2BPositive%2BElectricity%2522%26x%3D
0%26y%3D0%26wc%3Don&item=1&ttl=46&return
ArticleService=showArticle
[24] Thomson, J. J., "Rays of positive
electricity.", Phil. Mag. 21, Oct 1911,
p225
[25] Thomson, J. J., "Applications of
positive rays to the study of chemical
reactions.",Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 16,
1911, p455
[26] Thomson, J. J., "A new
method of chemical analysis (Royal
Institution lecture).", Not. Proc. Roy.
Instn. 20, 1911, p140
[27] Thomson, J. J.,
"Rays of positive electricity (Bakerian
lecture).", Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89,
1913,
p1. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/cana
l.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/93452.pdf
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Thomson, J. J., ''Further
applications of positive rays to the
study of chemical problems.'', Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 17, 01/27/1913,
p201. {Thomson_Joseph_John_1911xxxx.pdf
} PD AND English physicist J J
Thomson Date GWS - The Great War:
The Standard History of the All Europe
Conflict (volume four) edited by H. W.
Wilson and J. A. Hammerton (Amalgamated
Press, London 1915) (So, it is taken
before 1915) Source
http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/g
raphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg First World
War.com PD
source: http://www.firstworldwar.com/pho
tos/graphics/gws_thomson_01.jpg

[2] figure 1 from: # Bakerian
Lecture: Rays of Positive
Electricity # J. J. Thomson #
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 89, No. 607 (Aug. 1, 1913), pp.
1-20 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9345
2?&Search=yes&term=electricity&term=posi
tive&term=rays&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fac
tion%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Drays%2Bof
%2Bpositive%2Belectricity%26jc%3Dj100836
%26wc%3Don%26Search.x%3D0%26Search.y%3D0
%26Search%3DSearch&item=1&ttl=262&return
ArticleService=showArticle
87 YBN
[04/05/1913 AD] 4 5 		5005) The Bohr model of the atom: that
electrons move in fixed circular orbits
around a stationary positive nucleus
with momentum=h/2pi (h is Planck's
constant). The electrons give off or
absorb fixed amounts of energy (quanta)
by moving from one orbit to another.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ N. Bohr, "On the constitution of
atoms and molecules", (Parts 1, 2 and
3), Phil. Mag., Series 6, Volume
26 July 1913, p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf {Bohr_Niels_191307xx.p
df}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p423.
3. ^ "Niels Bohr." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/71670/Niels-Bohr>.
4. ^ N. Bohr, "On the constitution of
atoms and molecules", (Parts 1, 2 and
3), Phil. Mag., Series 6, Volume
26 July 1913, p.
1-25. http://www.fizika.unios.hr/~iluka
cevic/dokumenti/materijali_za_studente/q
m1/Bohr_1913.pdf {Bohr_Niels_191307xx.p
df} {04/05/1913}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p700-702. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bohr, Niels Henrik David."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 239-254. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900505&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Niels Bohr". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England3  
[1] Immediate source:
http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billede:Nie
ls_Bohr.jpg Ultimate source: Niels
Bohr's Nobel Prize biography, from
1922. Status: Public domain in US at
least because of age, probably
elsewhere. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg
87 YBN
[05/28/1913 AD] 6 7 		4932) The general theory of
relativity,3 space and time are
restricted to a curved surface
geometry4 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ A. Einstein, M.
Grossmann, "Entwurf einer
verallgemeinerten Relativitätstheorie
und eine Theorie der Gravitation. I.
Physikalischer Teil von A. Einstein II.
Mathematischer Teil von M. Grossmann",
Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik,
62, 225–244, 245–261. "Outline of
a Generalized Theory of Relativity and
of a Theory of Gravitation. I. Physical
Part by A. Einstein II. Mathematical
Part by M. Grossmann" The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The
Swiss years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Albert Einstein."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
6. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf}
{before 05/28/1913}
7. ^ A. Einstein, M. Grossmann,
"Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten
Relativitätstheorie und eine Theorie
der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil
von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil
von M. Grossmann", Zeitschrift für
Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–244,
245–261. "Outline of a Generalized
Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of
Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A.
Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M.
Grossmann" The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein: Vol 4, The Swiss
years: writings,
1912-1914 http://books.google.com/books
?id=d047AQAAIAAJ&dq=editions:dYpwdLWNR2c
C&hl=en&ei=GDwYTeOrOoissAPHu6zwCg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC
gQ6AEwATgK
{Einstein_Albert_19130528.pdf} {1913}


MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Einstein."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/181349/Albert-Einstein>
[2] "Albert Einstein." The Oxford
Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford
University Press, 1994, 1996, 2005.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[3] "Albert Einstein." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[4] "Albert Einstein." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-eins
tein
[5] "Einstein, Albert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 312-319. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901295&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[6] "Albert Einstein". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Eins
tein
[7] A. Einstein, "Über einen die
Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes
betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
132–148. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_132-148.pdf "On a Heuristic
Point of View Concerning the Production
and Transformation of
Light" http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de
/~kleinert/files/eins_lq.pdf
[8] http://www.alberteinstein.info/
[9]
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleine
rt/files/
[10] A. Einstein, "Über die von der
molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen",
Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17,
549–560, (Einstein's
thesis) http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.
de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_
17_549-560.pdf "On the Movement of
Small Particles Suspended in Stationary
Liquids Required by the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat" http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~k
leinert/files/eins_brownian.pdf
[11] A. Einstein, "Elektrodynamik
bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik
(ser. 4), 17,
891–921. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_17_891-921.pdf "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~klei
nert/files/eins_specrel.pdf
[12] A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit
eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt
abhängig?", Annalen der Physik (ser.
4), 18,
639–641. http://www.physik.uni-augsbu
rg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/19
05_18_639-641.pdf "Does the Inertia
of a Body Depend upon its Energy
Content?" http://users.physik.fu-berlin
.de/~kleinert/files/e_mc2.pdf
[13] Herbert Dingle, "Science at a
Crossroads", 1972
[14] Charles Lane Poor,
"Gravitation Versus Relativity", 1922,
[15]
A. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip und
die aus demselben gezogenen
Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der
Radioaktivität, 4,
411–462. http://www.soso.ch/wissen/hi
st/SRT/E-1907.pdf "On the Relativity
Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
from It" in: Albert Einstein; Anna
Beck; Peter Havas, "The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein", Princeton
University Press, v2, The Swiss years,
writings, 1900-1909, 1987,
p252. http://books.google.com/books?id=
J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252&dq=%22Ne
wton%27s+equations+of+motion+retain+thei
r+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77uKF1&sig=T
cTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=en&ei=8ioY
Tc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&c
t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onep
age&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations%20of%20m
otion%20retain%20their%20form%22&f=false
http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching
/GR&Grav_2007/pdf/Einstein_1907.pdf
(incomplete) http://books.google.com/
books?id=J-zv71syXJMC&pg=PA252&lpg=PA252
&dq=%22Newton%27s+equations+of+motion+re
tain+their+form%22&source=bl&ots=2Bi_77u
KF1&sig=TcTVzfwQqa0fow68kOufCjlS9ls&hl=e
n&ei=8ioYTc2ZHYzEsAO58ZGKCw&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=%22Newton%27s%20equations
%20of%20motion%20retain%20their%20form%2
2&f=false
[16] Albert Einstein; Anna Beck; Peter
Havas, "The Collected Papers of Albert
Einstein", Princeton University Press,
1987
[17] "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen
Relativitaetstheorie" http://users.phys
ik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/1916_49_
769-822.pdf
[18] Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity?", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1922PA.....30..199P
(Federal Institute of Technology)
Zurich, Switzerland5  
[1] Description German-born
theoretical physicist Albert
Einstein. Source Cropped from
original at the Historical Museum of
Berne. Date 1904[1] Author
Lucien Chavan [1] (1868 - 1942), a
friend of Einstein's when he was living
in Berne. Permission (Reusing this
file) An uncropped version
available at NASA's ''Astronomy Picture
of the Day''. According to the NASA
site: PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg

[2] Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize in
Physics 1921 photograph. Description
Albert Einstein (Nobel).png English:
Albert Einstein, official 1921 Nobel
Prize in Physics photograph. Français
: Albert Einstein, photographie
officielle du Prix Nobel de Physique
1921. Date 1921(1921) Source
Official 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics photograph Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28No
bel%29.png
87 YBN
[07/30/1913 AD] 6 		4407) A monochromatic x-ray beam of
known wavelength is used to determine
the distance between parallel atomic
planes in crystals that reflect the
particles in the beam.1 2 3 This is
the beginning of using x-ray
"diffraction" to determine the shape
and the position of each atom in a
molecule.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf}
2. ^ William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
3. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913; W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913.
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ W. H.
Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The Structure
of the Diamond.", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 89, No. 610
(Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle {Bragg
s_19130730.pdf} {07/30/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[13] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p724-725
[15] W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July
[16] W. L.
Bragg, "The diffraction of short
electromagnetic waves by a crystal",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 17 (1913),
43–57
(University of Leeds) Leeds, England5
 
[1] Description William Henry Bragg
2.jpg William H. Bragg Date
Source
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/archive/9/95/20081225183229!W
illiam_Henry_Bragg.jpg Author
uploaded by User:Emerson7 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/William_Henry_Bragg_2
.jpg

[2] Description
Wl-bragg.jpg English: Lawrence
Bragg Date 1915(1915) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1915/wl-bragg-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Wl-bragg.jpg
87 YBN
[10/20/1913 AD] 9 		4863) The Andromeda galaxy is claimed
to have a very high velocity relative
to the Earth.3 4
From Doppler shift
Andromeda is estimated to be moving
towards the Earth with an average
radial velocity of 300 km/s,5 1/100th
the speed of light6 , the highest
velocity ever observed.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
2. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
3. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
4. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
5. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22, 1914,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Vesto Slipher." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
8. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf}
9. ^ Slipher, V. M., "The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S {Slipher_19131020
.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[4] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[5] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[6] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[7] Hartmann, J., "Investigations on
the spectrum and orbit of delta
Orionis.", Astrophys. J., 19, 268-286
(1904). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1904ApJ....19..268H
[8] "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>
[9] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA8  
[1] Slipher, V. M., ''The radial
velocity of the Andromeda Nebula'',
Lowell Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.56-57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1913LowOB...2...56S
{Slipher_19131020.pdf} PD AND [1]
Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913LowOB...2...56Shttp://www.phys-astro.
sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Slipher/sliphe
r.jpg

[2] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
87 YBN
[12/04/1913 AD] 3 		4910) That the electrons of beta decay
originate from the nucleus and not the
outer ring is given as evidence that
there is negative charge in the
nucleus.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
2. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html
3. ^ Frederick Soddy, “Intra-atomic
Charge,” Nature, V92, N2301, (4 Dec.
1913), p399.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
92/n2301/pdf/092399c0.pdf
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/sodd
y.html {12/04/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frederick Soddy." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[2] "Frederick Soddy." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
oddy
[3] "Frederick Soddy". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_S
oddy
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1921/soddy.html
[5] Frederick Soddy, "Science and life:
Aberdeen adresses",
1920. http://books.google.com/books?id=
nHVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=frederick+soddy&source=g
bs_navlinks_s
[6] Frederick Soddy, "Matter and
Energy",
1911. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iKQLAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=fred
erick+soddy&hl=en&ei=i2QUTfmqL5O6sAPIxoj
tCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
[7] Alexander Fleck, "Frederick Soddy."
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the
Royal Society. November 1, 1957
3:203-216;
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014 http://www.j
stor.org/stable/769361
[8] Frederick Soddy, "The Structure of
the Atom", Nature, v92, n2303, 1913,
p452
[9] Frederick Soddy, "The
Radio-elements and the Periodic Law",
Chemical News 107, p97
(1913) http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/s
oddycn.html
{Soddy_Frederick_19130218.pdf}
[10] Soddy, “Radioactivity,” Annual
Report, 7 (1910), 286
[11] D. Strömholm
and T. Svedberg, Zeitschrift für
Anorganische chemie, 63 (1909), 206
[12]
Frederick Soddy, "The chemistry of
mesothorium", J. Chem. Soc., Trans.,
1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland2  
[1] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg

[2] Frederick Soddy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rsc.org/images/Soddy%
20HiRes_180h_tcm18-136506.jpg
87 YBN
[12/??/1913 AD] 6 		5039) The frequency of secondary x-rays
emitted from atoms is shown to increase
with atomic mass.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
3. ^ H Moseley, "The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements", Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p713-714.
5. ^ "Moseley, Henry
Gwyn Jeffreys." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 542-545.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 31
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903063&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ H Moseley, "The high-frequency
spectra of the elements", Phil. Mag,
V26, p1024-1034, 1913
http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_mosel
ey_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_191312xx.
pdf} {12/1913}

MORE INFO
[1] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C. G.,
"The Reflection of the X-Rays.",Nature,
Volume 90, Issue 2257, pp. 594
(1913). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
913Natur..90Q.594M
[2] H Moseley, "Atomic models and X-ray
spectra", Nature, Volume 92, Issue
2307, pp. 554
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
914Natur..92..554M
[3] H Moseley, "The number of ions
produced by the β and γ radiations
from radium", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1914
[4] Moseley, H.; Darwin, C.
G., "The Reflexion of X Rays",
Philosophical Magazine, 26 (1913),
p210–232
[5] Moseley, H., "The Number of β
Particles Emitted in the
Transformations of Radium", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 87A
(1912), 230–255;
(University of Manchester) Machester,
England5  
[1] Plate from: H Moseley, ''The
high-frequency spectra of the
elements'', Phil. Mag, V26, p1024-1034,
1913 http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_m
oseley_article.htm {Moseley_Henry_19131
2xx.pdf} PD
source: Moseley_Henry_191312xx.pdf

[2] Henry Moseley, British physicist.
from en. Died in 1915. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Henry_Moseley.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 4 5 		4361) Vitamins A and B, and their
importance in the growth process are
discovered.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Elmer Verner McCollum." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/elmer-verne
r-mccollum
2. ^ "McCollum, Elmer Verner." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 590-591. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ "Osborne, Thomas Burr." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 241-244. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Osborne, Thomas Burr." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 241-244. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903245&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1913}
5. ^ "McCollum, Elmer
Verner." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 590-591.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24
May 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902726&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Elmer Verner McCollum".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer_Verne
r_McCollum
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p671-672
(University of Wisconsin) Wisconsin,
USA2 3  
[1] Description Elmer
McCollum.jpg English: Elmer
McCollum Date 2008-03-03
(original upload date) (Original text
: 1896) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Magnus Manske using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : Elmer
McCollum.com) Author Journal of
Nutrition Original uploader was
Sparrowman980 at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ee/Elmer_McCollum.jpg
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 4 		4963) The "Geiger counter"; which
detects high velocity subatomic
particles.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688.
2. ^ H Geiger, "A
method of counting alpha and beta
rays", Deutsch Phys Ges, 1913
3. ^ "Geiger,
Hans (Johannes) Wilhelm." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 330-333. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901600&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688. {1913}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Geiger." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/227810/Hans-Geiger>
[2] "Hans Geiger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/geiger-joha
nnes-wilhelm
[3] Walter Makower, Hans Geiger,
"Practical measurements in
radio-activity",
1912 http://books.google.com/books?hl=e
n&lr=&id=el9DAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=H
.+Geiger&ots=k5qZOjwAMG&sig=2SVeUiGDuE5G
vCdJsV_nxbxUmR4#v=onepage&q=H.%20Geiger&
f=false
[4] H. Geiger; J. M. Nuttall, "The
ranges of the α particles from
uranium", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 23, Issue 135,
1912, Pages 439 – 445
(Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt)
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Figure 1: Rutherford-Geiger alpha
particle counter design Figure 2:
Geiger 1912 design UNKNOWN
source: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retri
eve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANC
E&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=un
ivca20&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultList
Type=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchT
ype=AdvancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&cont
entSet=GALE

[2] Description Geiger,Hans
1928.jpg English: Physicist Hans
Geiger, 1928 Deutsch: Physiker Hans
Geiger, 1928 Date 1928 Source
Own work Author GFHund GNU
source: CX2830901600&&docId=GALE
87 YBN
[1913 AD] 3 		6614) That a rocket with an initial
mass of 200 pounds can achieve a
velocity high enough for a 1-pound mass
to escape the Earth is determined.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
2. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[3] Goddard, "A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes", Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
http://www.clarku.edu/research/archive
s/pdf/ext_altitudes.pdf {Goddard_Robert
_1946.pdf}
AND {Goddard_Method_of_Reaching_Extreme
_Altitude_1919.pdf}
[4] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s
Rockets" (New York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent
1,102,653 - Rocket apparatus - R. H.
Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA2 (presumably) 
[1] Goddard, ''A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes'', Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
http://www.clarku.edu/research/archive
s/pdf/ext_altitudes.pdf {Goddard_Robert
_1946.pdf}
AND {Goddard_Method_of_Reaching_Extreme
_Altitude_1919.pdf} PD AND [3]
Robert Goddard Teaching at
Blackboard Physicist Robert Goddard
draws a diagram of the Earth and Moon
on a blackboard at Clark
College. DATE PHOTOGRAPHED January
10, 1924 LOCATION Worcester,
Massachusetts,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.clarku.edu/research/a
rchives/pdf/ext_altitudes.pdf http://ww
w.corbisimages.com/images/BE063673.jpg?s
ize=67&uid=597e78d9-169f-4405-9ef2-7f7e1
e0b36dc&uniqID=459fdfbe-41d0-42cc-a473-c
b3a2430c019

[2] Robert Goddard Teaching at
Blackboard Physicist Robert Goddard
draws a diagram of the Earth and Moon
on a blackboard at Clark
College. DATE PHOTOGRAPHED January
10, 1924 LOCATION Worcester,
Massachusetts,
USA COLLECTION Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.corbisimages.com/imag
es/BE063673.jpg?size=67&uid=597e78d9-169
f-4405-9ef2-7f7e1e0b36dc&uniqID=459fdfbe
-41d0-42cc-a473-cb3a2430c019
86 YBN
[05/??/1914 AD] 4 5 		5085) Gamma rays from radioactivity are
found to have wavelengths in the X-ray
region.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
2. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
3. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf}
{05/1914}
5. ^ E. Rutherford, E. N. DA C.
Andrade, "The Wavelength of the Soft
Gamma Rays from Radium B.",
Philosophical Magazine 27, 1914,
854–868.

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England3  
[1] Figures from: [1] E. Rutherford,
''The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays
from Radium B.'', Philosophical
Magazine 27, 1914, 854–868;
{Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf} PD
source: Rutherford_Ernest_191405xx.pdf

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
86 YBN
[07/28/1914 AD] 5 6 		4792) Sound is recorded and played back
with motion pictures on plastic film.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Sipilä, Kari (April 2004). "A
Country That Innovates". Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland. Retrieved
2009-12-08. "Eric Tigerstedt". Film
Sound Sweden. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspeg
el/tigerstedt.html See also A. M.
Pertti Kuusela, E.M.C Tigerstedt
"Suomen Edison" (Insinööritieto Oy:
1981).
2. ^ Sipilä, Kari (April 2004). "A
Country That Innovates". Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland. Retrieved
2009-12-08. "Eric Tigerstedt". Film
Sound Sweden. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspeg
el/tigerstedt.html See also A. M.
Pertti Kuusela, E.M.C Tigerstedt
"Suomen Edison" (Insinööritieto Oy:
1981).
3. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "Eric Tigerstedt".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Tigers
tedt {07/28/1914}
6. ^
http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/backspegel
/tigerstedt.html {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] Eric Tigerstedt German Patent
#309535, 1914
Berlin, Germany3 (verify4 ) 
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg

[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 4 		4879) The method of "spectral
parallax"1 : the distance to a star can
be determined by comparing the
intensity of spectral lines of the star
with another star with the same
spectrum at a known distance.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
2. ^ Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=voDkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385
AND http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
ApJ....40..385A
3. ^ "Walter Sydney Adams." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 10 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-sydn
ey-adams
4. ^ Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
"Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.", Contrib. Mt. Wilson Solar
Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=voDkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385
AND http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1914
ApJ....40..385A {07/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Adams." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 09 Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/5195/Walter-Sydney-Adams>
[2] "Walter Sydney Adams". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sydn
ey_Adams
[3] W. Adams, “The Spectrum of the
Companion of Sirius.”, Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, 27 (1915),
236–237. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=p6nnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA237&dq=The+Spectr
um+of+the+Companion+of+Sirius+adams&hl=e
n&ei=leXZTMGRLJO-sAPvhYiOCA&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEw
AA#v=onepage&q=The%20Spectrum%20of%20the
%20Companion%20of%20Sirius%20adams&f=fal
se
[4] Walter Adams, "A Spectroscopic
Method of Determining Parallaxes",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 2 (1916), 147–152;
http://books.google.com/books?id=eu8SA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=A+Spectroscopic+Meth
od+of+Determining+Parallaxes&hl=en&ei=Je
jZTPLHDpK2sAOp-6X5Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=on
epage&q=A%20Spectroscopic%20Method%20of%
20Determining%20Parallaxes&f=false
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Pasadena,
California, USA3  
[1] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf

[2] Adams, W. S. and Kohlschutter, A.,
''Some spectral criteria for the
determination of absolute stellar
magnitudes.'', Contrib. Mt. Wilson
Solar Obs., No. 89; Astrophys. J., 40,
385-398
(1914). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1914ApJ....40..385A PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST
&bibcode=1914ApJ....40..385A&letter=.&cl
assic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=Y
ES&page=385&epage=385&send=Send+PDF&file
type=.pdf
86 YBN
[07/??/1914 AD] 5 		4973) The first multistage rocket
design.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
2. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html {07/1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[5] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[6] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[7] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[8] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[10]
"Speed of sound." McGraw-Hill's
Essential American Slang Dictionary.
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2007.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/speed-of-so
und
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA3 (verify4 ) 
[1] Fig. 8 from: Goddard, “A Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”,
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
71, no. 2 (1919). Reprinted
in: Goddard, ''Rockets'' (New York,
1946). {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 3 		4497) The Doppler effect for light is
confirmed experimentally using an
interferometer to measure the
difference in position of the sets of
rings produced by light from the two
ends of a rotating white disk.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
2. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry
3. ^ "Charles Fabry". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fab
ry {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "Fabry, Charles."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9033
534>
[2] "Fabry, Charles." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 4. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 513-514. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 7 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901371&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Pérot, Jean-Baptiste Gaspard
Gustav Alfred." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 518-519.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7
July 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903353&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Mareseilles University) Mareseilles,
France2  
[1] Author: User:Stigmatella
aurantiaca Source: Own drawing,
created with Inkscape and exported to
PNG. Low and high-finesse images were
created using online webMathematica
software ''Multiple beam interference
fringes'' available at
http://wyant.optics.arizona.edu/webMathe
matica/myprograms/MultipleBeamInterferen
ce/multBeamInt.jsp using mirror
reflectivities of 0.04 (corresponding
to unsilvered plates) and
0.95. Description: The heart of the
Fabry–Pérot interferometer are a
pair of partially silvered glass
optical flats spaced several
millimeters to centimeters apart with
the silvered surfaces facing each
other. (Alternatively, a Fabry–Pérot
etalon uses a transparent plate with
two reflecting surfaces.) The flats are
often made in a wedge shape to prevent
the rear surfaces from producing
interference fringes; alternatively,
the rear surfaces will be given an
anti-reflective coating. Illumination
is via a diffuse source set at the
focal plane of a collimating lens. A
focusing lens produces what would be an
inverted image of the source if the
paired flats were not present; i.e. in
the absence of the paired flats, all
light emitted from point A passing
through the optical system would be
focused at point A'. In the
accompanying illustration, only one ray
emitted from point A on the source is
traced. As the ray passes through the
paired flats, it is multiply reflected
to produce multiple transmitted rays
which are collected by the focusing
lens and brought to point A' on the
screen. The complete interference
pattern takes the appearance of a set
of concentric rings. The sharpness of
the rings depends on the reflectivity
of the flats. If the reflectivity is
high, resulting in a high Q factor
(i.e. high finesse), monochromatic
light produces a set of narrow bright
rings against a dark background. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/56/Fabry_Perot_Interferometer
_-_diagram.png

[2] English: French physicist Charles
Fabry (1867-1945) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs Division under
the digital ID ggbain.37539 This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/75/Charles_Fabry.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 8 9 		4977) The theory that spiral "nebulae"
are other galaxies.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
2. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
4. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427.
6. ^ "Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178891/Sir-Arthur-Stanley-Eddington>.
7. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington,
"Stellar movements and the structure of
the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p427. {1914}
9. ^ Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington, "Stellar movements and the
structure of the universe",
1914 http://books.google.com/books?id=6
KQ5AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=g
bs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arthur-stan
ley-eddington
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
86 YBN
[1914 AD] 4 		5179) A voltage-doubling circuit.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
2. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
3. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
4. ^
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh {1914}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[4] Henry A.
Barton, "Comparison of protons and
electrons in the excitation of x-rays
by impact Original Research Article",
Journal of the Franklin Institute,
Volume 209, Issue 1, January 1930,
Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
(University of Zurich) Zurich,
Switzerland3  
[1] Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.electrosuisse.ch/imag
es/database/Portrait/all/Greinacher.jpg

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
85 YBN
[01/??/1915 AD] 3 		4864) From Doppler shift, fifteen
galaxies are all measured to be moving
away from the Earth with an average
velocity of 400 km/s. In addition, a
spiral galaxy is found to rotate at 100
km/s, about 8 times the edge of
Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
2. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
{01/1915}
3. ^ Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
{01/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>
[11] Lick Observatory, Heber Doust
Curtis, William Wallace Campbell,
Joseph Haines Moore, Ralph , Elmer
Wilson, William Hammond Wright, Studies
of the nebulae: made at the Lick
Observatory, University of ...", 1918
http://books.google.com/books?id=HYnnAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=calcium+shift+nebulae&h
l=en&ei=peQcTYGrEov2tgOHxuWtAg&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6
AEwAA#v=onepage&q=calcium%20shift%20nebu
lae&f=false
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA2  
[1] Table from [1] Vesto Melvin
Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=%22During+the+l
ast+two+years,+the+spectrographic+work%2
2&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tgPoopy7Dg&sa=X&o
i=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22During%20the%20l
ast%20two%20years%2C%20the%20spectrograp
hic%20work%22&f=false

[2] Slipher, V. M., ''Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae'', Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false PD

source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
85 YBN
[04/13/1915 AD] 4 5 		4817) The theory that the atomic
nucleus is made of combinations of
Hydrogen and Helium atoms.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Harkins, William D., and Ernest
D. Wilson. "The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/
2. ^ Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/
3. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation."
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/
5. ^ "Harkins, William Draper."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 117-119. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901863&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Draper Harkins."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 01
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/255369/William-Draper-Harkins>
[2] "William Draper Harkins".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dra
per_Harkins
[3] William D. Harkins and Ernest D.
Wilson, "The Structure of Complex Atoms
and the Changes of Mass and Weight
Involved in Their Formation",Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1915 May; 1(5):
276–283.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1090802/pdf/pnas01974-0020.pdf
[4] Harkins WD., "THE BUILDING OF ATOMS
AND THE NEW PERIODIC SYSTEM.", Science.
1919 Dec
26;50(1304):577-82. http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/i296627
(Kent Chemical Laboratory, University
of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA2 3
 
[1] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/

[2] Harkins, William D., and Ernest D.
Wilson. ''The Structure of Complex
Atoms and the Changes of Mass and
Weight Involved in Their Formation.''
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1.5 (1915):
276. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC1090802/ PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1090802/
85 YBN
[12/04/1915 AD] 5 6 		4917) Bacteriophages
{BaK-TER-E-u-FAJiZ1 } are identified;
viruses that can infect and kill
bacteria.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "bacteriophage." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 23
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bacteriopha
ge
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667.
3. ^ Twort, “An
Investigation of the Nature of
Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”, Lancet,
V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://books.google.com/books?id=LZVPA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PR24
AND http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1
&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120
3833&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item
&_coverDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185
&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7
d9b921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Two
rt_Frederick_19151204.pdf}
4. ^ Twort, “An Investigation of the
Nature of Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”,
Lancet, V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://books.google.com/books?id=LZVPA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PR24
AND http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1
&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120
3833&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item
&_coverDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185
&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7
d9b921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Two
rt_Frederick_19151204.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p667. {12/04/1915}
6. ^ Twort,
“An Investigation of the Nature of
Ultra-Microscopic Viruses”, Lancet,
V186, I4814, 1915, 1241–1243.
http://books.google.com/books?id=LZVPA
AAAYAAJ&pg=PR24
AND http://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc
e?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2DJB-34G-1
&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S014067360120
3833&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item
&_coverDate=12%2F04%2F1915&_sk=998135185
&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkzV&md5=349a66515aad41d7
d9b921e1bfb7b139&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Two
rt_Frederick_19151204.pdf} {12/04/1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Twort, Frederick William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 519-521. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904404&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Frederick Twort". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_T
wort
[3] "Félix d'Herelle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_
d%27Herelle
(Brown Institution) London, England4
 
[1] Description Twort.jpg Frederick
Twort ca 1900 Date Source
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the
Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov.,
1951), pp. 504-517. Found on
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Image:Two
rt.JPG PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/90/Twort.jpg

[2] Félix d'Herelle. Scanned from
the book ''Gesund durch Viren'' by
Thomas Häusler. The book states it was
taken around 1910, putting it into the
en:public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Felix_d%27Herelle.png

85 YBN
[1915 AD] 4 		4970) That thrust and propulsion can
take place in a vacuum, needing no air
to push against, is proven.1 2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
2. ^ Goddard, Robert (September 1924).
"How my speed rocket can propel itself
in vacuum". Popular Science. p.
38. http://www.popsci.com/archive-viewe
r?id=DikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=38
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=Di
kDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38
3. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
4. ^
http://www.goddardmemorial.org/Goddard/t
imeline.html {1915}

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919)
[4] Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936)
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s Rockets" (New
York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 -
Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Clark University) Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Goddard, Robert (September 1924).
''How my speed rocket can propel itself
in vacuum''. Popular Science. p.
38. http://www.popsci.com/archive-viewe
r?id=DikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=38
AND http://books.google.com/books?id=Di
kDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=DikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38

[2] Goddard with Vacuum Tube DeviceBy
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center☆0
0 Goddard with Vacuum Tube
Device Robert H. Goddard with vacuum
tube apparatus he built in 1916 to
research rocket efficiency. Dr. Robert
Hutchings Goddard is commonly referred
to as the father of American rocketry.
The same year he built the apparatus,
Goddard wrote a study requesting
funding from the Smithsonian
Institution so that he could continue
his rocket research, which he had begun
in 1907 while still a student at
Worcester Polytechnic Institute. A
brilliant physicist, with a unique
genius for invention, Goddard may not
have succeeded had it not been for the
Smithsonian Institution and later the
Daniel Guggenheim Foundation and his
employer the Worcester Polytechnic
Institute of Clark University. The
former gave him research monies while
the Institute provided leaves of
absence so that he could continue his
life's work. He was the first scientist
who not only realized the potential of
missiles and space flight, but also
contributed directly to making them a
reality. NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center enables NASA’s mission through
four scientific endeavors: Earth
Science, Heliophysics, Solar System
Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard
plays a leading role in NASA’s
accomplishments by contributing
compelling scientific knowledge to
advance the Agency’s mission. PD
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
11/5808135657_44ddbc23d2_b.jpg
84 YBN
[01/26/1916 AD] 3 4 		4855) The theory of a "covalent bond",
in which the chemical combination
between two atoms is the result of the
sharing of a pair of electrons, with
one electron contributed by each atom.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 29 Oct.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
2. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
3. ^ GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} {01/26/1916}
4. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>. {1916}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[3]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[4] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA2  
[1] Figure 2 from: GN Lewis, ''THE
ATOM AND THE MOLECULE.'', Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1916 -
ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002 {Lewis_Gilbert_19
160126.pdf} PD
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1
021/ja02261a002

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
84 YBN
[1916 AD] 4 5 		6616) The theory that the number of
electrons in the outermost shell of an
atom determines the chemical properties
of the atom.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kossel, Walther. "Über
Molekülbildung als Frage des
Atombaus." Annalen der Physik 354.3
(1916): 229-362. Walther Kossel,
"Molecule Formation as a Question of
Atomic Structure" English
translation: http://www.chemteam.info
/Chem-History/Kossel-1916.html
2. ^ "Kossel, Walther (Ludwig Julius
Paschen Heinrich)" American Council of
Learned Societies. Concise Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Scribner’s,
2000, p498.
3. ^ Kossel, W. "Bemerkungen zum
Seriencharakter der Röntgenspektren."
Verhandlungen der Deutsche
Physikalische Gesellschaft 18 (1916):
339-359. Bemerkungen zum
Seriencharakter der Röntgenspektren
(but there is a scan error) English:
"Remarks about the serial nature of
X-ray spectra"
4. ^ "Siegbahn, Karl Manne
Georg." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 18. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 821-826.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 30
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905333&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Kossel, W. "Bemerkungen zum
Seriencharakter der Röntgenspektren."
Verhandlungen der Deutsche
Physikalische Gesellschaft 18 (1916):
339-359. Bemerkungen zum
Seriencharakter der Röntgenspektren
(but there is a scan error) English:
"Remarks about the serial nature of
X-ray spectra"
 
[1] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg

[2] Description English: Bunsen
congress 1928: Hund, v. Miller, Kossel,
Fajans, Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen,
Debye, London (siehe Fußnote unter
Bild). Deutsch: Bunsentagung 1928:
Hund, v. Miller, Kossel, Fajans,
Mittasch, Simon, Vohlsen, Debye, London
(see footnote under photo). Date
1928 Source Own work Author
GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Bunsen-Tagung_1928_Au
sschnitt.jpg
83 YBN
[10/04/1917 AD] 6 		6508) The electric propulsion engine.3
4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Choueiri, Edgar Y. "A critical
history of electric propulsion: The
first 50 years (1906-1956)." Journal of
Propulsion and Power 20.2 (2004):
193-203. http://waterocket.explorer.fre
e.fr/pdf/Electric%20Propulsion.choueiriJ
PP04a.pdf
2. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application
filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037
3. ^ Choueiri, Edgar Y. "A critical
history of electric propulsion: The
first 50 years (1906-1956)." Journal of
Propulsion and Power 20.2 (2004):
193-203. http://waterocket.explorer.fre
e.fr/pdf/Electric%20Propulsion.choueiriJ
PP04a.pdf
4. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application
filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037
5. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
6. ^ Goddard, R. H., "Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of Gas",
U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037, application
filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037

MORE INFO
[1] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[3] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[4] Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) {Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] Goddard, "Goddard’s
Rockets" (New York, 1946)
[6] U.S. Patent
1,102,653 - Rocket apparatus - R. H.
Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[7] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[8] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[9] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
[10]
Goebel, D.M., and I. Katz. Fundamentals
of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall
Thrusters. Wiley, 2008. JPL Space
Science and Technology
Series. http://books.google.com/books?i
d=P5OGFXcBKcwC&pg=PA237
[11] R. H. Goddard, The Green
Notebooks, vol. 1, The Dr. Robert H.
Goddard Collection at the Clark
university Archives, Clark university,
Worchester, Massachusetts
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
(presumably)5  
[1] Goddard, R. H., ''Method and Means
for Producing Electrified Jets of
Gas'', U.S. Patent No. 1,363,037,
application filed Oct. 1917, granted
Dec. 1920. http://www.google.com/paten
ts/US1363037 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/US
1363037

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard
_-_GPN-2002-000131.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 11 		4761) Ultrasonic sound (sound with a
frequency too high to be heard by the
human ear4 ) is produced by
piezoelectricity and used to determine
the location of objects by reflection
(sonar).5 6

Sonar can detect objects in air7 , and
in water (for example a fetus inside
the womb,8 and objects in the ocean9
).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ultrasonic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ultrasonic
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
3. ^ "Paul Langevin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langev
in
4. ^ "ultrasonic." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ultrasonic
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
6. ^ "Paul Langevin."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-langev
in
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "ultrasound." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 25 Dec. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ultrasound
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p638-639.
10. ^ "Langevin,
Paul." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 9-14.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Aug. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "Langevin, Paul." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 9-14. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 26 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902468&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Paul Langevin". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langev
in
[2] P. Langevin, “Magnétisme et
théeorie des électrons” in Annales
de chimie et de physique, 5 (1905),
70-127;
[3] "Curie, Pierre." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 26 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9028
253>
(Collège de France) Paris, France10
(presumably) 
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
83 YBN
[1917 AD] 10 		4765) The theory that the universe is
expanding.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
2. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
3. ^ de Sitter, W., "On Einstein's
theory of gravitation and its
astronomical consequences. Second
paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 77,
p.155-184. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1916MNRAS..77..155D {De_Sitter_Willem
_part2_191610xx.pdf}
4. ^ De Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
5. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
6. ^ de Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 76,
p.699-728. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/1916MNRAS..76..699D {De_Sitter_Wille
m_part1_191608xx.pdf}
7. ^ de Sitter, W., "On Einstein's
theory of gravitation and its
astronomical consequences. Second
paper", Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 77,
p.155-184. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1916MNRAS..77..155D {De_Sitter_Willem
_part2_191610xx.pdf}
8. ^ De Sitter, W., "Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf}
9. ^ "Willem de Sitter." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 27 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter
10. ^ "Willem de Sitter." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Aug.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/willem-de-s
itter {1917}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sitter, Willem de."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 27 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9068
024>
[2] Kragh, Helge. "Sitter, Willem De."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 455-458. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906095&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Willem de sitter". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_de_s
itter
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands9  
[1] De Sitter, W., ''Einstein's theory
of gravitation and its astronomical
consequences. Third paper'', Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 78,
p.3-28. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1917MNRAS..78....3D {De_Sitter_Willem_p
art3_191706xx.pdf} PD AND SITTER,
Willem de (1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
917MNRAS..78....3Dhttp://www.inghist.nl/
Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/ima
ges/SITTER.jpg

[2] SITTER, Willem de
(1872-1934) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/images/SITTER
.jpg
82 YBN
[04/??/1918 AD] 10 		5008) The Sun is determined to be in
the outer part of our galaxy.5 6 7

The Cepheid variable-star method is
used to determine that globular
clusters are distributed roughly in the
shape of a sphere around a center in
Sagittarius, calculated to be 50,000
light years away.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
2. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
4. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
7. ^ Shapley,
"Remarks on the Arrangement of the
Sidereal Universe", Astrophysical
Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p702-703.
9. ^ Shapley, H., "On
the Nature and Cause of Cepheid
Variation", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S {Shapley_Harlow_1914
0813.pdf}
10. ^ Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
{04/1918}
(Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA9  
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false

[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
82 YBN
[06/21/1918 AD] 11 		6199) The first electronic read and
write memory.7 8

Unlike other forms of information
storage, with electronic memory the
only moving parts are electric
current.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
2. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
3. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
4. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
5. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
6. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
7. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
8. ^ W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19
September 1919) "A trigger relay
utilizing three-electrode thermionic
vacuum tubes." The Electrician, vol.
83, page 298.
{Eccles_flip-flop_19190919.pdf} Repri
nted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3,
pages 143–146 (December
1919) {Eccles_flip-flop_19191201.pdf}
9. ^ Ted Huntington.
10. ^ William Henry Eccles and
Frank Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in
ionic relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
11. ^ William Henry Eccles and Frank
Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic
relays" British patent number: GB
148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published:
5 August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
{06/21/1918}
(City and Guilds Technical College)
London, UK10  
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E

[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
82 YBN
[10/??/1918 AD] 5 		5880) Isobars are defined as elements
with the same atomic mass but different
positions on the periodic table.1 2 3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
2. ^ Aston, "Isotopes", 1922, p12.
3. ^
Alfred Walter Stewart, "Recent advances
in physical and inorganic chemistry",
Longmans, Green and co., 1920
http://books.google.com/books?id=8CBDA
AAAIAAJ
4. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
5. ^ Alfred W. Stewart, "Atomic
Structure from the Physico-Chemical
Standpoint.", Phil Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf}
{10/1918}

MORE INFO
[1] "Alfred Walter Stewart",
Journal of Chemical Education 1941 18
(10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492
(University of Glasgow) Glasgow,
Scotland4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Alfred W. Stewart,
''Atomic Structure from the
Physico-Chemical Standpoint.'', Phil
Mag, 36, 326, 1918
{Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf} PD
source: Stewart_Alfred_W_191810xx.pdf

[2] Image from: ''Alfred Walter
Stewart'', Journal of Chemical
Education 1941 18 (10),
492 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ed018p492 {Stewart_Alfred_Walter.jpg}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ed018p492
82 YBN
[1918 AD] 4 		5002) The first radioactive "tracer". A
radioactive isotope of lead is used to
determine the solubility of lead
salts.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700.
2. ^ Georg V. Hevesy,
Fritz Paneth, "Die Löslichkeit des
Bleisulfids und
Bleichromats" http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstr
act "The solubility of lead sulphide
and lead chromate"
3. ^ "Georg Charles von
Hevesy." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p699-700. {1918}
(University of Budapest) Budapest,
Hungary3  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
81 YBN
[04/??/1919 AD] 19 		4750) Atomic transmutation and atomic
fusion.12 13 14

When a high speed Alpha particle from
Radium collides with an atom of
nitrogen gas, a proton is knocked lose
from the nitrogen atom which causes a
point of light to appear on a zinc
sulfate screen. In losing a proton, the
nitrogen atom is converted into an
oxygen atom.15 This is the first time
one element is changed into another,
which was a dream of the alchemists.
This is also the first "nuclear"
reaction16 and the first atomic
fusion; a larger atom being made from
smaller atoms.17
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
6. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
7. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
8. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
9. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
10. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
11. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
12. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
13. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
14. ^ "fusion>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"fusion." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
15. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
16. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
17. ^ "fusion>.".
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Random House, Inc. "fusion." The
American Heritage® Science Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 18 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/f
usion>.
18. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.
pdf}
19. ^ Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
{04/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[29] Ernest Rutherford, "Collision of
α Particles with Light Atoms", Phil.
Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunt
a/rutherford.html
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England18  
[1] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, ''The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson'',
Vol 2, 1963,
p551. http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/ru
therford.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61. from:
Ernest Rutherford, "The Collected
Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson",
Vol 2, 1963, p551.

[2] Figure 1 from: Rutherford,
Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms, Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp537-61.
http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/rutherf
ord.html {Rutherford_191904xx.pdf}
PD
source: Rutherford_191306xx003.pdf
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 4 		4906) The theory that fractional atomic
weights are due to mixing of isotopes.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Aston, Francis William."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900181&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
3. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html
4. ^ F. W. Aston, "The Constitution of
the Elements", Nature 106, 468 (09
December
1920). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v106/n2667/pdf/106468a0.pdf
AND http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/asto
n.html {12/06/1919}

MORE INFO
[1] "Francis William Aston."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/39838/Francis-William-Aston>
[2] "Francis William Aston."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 24 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/francis-wil
liam-aston
[3] "Francis William Aston". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Wil
liam_Aston
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1922/aston-bio.html
[5] F. W. Aston, "A positive ray
spectrograph", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue
228, 1919, Pages 707 –
714 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ft
interface~db=all~content=a910332967~full
text=713240928
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England3  
[1] Francis Aston PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/Francis_William_Aston
.jpg
81 YBN
[1919 AD] 4 5 		5071) Increase in temperature is shown
to increase the number of genetic
mutations in fruit flies.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
2. ^ HJ Muller,"The
measurement of gene mutation rate in
Drosophila, its high variability, and
its dependence upon temperature",
Genetics,
1928 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprin
t/13/4/279.pdf Muller_Hermann_19271025.
pdf}
3. ^ "Hermann Joseph Muller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727. {1919}
5. ^
"Hermann Joseph Muller." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller {by 1918}

MORE INFO
[1] HJ Muller, "The Production of
Mutations by X-Rays", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1928 September; 14(9):
714–726.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085688/pdf/pnas01821-0038.pdf
(Rice Institute) Houston, Texas3
 
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
80 YBN
[06/03/1920 AD] 4 		4751) The theory of what will be called
a neutron: that an electron can bind
more closely with a single Hydrogen
nucleus to form a neutral atom of mass
1 with different properties than a
neutral hydrogen atom.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.
2. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p635-637.
3. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Nuclear Constitution of
Atoms Backerian Lecture", The
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
97, 1920, pp374-400.
4. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400. {06/03/1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.

[2] Ernest Rutherford, ''Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture'', The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965,
p14. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ernest Rutherford, "Nuclear
Constitution of Atoms Bakerian
Lecture", The Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 97, 1920, pp374-400. from
The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford
of Nelson, Vol 3, 1965, p14.
80 YBN
[08/??/1920 AD] 4 		4411) A list of the size of all atomic
radii is published.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. L Bragg, "The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals", Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868 {Bragg_192008xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Bragg, Sir
William Lawrence." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 15.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
61-64. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 3 June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904839&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ W. L Bragg, "The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals", Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868 {Bragg_192008xx.pdf}
4. ^ W. L Bragg, "The
Arrangement of Atoms in Crystals",
Philosophical Magazine. 6th ser., 40
(1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868 {Bragg_192008xx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Bragg, Sir William."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 2 June 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9016
145>
[2] "Sir William Henry Bragg." A
Dictionary of Chemistry. Oxford
University Press, 2008. Answers.com 02
Jun. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/sir-william
-henry-bragg
[3] "William Henry Bragg". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Bragg
[4] William Henry Bragg, The World of
Sound (1920)
[5] William Henry Bragg,
Concerning the Nature of Things
(1925) http://books.google.com/books?id
=-ysYrMza-ukC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Con
cerning+the+Nature+of+Things&source=bl&o
ts=oxGn9h6_Nh&sig=5iWXT3YPVpAsaRroIJp9lv
Tz250&hl=en&ei=3eEGTLTIL5X2NY3P9Y8J&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0
CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[6] William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and
New Knowledge (1926)
[7] William Henry Bragg,
An Introduction to Crystal Analysis
(1928)
[8] William Henry Bragg, The Universe
of Light (1933)
[9] Bragg, “On the
Absorption of X-rays, and on the
Classification of the X-rays of
Radium,” in Philosophical Magazine,
6th ser., 8 (Dec. 1904),
719–725; http://books.google.com/book
s?id=9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=On+the+Abs
orption+of+X-rays,+and+on+the+Classifica
tion+of+the+X-rays+of+Radium&hl=en&ei=VO
QGTLL9BIH48AaElfCRDA&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=on
epage&q&f=false
[10] Bragg and Kleeman. “On the
lonization Curves of Radium,”
Philosophical Magazine, 726–738.
Dated 8 September
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9k8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA726&dq=On+the+ionizati
on+Curves+of+Radium&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_
minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1904&as_maxm_is=0&a
s_maxy_is=1904&as_brr=0&cd=2#v=onepage&q
=On%20the%20ionization%20Curves%20of%20R
adium&f=false
[11] Bragg, “The Consequences of the
Corpuscular Hypothesis of γ and
X-rays, and the Range of β Rays”,
Philosophical Magazine, 6th Ser., 20
(Sept. 1910), 385–416; Studies in
Radio-activity
[12] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p592-593
[13] "Bragg, William
Henry." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 397-400.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2
June 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900594&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[14] Bragg, "On the Properties and
Natures of Various Electric
Radiations", Philosophical Magazine,
6th Ser., 14 (Oct. 1907), 429–449.
Read before the Royal Society of South
Australia, 7 May and 4 June 1907.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EhQXB
Z1r44AC&pg=PA429&dq=On+the+Properties+an
d+Natures+of+Various+Electric+Radiations
&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_i
s=1907&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1907&as_b
rr=0&cd=1#v=onepage&q=On%20the%20Propert
ies%20and%20Natures%20of%20Various%20Ele
ctric%20Radiations&f=false
[15] William Lawrence Bragg, "The
Specular Reflection of X-rays.",
Nature, vol 90, num 2250, 12/12/1912,
p410. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[16] William Lawrence Bragg, "X-rays
and Crystals.", Nature, vol 90, num
2256, 1/23/1913,
p572. http://books.google.com/books?id=
KI9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA410&dq=%22X-rays+and+C
rystals%22+intitle:nature&hl=en&ei=_foHT
MiQIpmyMZT63bUE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=%22X-rays%20and%20Crystals%22%20intit
le%3Anature&f=false
[17] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg,
“The Reflection of X-rays by
Crystals,” in Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 88A (1 July
1913), 428–438, received 7 April
1913; W. H. Bragg, “The Reflection of
X-rays by Crystals (II),” Nature.,
89A (22 Sept. 1913), 246–248,
received 21 June 1913
[18] W. H. Bragg and
W. L. Bragg, “The Structure of
Diamond,” Nature (22 Sept. 1913),
277–291, received 30 July
[19] W. L.
Bragg, "The diffraction of short
electromagnetic waves by a crystal",
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 17 (1913),
43–57
[20] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, "The
Structure of the Diamond.", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 89, No.
610 (Sep. 22, 1913), pp.
277-291. http://www.jstor.org/stable/in
fo/93489?seq=1&Search=yes&term=structure
&term=diamond&term=bragg&list=hide&searc
hUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3
Dthe%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%2B
bragg%26gw%3Djtx%26prq%3Dthe%2Bstructure
%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bdiamond%26Search%3DSearch%
26hp%3D25%26wc%3Don&item=7&ttl=650&retur
nArticleService=showArticle&resultsServi
ceName=doBasicResultsFromArticle
[21] Bragg, W.H. and Bragg, W.L.
"X-rays and Crystal Structure.",
London: Bell,
1915. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0D7PAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se
[22] # Bakerian Lecture: X-Rays and
Crystal Structure # Author(s): W. H.
Bragg # Source: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical or Physical Character,
Vol. 215, (1915), pp.
253-274 http://www.jstor.org/stable/inf
o/91108?seq=1
(University of Manchester) Manchester,
England3  
[1] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source:

[2] W. L Bragg, ''The Arrangement of
Atoms in Crystals'', Philosophical
Magazine. 6th ser., 40 (1920).
169-189. http://www.informaworld.com/sm
pp/570391933-20948816/content~db=all~con
tent=a910337868
{Bragg_192008xx.pdf} PD
source:
80 YBN
[1920 AD] 4 		5045) Neutral molecular beams of
Hydrogen and Helium are "diffracted"
using a Lithium Fluoride crystal.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ I. Estermann and O. Stern,
"Beugung von Molekularstrahlen",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, 1930, Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} "Diffraction of molecular
beams"
2. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
3. ^ "Stern, Otto." Complete Dictionary
of Scientific Biography. Vol. 13.
Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008.
40-43. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Web. 31 Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904156&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ "Otto Stern." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-stern
{1920}

MORE INFO
[1] O. Stern, "Eine direkte
Messung der thermischen
Molekulargeschwindigkeit", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 2, Number 1,
49-56. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u5507246w2x0k887/ "A direct
measurement of the thermal molecular
velocity"
[2] W. Gerlach and O. Stern, "Der
experimentelle Nachweis des
magnetischen Moments des Silberatoms",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 8, Number 1,
110-111. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/g635402018413p6g/ "The
experimental proof of the magnetic
moment of the silver atom"
[3] Walther
Gerlach and Otto Stern, "The
experimental proof of the directional
quantization in the magnetic field",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/
[4] Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern,
"Der experimentelle Nachweis der
Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 9, Number 1,
349-352. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/p72218361287275g/ "The
experimental proof of the direction of
quantization in the magnetic field"
(University of Frankfurt) Frankfurt,
Germany3  
[1] Figures 1,2 and 3 from: I.
Estermann and O. Stern, ''Beugung von
Molekularstrahlen'', Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1930,
Volume 61, Numbers 1-2,
95-125. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/u60q0jn868011015/ {Stern_Otto_1929
1214.pdf} ''Diffraction of molecular
beams'' UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/0/0a/OttoStern.jpg

[2] The image of German physicist and
Nobel laureate Otto Stern
(1888–1969) Source This image
has been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/740/000099443
/ Date uploaded: 02:21, 26
December 2008 (UTC) Author not
known UNKNOWN
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u60q0jn868011015/
79 YBN
[01/21/1921 AD] 4 5 		4924) Nuclear isomers are discovered,
atoms that have identical nuclei but
have different half-lives.1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p672-673
2. ^ "Hahn, Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 6. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 14-17. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901812&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ O. Frisch, Lise Meitner,
“Disintegration of Uranium by
Neutrons; a New Type of Nuclear
Reaction”, Nature, 143 (1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}
4. ^ Otto Hahn, "Über ein
neues radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im
Uran", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9,
Number 5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf} {01/21/1921}
5. ^ O. Frisch,
Lise Meitner, “Disintegration of
Uranium by Neutrons; a New Type of
Nuclear Reaction”, Nature, 143
(1939),
239-240. {Frisch_Otto_Meitner_Lise_1939
0116.pdf} {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie)
Berlin, Germany3  
[1] Figure from paper: Otto Hahn,
''Über ein neues radioaktives
Zerfallsprodukt im Uran'',
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/ {Hahn
_Otto_19210121.pdf}
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/uhukv60t536j7486/fulltext.pdf

[2] Otto Hahn and Lise
Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2003/images/17306_hahn_meitn
er-lg.jpg
79 YBN
[04/26/1921 AD] 4 		5239) The Crab nebula is found to be
expanding from photographs spanning 8
years.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://intl.pnas.org/content/7
/6/179.full.pdf+html
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/84292
2. ^ Lampland, C. O., "Observed Changes
in the Structure of the "Crab" Nebula
(N. G. C. 1952)", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 33, No. 192,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
21PASP...33...79L
3. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292
4. ^ John C. Duncan, "Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/84
292 {04/26/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] J. J. L. D. and J. H. Oort,
"The "Guest-Star" of 1054", T'oung Pao,
Second Series, Vol. 36, Livr. 2 (1941),
pp.
174-180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45
27212
[2] Baade, W., "The Crab Nebula.",
"Astrophysical Journal, vol. 96,
p.188. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
942ApJ....96..188B
[3] Ho Peng-Yokea, F.W. Paarb and P.W.
Parsonsc, "The Chinese guest star of
A.D. 1054 and the Crab Nebula", Vistas
in Astronomy, Volume 13, 1972, Pages
1-13. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJG-473D842-N&
_user=4422&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1972&_rd
oc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=sear
ch&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=006993bc94530f90974c9a4c518d5f2
f&searchtype=a
[4] Mayall, N. U. & Oort, J. H.,
"Further Data Bearing on the
Identification of the Crab Nebula with
the Supernova of 1054 A.D. Part II. The
Astronomical Aspects", Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the
Pacific, Vol. 54, No. 318,
p.95-104. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1942PASP...54...95M
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA3  
[1] John C. Duncan, ''Changes Observed
in the Crab Nebula in Taurus'',
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Jun. 15, 1921),
pp.
179-180. http://intl.pnas.org/content/7
/6/179.full.pdf+html
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/84292
PD
source: http://intl.pnas.org/content/7/6
/179.full.pdf+html
79 YBN
[07/??/1921 AD] 3 		4866) The atmosphere of Venus is found
to have no oxygen or water vapor
because those absorption lines are not
found in the spectrum of Venus.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Slipher, V.M., “The Spectrum of
Venus, ” Lowell Obs. Bull. 3,
3.85-3.89 (1921) Bull. No. 84.
^. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//
full/1921LowOB...3...85S/0000086.000.htm
l
2. ^ "Vesto Melvin Slipher."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 03
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/548821/Vesto-Melvin-Slipher>.
3. ^ Slipher, V.M., “The Spectrum of
Venus, ” Lowell Obs. Bull. 3,
3.85-3.89 (1921) Bull. No. 84.
^. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//
full/1921LowOB...3...85S/0000086.000.htm
l {07/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vesto Slipher." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 03 Nov.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[2] "Vesto Slipher." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2010.
Answers.com 03 Nov. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vesto-sliph
er
[3] "Slipher, Vesto Melvin." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 454-456. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Nov.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904042&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Vesto Melvin Slipher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Melvi
n_Slipher
[5] Slipher, V. M., "Detection of the
rotation of Uranus", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.19-20. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1912LowOB...2...19S
[6] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p556
[7] Lowell, P.,
"Spectroscopic discovery of the
rotation period of Uranus", Lowell
Observatory Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.17-18. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/seri/LowOB/0002//0000018.000.
html
[8] Slipher, V. M., "On the Spectrum of
the Nebula in the Pleiades", Popular
Astronomy, Vol. 21, 1913,
p.186. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
913PA.....21..186S
[9] Slipher, V. M., "The Radial
Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 22,
pp.19-21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1914PA.....22...19S
and http://books.google.com/books?id=4Q
ryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19&dq=%22Keeler,+by+his+
splendid%22&hl=en&ei=yO_RTL74OYz4sAOWzqH
hCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Keeler
%2C%20by%20his%20splendid%22&f=false
[10] Slipher, V. M., "Spectrographic
Observations of Nebulae", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 23,
pp.21-24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/ful
l/1915PA.....23Q..21S http://books.goog
le.com/books?id=XgryAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA21&dq=
%22During+the+last+two+years,+the+spectr
ographic+work%22&hl=en&ei=iSDTTKiCNYL0tg
Poopy7Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&r
esnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22D
uring%20the%20last%20two%20years%2C%20th
e%20spectrographic%20work%22&f=false
[11] Slipher, V. M., "The spectrum of
Lightning", Lowell Observatory
Bulletin, vol. 1,
pp.55-58. http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu//full/1917LowOB...3...55S/0000056.
000.html
[12] Bibliography for V. M.
Slipher: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.e
du/BruceMedalists/Slipher/SlipherRefs.ht
ml
(Percival Lowell's observatory)
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA2  
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
79 YBN
[09/??/1921 AD] 6 		4783) Neurotransmitters are
discovered:1 2 chemicals that transmit
nerve impulses across a synapse.3 A
fluid released when a frog's vagus
nerve is stimulated can stimulate
another heart directly.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ O. Loewi und E. Navratil, Über
humorale Übertragbarkeit der
Herznervenwirkung. Pflügers Arch. ges.
Physiol. 189 (1921), pp. 239–242.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0
1314653605h385/ {Loewi_Otto_1921.pdf}
2. ^ Elliot S. Valenstein, "The
Discovery of Chemical
Neurotransmitters", Brain and
Cognition Volume 49, Issue 1, June
2002, Pages 73-95
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WBY-45XTFM6-7&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2002&_rdoc=1&
_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_s
ort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C00005960
0&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&
md5=3e3897eee6f675c932cd1115cbc34de8&sea
rchtype=a
3. ^ "neurotransmitter." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Apr. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/neurotransm
itter
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644-645.
5. ^ "Loewi, Otto."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 451-457. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 Sept.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902655&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ "Otto Loewi." Biographies. Answers
Corporation, 2006. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
{09/1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Otto Loewi." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-loewi
[2] "Otto Loewi". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Loewi
[3]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1936/loewi-bio.html
(University of Graz) Graz, Austria5
 
[1] Otto Loewi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1936/loewi.jpg
79 YBN
[1921 AD] 4 		4518) The system of antigens and
antibodies is recognized.1 An antigen
is a substance that when introduced
into the body stimulates the production
of an antibody. Antigens include
toxins, bacteria, and the cells of
transplanted organs.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901}
2. ^ "antigen." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 13 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/antigen
3. ^ "Karl Landsteiner." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
4. ^ "Landsteiner, Karl." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 622-625. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 July
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902453&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {1901} {1921}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Landsteiner." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 12 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/karl-landst
einer
[2] "Karl Landsteiner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landst
einer
[3] Karl Landsteiner, "Über
agglutinationsercheinungen normalen
menschlichen blutes" ("On Agglutination
Phenomena of Normal Human Blood"), Wien
Klin Wschr, 14: 1132-4. 2,
1901. English
translation: http://books.google.com/bo
oks?hl=en&lr=&id=A1hChCwPefsC&oi=fnd&pg=
PA112&dq=normalen+landsteiner&ots=_vv7jE
jQs9&sig=4hP7HU9JIYw7QIZdahl1pFdbdQQ#v=o
nepage&q=normalen%20landsteiner&f=false
(The Hague) Netherlands3  
[1] Image extracted from Biographical
Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences, vol. 40. Associated: Karl
Landsteiner Date: 1920s Genre:
illustrations ID:
portrait-landsteiner UNKNOWN
source: http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonspcoll/cata
logue/portrait-landsteiner-600w.jpg
78 YBN
[01/26/1922 AD] 3 		5103) Light is described as being made
of "atoms of light" all having the same
"very low mass", and the equations E=hv
(by Planck) and E=mc2 (by Einstein) are
equated to solve for the mass of the
atom of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ De Broglie, "Rayonnement noir et
quanta de lumière", Journal de
Physique et le Radium, S6, V3, N11,
11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
2. ^ Lacki, Jan. "Broglie, Louis
(Victor Pierre Raymond) De." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 409-415. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905527&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^ De Broglie, "Rayonnement noir et
quanta de lumière", Journal de
Physique et le Radium, S6, V3, N11,
11/1922,
p422. http://jphysrad.journaldephysique
.org/index.php?option=com_toc&url=/artic
les/jphysrad/abs/1922/11/contents/conten
ts.html {Broglie_Louis_De_ajp-jphysrad_
1922_3_11_422_0_19220126.pdf}
{01/26/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] L. De Broglie, "Matière et
lumière" ("Matter and Light"),
1937. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iGq4AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Matter%20and%20Light%
22&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)2  
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
78 YBN
[03/01/1922 AD] 5 		5163) Separating isotopes by
evaporative centrifuging is suggested,
where a material is heated into a
vapour and separated by atomic mass in
a rapidly rotating tube.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752-753.
2. ^ "Robert
Sanderson Mulliken." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
3. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=cQoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1033
AND http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_19220301.
pdf}
4. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=cQoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1033
AND http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_19220301.
pdf}
5. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "THE
SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES BY THERMAL AND
PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=cQoSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1033
AND http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021
/ja01426a015 {Mulliken_Robert_19220301.
pdf} {03/01/1922}
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA4  
[1] Description Mulliken,Robert 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken,
1929 at Chicago Deutsch: Robert
Mulliken, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Mulliken%2CRobert_192
9_Chicago.jpg
78 YBN
[03/03/1922 AD] 3 		4324) The theory of an all-inertial
universe where gravity is explained as
a result of particle collision.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we
Accept Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
2. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES
3. ^ Pickering, W. H., "Shall we Accept
Relativity", Popular Astronomy, Vol.
30, 04/1922,
p.199. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=19
22PA.....30..199P&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&
plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREE
N_GIF&classic=YES {03/03/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pickering, William Henry."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 11 May 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9059
926>
[2] "William Henry Pickering." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[3] "William Henry Pickering." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2010. Answers.com 11 May. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-hen
ry-pickering
[4] "Pickering, William Henry."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 601-602. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 11 May
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903408&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] Pickering, W. H., "Are Space and
Time Really Infinite?", Popular
Astronomy, vol. 18, 08/1910,
pp.420-421. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/f
ull/1910PA.....18..420P and
pdf: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910PA.....1
8..420P&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=Y
ES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf
[6] Pickering, William H., "The Theory
of Relativity", Popular Astronomy, vol.
28, 06/1920, pp.
334-344. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920PA.....28..334P
[7] Pickering, William H., "a
Suggestion Regarding Gravitation, II",
Popular Astronomy, Vol. 30, 05/1922,
p.272. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
22PA.....30..272P
[8] Pickering, William H., "Aberration
and Relativity", Popular Astronomy,
Vol. 30, 06/1922,
p.340 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
22PA.....30..340P
[9] Pickering EC (1899-03-17). "A New
Satellite of Saturn". 49. Harvard
College Observatory Bulletin.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/BHa
rO/0049//0000001.000.html
[10] "Phoebe (moon)". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008
[11] "William Henry
Pickering". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hen
ry_Pickering
[12] Ames, C. H., "Are Space and Time
Infinite? The Affirmative Answer",
Popular Astronomy, vol. 19, 01/1911,
pp.31-35. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1911PA.....19...31A
Menton, France2  
[1] Edited image of American Astronomer
William Henry Pickering
(1858-1938) TITLE: Prof. W.H.
Pickering, portr. bust CALL NUMBER:
LC-B2- 550-7[P&P] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ggbain-02598 (digital file from
original neg.) No known restrictions on
publication. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 x 7 in. or
smaller. CREATED/PUBLISHED:
10/16/09. NOTES: Forms part of:
George Grantham Bain Collection
(Library of Congress). Title from
unverified data provided by the Bain
News Service on the negatives or
caption cards. Temp. note: Batch one
loaded. FORMAT: Glass
negatives. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original neg.) ggbain 02598 original
found at
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?
pp/PPALL:@field(NUMBER+@1(ggbain+02598))
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/46/William_Henry_Pickering_02
598r.jpg

[2] Pickering, William Henry.
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Web. 12 May 2010 . PUBLIC
DOMAIN (PRESUMABLY)
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
39096&rendTypeId=4
78 YBN
[05/27/1922 AD] 4 		5197) The theory of "polar fronts":
that the atmosphere of Earth is made of
air masses that are either warm
tropical air or cold polar air, and the
sharp boundaries between them are
called "fronts" (similar to battle
lines in war).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p759.
2. ^ J. Bjerknes,
"Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation",
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf}
3. ^ "Jacob Bjerknes." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacob-bjerk
nes
4. ^ J. Bjerknes, "Life cycle of
cyclones and the polar front theory of
atmospheric circulation",
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} {05/27/1922}
(Geophysical Institute) Bergen, Norway3
 
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. Bjerknes,
''Life cycle of cyclones and the polar
front theory of atmospheric
circulation'',
1922. http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris/
sio217B/bjerknes.pdf {Bjerknes_Jacob_19
220527.pdf} PD
source: http://meteora.ucsd.edu/~jnorris
/sio217B/bjerknes.pdf

[2] American Geophysical Union, from
AIP Emilio Segrè Visual
Archives COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.aip.org/history/acap/
images/bios/bjerknesj.jpg
78 YBN
[12/13/1922 AD] 3 		5108) The "Compton effect": x-rays are
found to have a lower frequency after
being reflected by graphite, which
implies that a light quantum has
momentum that is lost to an electron
from the collision.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
2. ^ A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
3. ^ A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
{12/13/1922}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777.
{Compton_Arthur_19201201.pdf}
[3] A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 –
1131. {Compton_Arthur_19221209.pdf}
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[5] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA2  
[1] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1

[2] Arthur Holly Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg
77 YBN
[05/04/1923 AD] 3 		5004) Radioactive lead dissolved in
water allows the absorption and
distribution of the lead in plants to
be followed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df}
2. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df}
3. ^ G. Hevesy, "The Absorption and
Translocation of Lead by Plants A
Contribution to the Application of the
Method of Radioactive Indicators in the
Investigation of the Change of
Substance in Plants", Biochem J. 1923;
17(4-5): 439–445.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1263906/ {Hevesy_Georg_19230504.p
df} {05/04/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Georg Charles von Hevesy."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264499/Georg-Charles-von-Hevesy>
[2] Georg V. Hevesy, Fritz Paneth, "Die
Löslichkeit des Bleisulfids und
Bleichromats" http://onlinelibrary.wile
y.com/doi/10.1002/zaac.19130820125/abstr
act "The solubility of lead sulphide
and lead chromate"
[3] D. COSTER & G. HEVESY,
"On the new element hafnium", Nature,
111, 79-79 (20 January
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v111/n2777/abs/111079a0.html
[4] "hafnium." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hafnium
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark2  
[1] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
77 YBN
[06/14/1923 AD] 4 		3613) Electronic moving images are
transmitted and received using radio.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
2. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ?
3. ^
http://www.bairdtelevision.com/jenkins.h
tml
4. ^
http://www.tvhistory.tv/C-Francis-Jenkin
s.htm ? {06/14/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] C. Francis JENKINS,
"Transmitting Pictures by
Electricity", The Electrical Engineer,
25 July 1894
[2]
http://histv2.free.fr/jenkins/jenkins189
4.htm
[3] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>
[4]
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/J/html
J/jenkinschar/jenkinschar.htm
[5] Thomas Streissguth,
"Communications: Sending the Message",
Oliver Press, Inc., 1997,
p104-105. http://books.google.com/books
?id=YAf1UqOy9kcC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=C
harles+Francis+Jenkins+may+19+1922&sourc
e=web&ots=4fgBJlRleZ&sig=AeO7vUVl-YRerSI
DzuHYs3Syxes&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&r
esnum=2&ct=result#PPA105,M1
Washington, D.C., USA.3  
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG

[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
77 YBN
[09/03/1923 AD] 4 5 6 		4860) Acids are defined as substances
that lose a hydrogen ion in solution
and bases as substances that accept a
hydrogen ion in solution.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
"Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.", Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract
{Bronsted_19230504.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671.
3. ^ "Johannes
Nicolaus Brønsted." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
4. ^ Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
"Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.", Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract
{Bronsted_19230504.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p670-671. {1923}
6. ^
"Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/80949/Johannes-Nicolaus-Bronsted>.
{1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "Johannes Nicolaus
Brønsted." A Dictionary of Chemistry.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Answers.com 26 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/johannes-ni
colaus-br-nsted-1
[2] "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Ni
colaus_Br%C3%B8nsted
[3] Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted, “The
Activity Coefficients of Ions in Very
Dilute Solutions.”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 46 (1924),
p555–573. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01668a006
(University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen,
Denmark3  
[1] Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
''Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.'', Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract COPYRIGH
TED
source: Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted,
"Einige Bemerkungen über den Begriff
der Säuren und Basen.", Recueil des
travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas et de la
Belgique, 42 (1923), p718–728.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/recl.19230420815/abstract

[2] Brønsted, Johannes
Nicolaus Courtesy of the Royal Danish
Embassy; photograph, Elfelt,
Copenhagen UNKNOWN
source: http://media-2.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/07/6907-004-FB988F4E.jpg
77 YBN
[09/10/1923 AD] 4 		5104) The mass of a light particle (or
"atom of light") is calculated to be
less than 10-50 grams.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Louis De Broglie, " Ondes et
quanta", Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.
Paris 177 (1923)
pp.507. {Broglie_Louis_De_19230910.pdf}
{09/10/1923}
2. ^ Louis De Broglie,"Waves and
quanta", Nature, 112, 540-540 (13
October
1923). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v112/n2815/abs/112540a0.html Engli
sh version (is shorter than French
paper of same title)
3. ^ Lacki, Jan.
"Broglie, Louis (Victor Pierre Raymond)
De." Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 409-415. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905527&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^ Louis De Broglie, "Ondes et
quanta", Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.
Paris 177 (1923)
pp.507. {Broglie_Louis_De_19230910.pdf}
{09/10/1923}

MORE INFO
[1] L. De Broglie, "Matière et
lumière" ("Matter and Light"),
1937. http://books.google.com/books?id=
iGq4AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Matter%20and%20Light%
22&source=gbs_book_other_versions
(brother Maurice's lab) Paris, France
(verify)3  
[1] Description Broglie
Big.jpg Louis de Broglie Date
1929(1929) Source
http://www.physics.umd.edu/courses/
Phys420/Spring2002/Parra_Spring2002/HTMP
ages/whoswho.htm Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) the MacTutor website states the
following: ''We believe that most of
the images are in the public domain and
that provided you use them on a website
you are unlikely to encounter any
difficulty.'' Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* 10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 3 		4216) The consumer movie camera.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
2. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699
3. ^
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/1878.jhtml?pq-path=2217/2687/
2695/2699 {1923}

MORE INFO
[1] "George Eastman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[2] "George Eastman." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[3] "George Eastman." The Oxford
Companion to the Photograph. Oxford
University Press, 2005. Answers.com 27
Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[4] "George Eastman." The Reader's
Companion to American History, Eric
Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors,
published by. Houghton Mifflin Company,
1991. Answers.com 27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[5] "George Eastman." Encyclopedia of
World Biography. Vol. 5. 2nd ed.
Detroit: Gale, 2004. 186. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Gale. University of
California - Irvine. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[6] Eastman's gelatin film patent
#306,594 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=5KFEAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[7]
http://www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/hist
oryOfKodak/eastmanTheMan.jhtml
[8] "Eastman, George." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 27 Jan. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9031
830>
[9] Eastman's October 5, 1884
patent. http://www.google.com/patents?i
d=9edJAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&
source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=
&f=false
[10] "George Eastman." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Jan. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-east
man
[11] Reichenbach's Eastman celluloid
patent
#417,202 http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Bh1wAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[12] Carl W. Ackerman, "George Eastman:
Founder of Kodak and the Photography
Business",
1930. http://books.google.com/books?id=
BG2zCYDzdlkC&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p552-553
(Eastman Kodak Company) NJ, USA2  
[1] George Eastman PD
source: http://www.born-today.com/btpix/
eastman_george.jpg

[2] * Photo of en:George Eastman from
the en:United States Library of
Congress * Digital ID:
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29290
*
http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/ggbain
/29200/29290v.jpg Licensing:
* From Loc: ''No known copyright
restrictions''. Part of Bain News
Service collection. * Given
subjects death in 1932 it seems likely
that it's pre-1923. Or if not then it
seems extremely unlikely its copyright
was renewed. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/GeorgeEastman2.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 6 7 8 		4927) An electronic theory of acids and
bases: an acid is defined as an
electron-pair acceptor and a base as an
electron-pair donor.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29
Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
2. ^ Lewis, Gilbert N. "Acids and
bases." Journal of the Franklin
Institute 226.3 (1938):
293-313. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/journal/00160032/226/3 {Lewis_ac
ids_and_bases_19380520.pdf}
3. ^ Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules", 1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf}
4. ^ Lewis, Gilbert N. "Acids and
bases." Journal of the Franklin
Institute 226.3 (1938):
293-313. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/journal/00160032/226/3 {Lewis_ac
ids_and_bases_19380520.pdf}
5. ^ "Gilbert N. Lewis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 29 Oct. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338142/Gilbert-N-Lewis>.
6. ^ Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules", 1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf}
7. ^ Lewis, Gilbert N. "Acids and
bases." Journal of the Franklin
Institute 226.3 (1938):
293-313. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/journal/00160032/226/3 {Lewis_ac
ids_and_bases_19380520.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p656-657. {1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "Gilbert N. Lewis." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[2] "Gilbert N. Lewis." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
29 Oct. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gilbert-new
ton-lewis
[3] "Lewis, Gilbert Newton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 8. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 289-294. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902598&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Gilbert Newton Lewis". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_New
ton_Lewis
[5]
http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/
PortraitsHH_Detail.asp?HH_Lname=Lewis
[6] Lewis, "Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules",
1923 http://books.google.com/books?id=3
6zQAAAAMAAJ&q=Valence+and+the+Structure+
of+Atoms+and+Molecules&dq=Valence+and+th
e+Structure+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&hl=en
&ei=jlvLTKjIF4mosQORwrmNDg&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA
A
[7] GN Lewis, "THE ATOM AND THE
MOLECULE.", Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 1916 - ACS
Publications http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja02261a002
(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, California, USA4 5  
[1] Lewis, ''Valence and the structure
of atoms and molecules'', 1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJ
AND http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?
id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5 {Lewis_Val
ence_1923.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Lewis, "Valence and the
structure of atoms and molecules",
1923,
p142. http://books.google.com/books?id=
36zQAAAAMAAJhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/
cgi/pt?id=uc1.b35072;view=1up;seq=5

[2] [t Notice the similarity to
Rutherford] Gilbert Newton
Lewis 1875-1946 UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/Po
rtraits/images/lewisc.jpg
77 YBN
[1923 AD] 9 		5000) The ultracentrifuge.1 2 3 4 A
centrifuge {SeN-Tre-FUJ5 } can force
colloidal {Ku-lOED-L6 } particles to
settle out of a liquid, and can be used
to determine molecule size and mass.7
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
2. ^
"electrophoresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
3. ^Svedberg, Kolloid-Z.,
Zsigmondy-Festschrift, 1925, p. 53.
4. ^
The Svedberg, Robin Fåhraeus, "A NEW
METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE
MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF THE PROTEINS", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1926, 48 (2), pp
430–438 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01413a019
{Svedberg_Theodor_19250804.pdf}
5. ^ "centrifuge." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 23 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
entrifuge>.
6. ^ "colloidal." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 23 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
olloidal>.
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698.
8. ^
"electrophoresis." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/electrophor
esis
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p697-698. {1923}
(University of Uppsala) Upsala, Sweden8
 
[1] Theodor Svedberg Older than 70
years PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/The-svedberg-1.jpg
76 YBN
[08/??/1924 AD] 5 		4896) A light ray device that can
disable vehicles and burn people.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ " "Death Ray" is Carried by
Shafts of Light", Popular Mechanics,
Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
2. ^ "Man's Most Terrible Invention",
Popular Science, Vol. 105, No. 2, Aug
1924,
p33. http://books.google.com/books?id=t
ikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA33
3. ^ Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death
Ray Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print.
{Death_Ray_Man_Grindell_Matthews_1943.
pdf}
4. ^ " "Death Ray" is Carried by Shafts
of Light", Popular Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
5. ^ " "Death Ray" is Carried by Shafts
of Light", Popular Mechanics, Aug 1924,
p189. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popul
ar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k8
o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU&
hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved
=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
{08/1924}
Chicago, Illinois, USA4  
[1] Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death Ray
Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print. COPYRIGHTED
source: Barwell, Ernest H. G. The Death
Ray Man: The Biography of Grindell
Matthews, Inventor and Pioneer. London:
Hutchinson, 1943. Print.

[2] Image from '' ''Death Ray'' is
Carried by Shafts of Light'', Popular
Mechanics, Aug 1924, p189. COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=4toDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=popu
lar+mechanics+death+ray&source=bl&ots=_k
8o3ZPfp0&sig=FBRNsl5KMsn40BSmKmNKNqmLLWU
&hl=en&ei=2DEBTZO9DoK-sQOjz-25Ag&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ve
d=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 7 		3614) Photographs are sent over the
phone wire.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
2. ^ "Pictures By Wire Sent With
Success for the First Time", New York
Times, May 20, 1924
3. ^ "Electrical
transmission of pictures", Electrical
World, Volume 83, June 14, 1924, p1223.
4. ^
"Photos sent over telephone wires are
accurately reproduced.", Popular
Mechanics, Volume 42, August 1924,
p187. books.google.com/books?id=4toDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA187
5. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>.
6. ^
http://www.corp.att.com/attlabs/reputati
on/timeline/24fax.html
7. ^ "telephone and telephone system."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/585993/telephone>. {1924}
Cleveland, OH, (to NYC, NY), USA5 6
 
[1] ''Photos sent over telephone wires
are accurately reproduced.'', Popular
Mechanics, Volume 42, August 1924,
p187. books.google.com/books?id=4toDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA187 UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=4toDAA
AAMBAJ&pg=PA187

[2] ''Photos sent over telephone wires
are accurately reproduced.'', Popular
Mechanics, Volume 42, August 1924,
p187. books.google.com/books?id=4toDAAA
AMBAJ&pg=PA187 UNKNOWN
source: books.google.com/books?id=4toDAA
AAMBAJ&pg=PA187
76 YBN
[1924 AD] 4 		4696) Tissue taken from one amphibian
embryo and grafted onto another is
shown to assume the character of the
host, losing its original nature.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Hans Spemann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
2. ^ "Hans Spemann." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Jul.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
3. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n
4. ^ "Hans Spemann." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
28 Jul. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-speman
n {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Spemann, Hans."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 28 July 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9069
062>
[2] "Hans Spemann". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Speman
n
[3] Hans Spemann, "Embryonic
Development and Induction", 1938 Note:
all but the last of Spemann's works are
translated into English in this
book. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4cJoPAAACAAJ&dq=Embryonic+Development+an
d+Induction&hl=en&ei=qA9STPaHCNCMnQe1xaC
2Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1935/spemann-bio.html
(University of Freiburg) Breisgau,
Germany2 3  
[1] Hans Spemann [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/309/0
00127925/hans-spemann.jpg

[2] Hans Spemann UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1935/spemann.jpg
75 YBN
[01/01/1925 AD] 6 7 		5060) Spiral nebulae are proven to be
other galaxies containing stars, and to
be very far away, by determining the
distance of Cepheid variable stars.3 4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
2. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722.
4. ^ Hubble, E. P.,
"Cepheids in spiral nebulae", The
Observatory, Vol. 48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261.
{Hubble_Edwin_19240101.pdf}
5. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html
6. ^ Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M.,
"Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in
Spiral Nebulae", Astronomical Society
of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No.
504, p. 425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..425B/0000437.00
0.html {01/01/1925}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The
realm of the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA5  
[1] The first image of H335H shows the
glass side of the photographic plate,
on which Hubble marked novae and,
eventually, the first Cepheid in ink.
The next two images show the emulsion
side of the plate at two contrasts,
with Hubble's writing of plate
information at the top (Plate ID, M31,
45 min exposure on plate of type Seed
30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson scale,
date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8 min East
at the end of the
exposure). NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_glass_0670_27_wm.jpg

[2] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg
75 YBN
[04/04/1925 AD] 3 		4754) Hydrogen nuclei are called
"protons".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ernest Rutherford,
"Disintegration of Atomic Nuclei",
Nature, April 4 1925, 115, pp493-4.
2. ^ Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4.
3. ^ Ernest Rutherford, "Disintegration
of Atomic Nuclei", Nature, April 4
1925, 115, pp493-4. {04/04/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/emanation
[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g

[2] Ernest Rutherford (young) Image
courtesy of www.odt.co.nz UNKNOWN
source: https://thescienceclassroom.wiki
spaces.com/file/view/ernest_rutherford_1
122022732.jpg/103032081
75 YBN
[06/06/1925 AD] 4 5 6 		5024) The refraction of x-rays in glass
is proven visually.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Manne Siegbahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn
2. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
3. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
4. ^ M Siegbahn, "La réflexion et la
réfraction des rayons X", Journal de
Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html {06/06/1925}
5. ^ "Manne
Siegbahn." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 30 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manne-siegb
ahn {1925}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p707-708. {1924}

MORE INFO
[1] "Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/543192/Karl-Manne-Georg-Siegbahn>
[2] Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On
an X-ray vacuum spectrograph",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 32, Issue 191, 1916,
Pages 494 – 496
[3] Manne Siegbahn,
"Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra.", Philosophical Magazine
Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume 37, Issue
222, 1919, Pages 601 – 612
[4] Manne
Siegbahn, "Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part II",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 639 – 646
[5] Manne Siegbahn; A. B.
Leide, "LXIV. Precision-measurements in
the X-ray spectra. Part
III", Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 38, Issue 227, 1919,
Pages 647 – 651
[6] Elis Hjalmar, "LIX.
Precision-measurements in the X-ray
spectra. Part IV.—K-series, the
elements Cu—Na", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 244, 1921, Pages 675 – 681
[7]
Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (1925)
[8]
Manne Siegbahn, Einar Friman, "On the
high-frequency spectra (L-series) of
the elements tantalum-uranium",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, Volume
32, Issue 187 July 1916 , pages 39 - 49
[9]
M. Siegbahn, "Relations between the K
and L Series of the High-Frequency
Spectra", Nature, Volume 96, Issue
2416, pp. 676
(1916). http://www.nature.com/nature/jo
urnal/v96/n2416/abs/096676b0.html
[10] E Bäcklin, M Siegbahn,
“Semi-optical” lines in the X-ray
spectra, Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 49, Issue 292,
1925, Pages 752 – 753
(University of Uppsala) Uppsala,
Sweden3  
[1] Figures 2 and 3: M Siegbahn, ''La
réflexion et la réfraction des rayons
X'', Journal de Physique et le Radium,
1925. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/j
pa-00205211/en/ {Siegbahn_Manne_ajp-jph
ysrad_1925_6_7_228_0_19250606.pdf} http
://jphysrad.journaldephysique.org/index.
php?option=com_article&access=standard&I
temid=129&url=/articles/jphysrad/abs/192
5/07/jphysrad_1925__6_7_228_0/jphysrad_1
925__6_7_228_0.html
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/11/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1925_6
_7_228_0.pdf

[2] The image of Swedish physicist,
and Nobel laureate Manne Siegbahn
(1886-1978) Source This image has
been downloaded
http://www.nndb.com/people/559/000099262
/ Date circa 1924. uploaded:
19:27, 25 December 2008
(UTC) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/ec/Manne_Siegbahn.jpg
75 YBN
[07/13/1925 AD] 5 		5059) A color image electronic scanning
camera.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
2. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
3. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
4. ^ "Vladimir
Kosma Zworykin." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/658633/Vladimir-Kosma-Zworykin>.
5. ^ Vladimir Zworykin (filed 1925,
patented 1928). "Television System".
Patent No. 1,691,324,. United States
Patent Office.
http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=m
Z9KAAAAEBAJ. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
{07/13/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Vladimir K. Zworykin." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/vladimir-zw
orykin
[2] VK Zworykin, "Electric
high-frequency signaling apparatus", US
Patent 1,484,049,
1924 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT1484049&id=vBFCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=zworykin&printsec=abstract#v=on
epage&q=zworykin&f=false
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
 
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
75 YBN
[10/22/1925 AD] 10 		5292) The transistor or solid-state
electronic switch and amplifier.5 6

This is the first non-vacuum tube
(solid state) electronic switch and
amplifier, also known as a
"field-effect transistor"7 and the
first millimeter size electronic
switch.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
2. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
4. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
6. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
7. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bllilienfeld.htm
8. ^ Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent
number: 1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS
FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
10. ^ Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number:
1745175, "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR
CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS", US
Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing
date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan
28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {10/22/1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Julius Lilienfeld".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Lili
enfeld
[2] Julius Lilienfeld, "Amplifier for
Electronic Circuits", Patent number:
1877140, Filing date: Dec 8, 1928,
Issue date: Sep 13,
1932 http://www.google.com/patents?id=j
vhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[3] Julius Lilienfeld, "Device for
Controlling Electric Current", Patent
number: 1900018, Filing date: Mar 28,
1928, Issue date: Mar 7
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Julius Lilienfeld, "Rectifying
Apparatus for Alternating Current",
Patent number: 1611653, Filing date:
Mar 27, 1926, Issue date: Dec 21,
1926. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
L7RrAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[5] Julius Lilienfeld, "Electrical
Condenser Device", Patent number:
1906691, Filing date: Mar 28, 1928,
Issue date: May
1933. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
SoZlAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA9
 
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
74 YBN
[01/26/1926 AD] 3 		6264) A system of television is
demonstrated publicly.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
{01/26/1926}
2. ^
http://www.helensburghheroes.com/heroes/
john_logie_baird
3. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
{01/26/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p76
[2] "John Logie Baird."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/49348/John-Logie-Baird>
(Royal Institution) London, England2
 
[1] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg

[2] John Logie Baird UNKNOWN
source: http://www.helensburghheroes.com
/files/baird.jpg
74 YBN
[03/06/1926 AD] 6 		5165) The concept of molecular
orbitals.1 2 3 Atomic orbitals are
thought to become molecular orbitals,
extending over two or more atoms in the
molecule.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Robert S. Mulliken, "The
Assignment of Quantum Numbers for
Electrons in Molecules. I", Phys. Rev.
32, 186–222 (1928)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v32/i
2/p186_1 {Mulliken_Robert_19280430.pdf}

2. ^ "Friedrich Hund." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/276471/Friedrich-Hund>.
3. ^ F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger
Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren"
("To explain some phenomena in the
Molecular Spectra."), Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36,
Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/
4. ^ "Robert Sanderson Mulliken." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-sand
erson-mulliken
5. ^ F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger
Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren"
("To explain some phenomena in the
Molecular Spectra."), Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36,
Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/
6. ^ F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger
Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren"
("To explain some phenomena in the
Molecular Spectra."), Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 36,
Numbers 9-10,
657-67. http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/pg425m73j6k1vp3r/ {03/06/1926}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p752-753
[2] Robert S.
Mulliken, "THE SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES
BY THERMAL AND PRESSURE DIFFUSION", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1922, 44 (5), pp
1033–1051. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01426a015
[3] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1966". Nobelprize.org. 23 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1966/
[4] Simões, Ana. "Mulliken, Robert
Sanderson." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 23. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 209-214.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(University of Göttingen) Göttingen,
Germany5  
[1] Description Hund,Friedrich 1920er
Göttingen.jpg English: Friedrich
Hund, Göttingen in the
twenties Deutsch: Friedrich Hund,
Göttingen in den 20er Jahren Date
1920er Jahre Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b7/Hund%2CFriedrich_1920
er_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg

[2] Description Mulliken Hund 1929
Chicago.jpg English: Robert Mulliken
and Friedrich Hund, 1929 at
Chicago Deutsch: Robert Mulliken und
Friedrich Hund, 1929 in Chicago Date
1929(1929) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Mulliken_Hund_1929_Ch
icago.jpg
74 YBN
[03/16/1926 AD] 3 4 5 		4968) The first flight of a liquid fuel
rocket engine.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
2. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
3. ^ Goddard, “Liquid-Propellant
Rocket Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
{03/16/1926}
4. ^ "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/236716/Robert-Hutchings-Goddard>.
{03/16/1926}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p688-689. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Robert Hutchings Goddard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 28 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/robert-godd
ard
[2] "Goddard, Robert Hutchings."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 433-434. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901665&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Robert Goddard". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Godd
ard
[4] Goddard, “A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes”, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 71, no. 2
(1919) Reprinted in: Goddard,
"Rockets" (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf}
[5] U.S. Patent 1,102,653 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H. Goddard,
http://www.google.com/patents?vid=1102
653
[6] U.S. Patent 1,103,503 - Rocket
apparatus - R. H.
Goddard, http://www.google.com/patents?
vid=1103503
[7] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p427
(Aunt Effie's Farm) Auburn,
Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] Plate from: Goddard,
“Liquid-Propellant Rocket
Development,” Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 95, no. 3
(1936) Reprinted in: Goddard,
''Rockets'' (New York, 1946).
{Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf

[2] English: Dr. Robert Hutchings
Goddard (1882-1945). Dr. Goddard has
been recognized as the father of
American rocketry and as one of the
pioneers in the theoretical exploration
of space. Robert Hutchings Goddard,
born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on
October 5, 1882, was theoretical
scientist as well as a practical
engineer. His dream was the conquest of
the upper atmosphere and ultimately
space through the use of rocket
propulsion. Dr. Goddard, died in 1945,
but was probably as responsible for the
dawning of the Space Age as the Wrights
were for the beginning of the Air Age.
Yet his work attracted little serious
attention during his lifetime. However,
when the United States began to prepare
for the conquest of space in the
1950's, American rocket scientists
began to recognize the debt owed to the
New England professor. They discovered
that it was virtually impossible to
construct a rocket or launch a
satellite without acknowledging the
work of Dr. Goddard. More than 200
patents, many of which were issued
after his death, covered this great
legacy. Date 0 Unknown date
0000(0000-00-00) Source Great
Images in NASA
Description http://dayton.hq.nasa.gov/I
MAGES/LARGE/GPN-2002-000131.jpg PD
source: Goddard_Robert_1946.pdf
74 YBN
[09/16/1926 AD] 7 8 		5114) The space between ultra-violet
and x-ray spectral lines is bridged
(around 10 nm).1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dauvillier, A. "Spectrographic
Junction between the X-ray Region and
the Extreme Ultra-Violet." Nature 118
(1926):
551. {Dauvillier_Alexandre_19260916.pdf
}
2. ^ Dauvillier, A. "La spectrographie
des rayons X de grande longueur d'onde.
S�ries N et O, et jonction avec
l'ultraviolet extr�me." J. phys.
radium 8.1 (1927):
1-12. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8_
1_1_0.pdf {Dauvillier_A_19261023.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. OSGOOD, "Soft X-ray
Spectra", Nature 119, 817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
{Osgood_TH_19270411.pdf}
4. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
}
5. ^ Dauvillier, A. "Spectrographic
Junction between the X-ray Region and
the Extreme Ultra-Violet." Nature 118
(1926):
551. {Dauvillier_Alexandre_19260916.pdf
}
6. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
}
7. ^ Dauvillier, A. "La spectrographie
des rayons X de grande longueur d'onde.
S�ries N et O, et jonction avec
l'ultraviolet extr�me." J. phys.
radium 8.1 (1927):
1-12. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8_
1_1_0.pdf {Dauvillier_A_19261023.pdf}
8. ^ T. H. Osgood, "X-Ray Spectra of
Long Wave-Length", Phys. Rev. 30,
567–573
(1927). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v30/i5/p567_1 {Osgood_TH_19270801.pdf
} {08/01/1927}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-lecture.pdf
[3] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
[4] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[5] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[6] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[7]
"Compton, Arthur Holly." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 366-372. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 12 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736
[9] A. Compton, "The
total reflexion of X-rays",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6,
1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270, 1923,
Pages 1121 – 1131
(Laboratoire de Recherches Physiques)
Paris, France5 |(University of Chicago)
Chicago, Illinois, USA6  
[1] Dauvillier, A. ''La spectrographie
des rayons X de grande longueur d'onde.
Séries N et O, et jonction avec
l'ultraviolet extrême.'' J. phys.
radium 8.1 (1927):
1-12. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/d
ocs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8_
1_1_0.pdf {Dauvillier_A_19261023.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/00/20/52/77/PDF/ajp-jphysrad_1927_8
_1_1_0.pdf

[2] T. H. OSGOOD, ''Soft X-ray
Spectra'', Nature 119, 817-817 (04 June
1927) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.html
{Osgood_TH_19270411.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Thomas H. Osgood former
Professor and Chair of the Michigan
State University Physics
Department. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n3005/abs/119817b0.htmlhttp://
www.pa.msu.edu/alumni/awards/Osgood-1.jp
g
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 4 5 		4309) The concept of satellites and
space stations.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568.
2. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blrocketTsiolkovsky.htm
3. ^ "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 13. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 482-484.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26
Apr. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830904380&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
4. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blrocketTsiolkovsky.htm
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p567-568. {1920}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin
Eduardovich." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 26
Apr. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9073
615>
Kaluga, Russia3 (presumably) 
[1] From Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s
1933 paper “Album of Space Travel”,
drawings of cosmonauts on a spacewalk.
It looks like they’re attached with
phone cords. UNKNOWN
source: http://enigmaland.tumblr.com/ima
ge/5771967930

[2] {ULSF: Note that this is from a
later work of 1933} Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky’s drawing of an astronaut
in a space suit using an airlock. From
his 1933 paper “Album of Space
Travel” UNKNOWN
source: http://fyeahcosmonauts.tumblr.co
m/image/5181057859
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 3 		4871) Helium is solidified.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Willem Hendrik Keesom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>.
2. ^ "Willem Hendrik Keesom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>.
3. ^ "Willem Hendrik Keesom."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 05
Nov. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/314161/Willem-Hendrik-Keesom>. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willem Hendrik Keesom".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Hend
rik_Keesom
(University of Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands2  
[1] Willem Hendrik Keesom
(1876-1956) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.knaw.nl/waals/images/
Keesom_portret.jpg
74 YBN
[1926 AD] 4 		5072) X-rays are found to greatly
increase the rate of genetic mutation.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727.
2. ^ HJ Muller, "The
Production of Mutations by X-Rays",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1928
September; 14(9): 714–726.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1085688/pdf/pnas01821-0038.pdf
{Muller_Hermann_19270424.pdf}
3. ^ "Hermann Joseph Muller."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396855/Hermann-Joseph-Muller>.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p726-727. {1926}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hermann Joseph Muller." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 02 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/hermann-jos
eph-muller
[2] HJ Muller,"The measurement of gene
mutation rate in Drosophila, its high
variability, and its dependence upon
temperature", Genetics,
1928 http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprin
t/13/4/279.pdf [Muller_Hermann_19271025
.pdf}
(University of Texas) Austin, Texas,
USA3  
[1] Hermann Joseph Muller The Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1946
was awarded to Hermann J. Muller ''for
the discovery of the production of
mutations by means of X-ray
irradiation''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller
.jpg
73 YBN
[03/03/1927 AD] 6 7 8 		4957) Electron beams are "diffracted"
using a single crystal of nickel.1 2 3
Electron beam particle intervals are
found to be equivalent to x-rays (100
pm).4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
2. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685.
4. ^ C. DAVISSON &
L. H. GERMER, "The Scattering of
Electrons by a Single Crystal of
Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560 (16 April
1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
5. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf}
6. ^ C. DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, "The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel", Nature 119, 558-560
(16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} {03/03/1927}
7. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf
{1927}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p685. {1925}

MORE INFO
[1] "Clinton Joseph Davisson."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/152874/Clinton-Joseph-Davisson>
[2] "Davisson, Clinton Joseph."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830901093&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Clinton Joseph Davisson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Jos
eph_Davisson
[4] C. J. Davisson and C. J. Calbick,
"Electron Lenses", Phys. Rev. 42,
580–580
(1932) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v42/i4/p580_1
[5] C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer, "A
Test for Polarization of Electron Waves
by Reflection", Phys. Rev. 33,
760–772 (1929)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v33/i
5/p760_1
[6] C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer,
"Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal
of Nickel", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1928 April; 14(4): 317–322
[7] Davisson, C. J.,
"The Scattering of Electrons by
Crystals", The Scientific Monthly,
Volume 28, Issue 1, pp.
41-51. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
29SciMo..28...41D
[8] Francis X. Dercum, "On the Nature
of Thought and Its Limitation",
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 68, No. 4
(1929), pp.
275-302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/98
4341
[9] Davisson and Germer, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., 14, 317
(1928). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
/articles/PMC1085484/
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA5  
[1] Image of page 1 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Image of page 2 of article: C.
DAVISSON & L. H. GERMER, ''The
Scattering of Electrons by a Single
Crystal of Nickel'', Nature 119,
558-560 (16 April 1927)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
119/n2998/abs/119558a0.html {Davisson_C
linton_19270416.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
AND Clinton Joseph Davisson (left;
1881-1958) and Lester Halbert Germer
(right; 1896-1971) in 1927. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v119/n2998/pdf/119558a0.pdfhttp://w
ww.scientific-web.com/en/Physics/Biograp
hies/images/DavissonGermer1.jpg

[2] Clinton Davisson.jpg English:
Clinton Davisson Date
1937(1937) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1937/davisson-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Clinton_Davisson.jpg
73 YBN
[05/21/1927 AD] 2 		5291) A human crosses the Atlantic
Ocean by plane (in 33 1/2 hours).1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p786.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p786.
{05/20/1972-05/21/1927}
 
[1] Description
LindberghStLouis.jpg Charles
Lindbergh, with Spirit of St. Louis in
background Date 31 May
1927(1927-05-31) Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3a23920. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/LindberghStLouis.jpg
73 YBN
[12/12/1927 AD] 4 		5113) The name "photon" is suggested
for the light quantum.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p735-736.
2. ^ A. Compton,
"X-rays as a branch of optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf}
3. ^
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1927/compton-bio.html
4. ^ A. Compton, "X-rays as a branch of
optics",
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] A. Compton, "The Corpuscular
Properties of Light", Rev. Mod. Phys.
V1, I1, p74–89
(1929) http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/
v1/i1/p74_1
[2] A. Compton, "The Spectrum of
Scattered X-Rays", Phys. Rev. V22, I5,
p409–413
(1923) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v22/i5/p409_1
[3] A. Compton, "A Quantum Theory of
the Scattering of X-rays by Light
Elements", Phys. Rev. 21, 483–502
(1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1
[4] A. Compton, "The wave-length of
hard gamma rays", Philosophical
Magazine Series 6, 1941-5990, Volume
41, Issue 245, 1921, Pages 770 – 777
[5]
A. Compton, "The total reflexion of
X-rays", Philosophical Magazine Series
6, 1941-5990, Volume 45, Issue 270,
1923, Pages 1121 – 1131
[6] "Compton,
Arthur Holly." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 366-372.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900965&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] A. H. Compton and R. L. Doan,
"X-Ray Spectra from a Ruled Reflection
Grating", PNAS 1925 V11 (I10)
p598-601. http://www.pnas.org/content/1
1/10/598.full.pdf+html?sid=b32d2ed9-9fe5
-47ce-93b4-6e4248df2927
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA3  
[1] A. Compton, ''X-rays as a branch of
optics'',
12/12/1927. http://nobelprize.org/nobel
_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/compton-l
ecture.pdf
{Compton_Arthur_19271212.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED AND [2] Arthur Holly
Compton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1927/compton-lectur
e.pdfhttp://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1927/compton.jpg

[2] Figure 3 from: A. Compton, ''A
Quantum Theory of the Scattering of
X-rays by Light Elements'', Phys. Rev.
21, 483–502 (1923)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v21/i
5/p483_1 {Compton_Arthur_19221213.pdf}
PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PR/v21/
i5/p483_1
73 YBN
[1927 AD] 3 		4947) Sleep is induced in cats using
electrodes directly connected to the
brain.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
2. ^ "Walter Rudolf Hess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
3. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf} {1927}

MORE INFO
[1] "Walter Rudolf Hess."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27
Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264128/Walter-Rudolf-Hess>
[2] Hardcastle, Valerie Gray. "Hess,
Walter Rudolf." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 21. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 302-306.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 28
Dec. 2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905745&v=2.1&u=&it=r&p=GVR
L&sw=w
[3] "Walter Rudolf Hess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudo
lf_Hess
[4] Walter Rudolf Hess, The Biology of
Mind (1964)
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland2  
[1] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
72 YBN
[02/16/1928 AD] 4 5 		5052) The "Raman effect": that light
with visible frequencies reflected (or
scattered) off of some substances can
change frequency.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A
New Type of Secondary Radiation",
Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
2. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A
New Type of Secondary Radiation",
Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf}
3. ^ "Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata
Raman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 31
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/490449/Sir-Chandrasekhara-Venkata-Rama
n>.
4. ^ C. V. RAMAN., K. S. KRISHNAN, "A
New Type of Secondary Radiation",
Nature 121, 501-502
(1928). http://www.nature.com/physics/l
ooking-back/raman/index.html {Raman_Cha
ndrasekhara_19280216.pdf} {02/16/1928}
5. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p717-718. {1928}

MORE INFO
[1] C. V. RAMAN, "A Change of
Wave-length in Light Scattering",
Nature V121, p619 (21 April
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3051/pdf/121619b0.pdf
[2] CV Raman, NSN Nath, "The
diffraction of waves by high frequency
sound waves. I, II", Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci,
1935 http://www.optics.rochester.edu/wo
rkgroups/opt256/raman.pdf
(University of Calcutta) Calcutta,
India2 3  
[1] C. V. RAMAN & K. S. KRISHNAN,
''The optical analogue of the Compton
effect'', Nature 121, p711 (05 May
1928) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v121/n3053/abs/121711a0.html {Raman
_Chandrasekhara_19280322.pdf} COPYRIGHT
ED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v121/n3053/pdf/121711a0.pdf

[2] Figure 1 from: [1]
Description The image of Indian
physicist C. V. Raman
(1888-1970). Source This image
has been downloaded from
http://www.nndb.com/people/724/000099427
/. Date uploaded: 15:58, 7 August
2007 (UTC) Author
prabhnoor COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c1/CVRaman.jpg
72 YBN
[06/11/1928 AD] 3 		5789) The first rocket powered plane.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Shayler, D.J., and I.A. Moule.
Women in Space: Following Valentina.
Springer London, Limited, 2005.
Springer Praxis Books,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pKENlNUWPEwC&pg=PA114
2. ^ Shayler, D.J., and I.A. Moule.
Women in Space: Following Valentina.
Springer London, Limited, 2005.
Springer Praxis Books,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pKENlNUWPEwC&pg=PA114
3. ^ Shayler, D.J., and I.A. Moule.
Women in Space: Following Valentina.
Springer London, Limited, 2005.
Springer Praxis Books,
p114. http://books.google.com/books?id=
pKENlNUWPEwC&pg=PA114

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.rexresearch.com/lippisch/lipp
isch.htm
[2] Video of Ente:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4_6P5ue2
g4
Wasserkuppe (one of the Rhone
mountains), Germany2  
[1] Description RRG Raketen-Ente
Deutsches Segelflugmuseum 02
2009-05-31.jpg Deutsch: RRG
Raketen-Ente: Frontansicht Date
Source Own work Author
Martin.bergner Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/04/RRG_Raketen-Ente_Deut
sches_Segelflugmuseum_02_2009-05-31.jpg

[2] Alexander Lippisch in
''Life'' COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rexresearch.com/lippi
sch/50505022.jpg
72 YBN
[07/22/1928 AD] 3 		5830) The first scientific pregnancy
test.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f}
2. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f}
3. ^ S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
"Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons", Journal
of Molecular Medicine, Volume 7, Number
30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: "The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary" {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.pd
f} {07/22/1928}
(Aus der Universitats-Frauenklinik der
Charite zu Berlin) Berlin, Germany2
 
[1] S. Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek,
''Die Schwangerschaftsdiagnose aus dem
Harn Durch Nachweis des
Hypophysenvorderlappenhormons'',
Journal of Molecular Medicine, Volume
7, Number 30, 1404-1411, DOI:
10.1007/BF01749963 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k44141013t594541/ Engli
sh: ''The solubility of lead sulfide
and lead chromate, the diagnosis of
pregnancy from the urine detectable by
the anterior
pituitary'' {Zondek_Bernhard_19280722.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k44141013t594541/
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 4 		6265) The infrared (or heat) movie
camera;1 2 which can see through fog
and make visible images of heat.3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml
2. ^ Sheldon and Grisewood, "Television
To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}
3. ^ Sheldon and Grisewood, "Television
To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf}
4. ^
http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/res
ources/tvhistory/baird.shtml {by 1928}

MORE INFO
[1] Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p76
[2] "John Logie Baird."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/49348/John-Logie-Baird>
[3]
http://www.helensburghheroes.com/heroes/
john_logie_baird
[4] "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>
[5] Moseley and Chapple, "Television
Present Methods of Picture
Transmission", 1929
London, England (verify) 
[1] Sheldon and Grisewood, ''Television
To-Day and To-Morrow'',
1930. {Television_To-Day_And_To-Morrow_
1930.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Sheldon and Grisewood,
"Television To-Day and To-Morrow",
1930.

[2] Description John Logie Baird
working on his transmitting station in
his laboratory. Source Hulton
Getty. Copy from Eye of the World Date
c 1926 Author
Unknown COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/c6/John_Logie_Baird%2C_Appara
tus.jpg
72 YBN
[1928 AD] 3 		6266) The first regular television
broadcasts.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "television." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 26 Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1262241/television-technology>.
2. ^
http://www.ge.com/innovation/timeline/in
dex.html
3. ^
http://www.ge.com/innovation/timeline/in
dex.html {1928}
(General Electric, WGY) Schenectady,
New York, USA2  
[1] Television 1927 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ge.com/innovation/tim
eline/index.html
71 YBN
[01/17/1929 AD] 3 4 		5061) The radial velocities of other
galaxies are found to be linearly
related to distance; the more distant
the galaxy, the higher the radial
velocity.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168-173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
2. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f}
3. ^ E Hubble, "A relation between
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1929 March 15; 15(3):
168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} {01/17/1929}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p720-722. {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] Hubble, E. P., "Cepheids in
spiral nebulae", The Observatory, Vol.
48, p. 139-142
(1925). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu/full/1925Obs....48..139H from: Hub
ble, Publications of the American
Astronomical Society V5, 1925, p261
[2]
Berendzen, R. & Hoskin, M., "Hubble's
Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral
Nebulae", Astronomical Society of the
Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 10, No. 504, p.
425-440
(1967). http://articles.adsabs.harvard.
edu//full/1971ASPL...10..4245B/0000437.0
00.html
[3] Edwin Powell Hubble, "The realm of
the nebulae",
1936. http://books.google.com/books?id=
kgiXdDGLpFUC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=hubbl
e+1925+american+astronomical&source=bl&o
ts=jvr9ucBYoh&sig=0zvGhy7ZruZatNAYgEZ4fS
jD9DE&hl=en&ei=6y4fTdPNOJG0sAPI7YiwCg&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved
=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936
(Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson,
California, USA2  
[1] [t Notice how the ''hump'' or
''bell'' of the spectrum, the region of
most intensity, of the galacitc
spectra, appears to stay centered for
each galaxy- it doesn't shift in either
direction - in my mind, the phenomenon
appears to be more of a scaling or
magnifying back of emission lines not a
shifting right or left.] From Edwin
Hubble, ''The Realm of the Nebulae'',
1936. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1931ApJ....74...43H

[2] Figure 1 from: E Hubble, ''A
relation between distance and radial
velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1929 March 15; 15(3): 168–173.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC522427/ {Hubble_Edwin_19290117.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: Edwin Hubble, "The Realm of the
Nebulae", 1936.
71 YBN
[04/22/1929 AD] 7 8 9 		4781) The electroencephalograph (or
EEG).1 2 3 Oscillations of the
electric potential on the surface of
the head are recognized and displayed
graphically.4 Changes in potential due
to muscle movements are also detected.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "electroencephalography."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>.
2. ^ Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf}
3. ^ Hans Berger, tr: Pierre Gloor,
"Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
4. ^
Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644.
5. ^ Hans Berger, tr:
Pierre Gloor, "Hans Berger on the
Electroencephalogram of Man", 1969.
6. ^
Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf}
7. ^ Berger, "Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.",
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/ {Berger_Hans_19
29_cr.pdf} {04/19/1929}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p644. {1929}
9. ^
"electroencephalography." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Web. 31 Aug. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9032
300>. {1929}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hans Berger". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger

(University of Jena) Jena, Germany6
 
[1] Figure 4 from: Berger, ''Über das
Elektroenkephalogramm des Menschen.'',
Archiv für Psychiatrie und
Nervenkrankheiten, 1929, 87:
527-570. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/u1r1122ww6x285w6/fulltext.pdf

[2] Hans Berger UNKNOWN
source: http://www.psychiatrie.uniklinik
um-jena.de/img/Psychiatrie_/Startseite/G
eschichte/Personen/640/UKJ_Psy_Hist_Pers
_Berger-Hans_07.jpg
71 YBN
[08/23/1929 AD] 3 4 		6500) Direct neuron writing to the eye
screen; a point on the occipital region
of the human brain is electrically
stimulated and the human sees a small
spot of light.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ FOERSTER, 0tfrid. (1929).
Beiträge zur Pathophysiologie der
Sehbahn und der Sehsphare. J. Journal
für Psychologie und Neurologie,
Leipzig. 39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf}
2. ^ G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). "The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
3. ^ FOERSTER, 0. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für Psychologie
und Neurologie, Leipzig. 39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf}
4. ^ G. Brindley, W. Lewin
(1968). "The sensation produced by
electrical stimulation of the visual
cortex". Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
 
[1] (translated from German) Location
and extent of sclerotic scar in case 2
on the Konvexitiit. •. • 19 points
of the field, from the en eye movement
to the right and Flammenskotome were
achieved. · - · - · - · - ·
Exzisionslinie. [1] FOERSTER,
0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED AND (translated from
German) Shrapnel injury of the left
occipital lobe FOERSTER, 0tfrid.
(1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED AND Otfrid Foerster UNKNOWN

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PSXlAAAAMAAJ http://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=PSXlAAAAMAAJ http://ars.els-cdn
.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0361923098001
245-gr2.jpg

[2] (translated from German) Location
and extent of sclerotic scar in case 2
on the Konvexitiit. •. • 19 points
of the field, from the en eye movement
to the right and Flammenskotome were
achieved. · - · - · - · - ·
Exzisionslinie. [1] FOERSTER,
0tfrid. (1929). Beiträge zur
Pathophysiologie der Sehbahn und der
Sehsphare. J. Journal für
Psychologie und Neurologie, Leipzig.
39, 463-485.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PSXlA
AAAMAAJ {Foerster_19290823.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=PSXlAAAAMAAJ
70 YBN
[02/??/1930 AD] 3 		5009) "Extragalactic nebulae" are
renamed "galaxies".1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ H. Shapley, "The
Super-Galaxy Hypothesis.", H Shapley -
Harvard College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf}
3. ^ H. Shapley, "The Super-Galaxy
Hypothesis.", H Shapley - Harvard
College Observatory Circular,
1930. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
30HarCi.350....1S {Shapley_Harlow_19300
2xx.pdf} {02/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] Shapley, "Remarks on the
Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe",
Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919),
311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] "parsec." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/parsec
[3] Shapley, H., "On the Nature and
Cause of Cepheid Variation",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 40, 1914,
p.448. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
914ApJ....40..448S
(Harvard College Observatory)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
70 YBN
[08/19/1930 AD] 3 		5177) Artificial radiation is induced
by accelerating protons and molecules
into lead and beryllium using a voltage
of 280 kV.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
2. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
3. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496 {Cockcroft_John_19300819.pdf}
{08/19/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[5]
"Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England2  
[1] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg

[2] Ernest Thomas Sinton
Walton COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/walton_
postcard.jpg
70 YBN
[10/10/1930 AD] 14 		5268) The circular particle accelerator
(the cyclotron) in which an
electromagnetic field accelerates and
deflects the path of ions into
circles.7 8 9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
2. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
3. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
4. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
5. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
7. ^ E. O. Lawrence
and N. E. Edlefsen, "On the Production
of High Speed protons", Science, 72,
No. 1867, 376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
8. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence, METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF IONS,
Patent 1948384, Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf}
9. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of High Speed
Canal Rays without the Use of High
Voltages", Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Vol. 17, No. 1
(Jan. 15, 1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
10. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and David H.
Sloan, "The Production of Heavy High
Speed ions Without the Use of High
Voltages", Phys. Rev. 38, 2021–2032
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i11/p2021_1 {Lawrence_Ernest_1931
1019.pdf}
11. ^ Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley
Livingston, "The Production of High
Speed Protons Without the Use of High
Voltages"Phys. Rev. 38, 834–834
(1931). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v38/i4/p834_1
12. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p780-781.
13. ^ Ernest O.
Lawrence and David H. Sloan, "The
Production of High Speed Canal Rays
without the Use of High Voltages",
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan. 15,
1931), pp.
64-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/8607
4 {Lawrence_Ernest_19301215.pdf}
14. ^ E. O. Lawrence and N. E.
Edlefsen, "On the Production of High
Speed protons", Science, 72, No. 1867,
376
(1930). {Lawrence_Ernest_19301010.pdf}
{10/10/1930}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1939". Nobelprize.org. 6 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1939/
[2] Ernest O. Lawrence, "The Ionization
of Atoms by Electron Impact", Phys.
Rev. 28, 947–961
(1926). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v28/i5/p947_1
[3] Ernest O. Lawrence and J. W. Beams,
"On the Nature of Light", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1927 April; 13(4):
207–212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1084928/
[4] Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, "The
Photoelectric Effect in Potassium
Vapour as a Function of the Frequency
of Light.", Thesis (PH.D.)--YALE
UNIVERSITY, 1925.Source: American
Doctoral Dissertations, Source code:
L1925., page: 0094
[5] John H. Lawrence,
Paul C. Aebersold, and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "Comparative Effects of
X-Rays and Neutrons on Normal and Tumor
Tissue", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1936
September; 22(9): 543–557.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076813/
[6] John H. Lawrence and Ernest O.
Lawrence, "The Biological Action of
Neutron Rays", Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 22, No.
2 (Feb. 15, 1936), pp.
124-133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/86
398
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA13  
[1] Figures 1-4 from: Ernest O.
Lawrence, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE
ACCELERATION OF IONS, Patent 1948384,
Filed:
01/26/1932. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAA
AEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abs
tract#v=onepage&q&f=false
{Lawrence_Ernest_19320126.pdf} UNKNOW
N
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT1948384&id=egdOAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=EO+Lawrence&printsec=abstract
#v=onepage&q&f=false

[2] Ernest Orlando Lawrence UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Uhse4P
aiRAY/TF7dj-zaM1I/AAAAAAAAAGw/6lxKVLTfhs
M/s320/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence.jpg
70 YBN
[10/23/1930 AD] 6 7 8 		5077) Very penetrating radiation is
found to be emitted from beryllium
bombarded with alpha particles, which
will be shown later to be neutrons.1 2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p727-728.
2. ^ W Bothe, "The
Nature of the Penetrating Radiation",
nature 123, 638-638 (27 April
1929. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v123/n3104/abs/123638a0.html
3. ^ W Bothe, W. KOLHÖRSTER, "Eine
Kern-γ-Strahlung bei leichten
Elementen", Naturwissenschaften,
1930 http://www.springerlink.com/index/
u7g05k4310132743.pdf "A nuclear
γ-radiation in light elements"
4. ^ W. Bothe,H.
Becker, “Kunstliche Erregung von
Kern-γ-Strahlen”, Zertschrift für
Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 "Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays" http://www.springerlink.com/in
dex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walther
_19301023.pdf}
5. ^ "Bothe, Walther Wilhelm Georg."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 337-339. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900555&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 "Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays" http://www.springerlink.com/in
dex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walther
_19301023.pdf} {10/23/1930}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p727-728. {1930}
8. ^
"Walther Bothe." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 02 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walther-bot
he {1930}

MORE INFO
[1] W Bothe, "Die Streuabsorption
der Elektronenstrahlen", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, 1929
-
Springer http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/w6547570xm23t365/ "The
absorption of the scattered electron"
(University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany5
 
[1] W. Bothe,H. Becker, “Kunstliche
Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen”,
Zertschrift für Physik, 66 (1930),
289–306 ''Artificial excitation of
nuclear
γ-rays'' http://www.springerlink.com/i
ndex/r3g8x8558826u77j.pdf {Bothe_Walthe
r_19301023.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/r3g8x8558826u77j/fulltext.pdf

[2] Figures 4 and 5 from: The Nobel
Prize in Physics 1954 was divided
equally between Max Born ''for his
fundamental research in quantum
mechanics, especially for his
statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction'' and Walther Bothe ''for
the coincidence method and his
discoveries made
therewith''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1954/bothe.jpg
70 YBN
[1930 AD] 4 		6578) Women gain the right to vote in
most major nations.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
2. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
3. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
4. ^ "woman suffrage". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 24 Feb.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/646779/woman-suffrage>.
 
[1] Description English: Rose
Sanderson Women's suffragists
demonstrate in February 1913. The
triangular pennants read ''VOTES FOR
WOMEN''. The negative is labeled ''ROSE
SANDERSON'', the woman holding the
trumpet. An adjacent photograph in the
series (LC-DIG-ggbain-12482) contains a
flyer labeled ''COME AND WATCH SUFFRAGE
SPREAD'' that identifies the event as
one sponsored by the National Suffrage
Association. MEDIUM: 1 negative :
glass ; 5 × 7 in. or
smaller. Русский: Роуз
Сандерсон
Демонстрация
суфражисток в
феврале 1913 г. На
треугольном вымпеле
читается надпись
«ГОЛОСОВАНИЕ -
ЖЕНЩИНАМ». Негатив
снимка помечен
словами «Роуз
Сандерсон», это имя
женщины, держащей
трубу. Date 10 February
1913 Source Library of Congress,
Prints & Photographs Division,
LC-DIG-ggbain-12483 (digital file from
original negative), archival TIFF
version (23 MiB), color level (pick
white point), cropped, and converted to
JPEG with the GIMP 2.6.1, image quality
88. Author Bain News Service.
Photographer unknown. Permission No
known restrictions on publication. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Rose-Sanderson-
Votes-for-Women.jpeg/1280px-Rose-Sanders
on-Votes-for-Women.jpeg

[2] {ULSF: Women protesting} PD
source: http://politic365.com/wp-content
/blogs.dir/1/files/2010/08/bellinghamsuf
fragists-1024x738.jpg
69 YBN
[05/29/1931 AD] 3 		5299) The theory that an anti-electron,
and anti-proton may exist with the same
mass, but opposite charge as an
electron and proton, and the theory
that a light particle is a sphere that
can collide with other light
particles.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
2. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
3. ^ P. A. M. Dirac, "Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
{05/29/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] Paul Dirac, "Quantum Theory
of the Electron" (1928)
[2] Paul Dirac, "The
Principles of Quantum Mechanics" (1930;
3rd ed. 1947)
[3] P. A. M. Dirac, "The
Fundamental Equations of Quantum
Mechanics", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
December 1, 1925
109:642-653. http://rspa.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/109/752/642.citatio
n and http://www.jstor.org/stable/9444
1?&Search=yes&searchText=Equations&searc
hText=Mechanics&searchText=Quantum&searc
hText=Fundamental&searchText=dirac&list=
hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch
%3Facc%3Don%26Query%3DThe%2BFundamental%
2BEquations%2Bof%2BQuantum%2BMechanics%2
Bdirac%26gw%3Djtx%26acc%3Don%26prq%3DThe
%2BFundamental%2BEquations%2Bof%2BQuantu
m%2BMechanics%26Search%3DSearch%26hp%3D2
5%26wc%3Don%26acc%3Don&prevSearch=&item=
25&ttl=1019&returnArticleService=showFul
lText
[4] P. A. M. Dirac, "On the
Annihilation of Electrons and Protons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1930),
26:
361-375. http://journals.cambridge.org/
action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&a
id=2040316
[5] P. A. M. Dirac, "The basis of
statistical quantum mechanics",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1929),
25:
62-66. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=2024364
[6] Dirac, P. A. M., "The Proton.",
Nature, Volume 126, Issue 3181, pp.
605-606
(1930). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
930Natur.126..605D
(St. John's College, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England2  
[1] P. A. M. Dirac, ''Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND © Peter Lofts
Photography/ National Portrait Gallery,
London Paul
Dirac,1902-1984 Founder (with
others) of the disciplines of quantum
mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics. Bristol-born
theoretical physicist who received the
Nobel Prize for Physics (with Erwin
Shrodinger) for 'the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory' in
1933. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 http://mshed.org/media/10756785/38148
_fullimage-n_p363(8)_201302041118.jpg

[2] P. A. M. Dirac, ''Quantised
Singularities in the Electromagnetic
Field'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1,
1931), pp.
60-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 {Dirac_Paul_19310529.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND © Peter Lofts
Photography/ National Portrait Gallery,
London Paul
Dirac,1902-1984 Founder (with
others) of the disciplines of quantum
mechanics and quantum
electrodynamics. Bristol-born
theoretical physicist who received the
Nobel Prize for Physics (with Erwin
Shrodinger) for 'the discovery of new
productive forms of atomic theory' in
1933. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/9563
9 http://mshed.org/media/10756785/38148
_fullimage-n_p363(8)_201302041118.jpg
69 YBN
[09/10/1931 AD] 18 		5446) The electron microscope, which
uses magnetic fields to focus electron
beams similar to how a lens focuses
light beams.9 10 11 12 13 14

This microscope is a "transmission
electron microscope" (or TEM) which
transmits electrons through the
specimen.15 16
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
2. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
4. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

5. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
6. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
8. ^ "Ernst Ruska." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

9. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
10. ^ M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/ {Rusk
a_Ernst_19320616.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p820-821.
12. ^ "Ernst Ruska."
A Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-ruska

13. ^
http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_e/mainframe_
e.html
14. ^ Max Knoll, et al, "Electron
Microscope", Patent number: 2131536
Filing date: Jun 23, 1934, Issue date:
Sep 27,
1938 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT2131536&id=g4VhAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=knoll+m&printsec=abstract#v=one
page&q=knoll%20m&f=false
15. ^ Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475.
16. ^ Jeremy, B., M. Michael, and T.
Rosemary. Under the Microscope: a
Hidden World Revealed. Cambridge
University Press,
1987. http://books.google.com/books?id=
30A5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA189
17. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf}
18. ^ M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag
zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.",
Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661,
eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} {09/10/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany17  
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
69 YBN
[10/03/1931 AD] 6 7 		5161) The first synthetic rubber:
neoprene.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
2. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf}
3. ^ "Wallace Carothers." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others
4. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf}
5. ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
6. ^ Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042 {Carothers_Wallac
e_19311003.pdf} {10/03/1931}
7. ^ "Wallace
Carothers." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 22 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/wallace-car
others {1931}
( E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA5  
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
69 YBN
[1931 AD] 3 		5054) Vitamin A is synthesized.1
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718.
2. ^ "Paul Karrer."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/312666/Paul-Karrer>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p718. {1931}
(Chemical Institute) Zürich,
Switzerland2  
[1] Description Paul Karrer (21
April 1889 – 18 June 1971), Swiss
organic chemist. Photograph taken
August 7, 1933. Source
Bettmann/CORBIS Article Paul
Karrer Portion used Entire Low
resolution? Yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/43/Paul_Karrer.jpg
68 YBN
[02/17/1932 AD] 6 7 		5086) The neutron is identified and
distinguished from a hydrogen atom as
having slightly less mass.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
2. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
3. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
4. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf}
5. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
6. ^ J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence
of a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf {Chadwick_Ja
mes_19320217.pdf} {possible neutron:)
02/17/1932}
7. ^ J. Chadwick, "The Existence of a
Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber,
"The Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect a
neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England5  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true

[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
68 YBN
[03/01/1932 AD] 3 		5342) The electric potential created in
a single neuron in the eye of a
horse-shoe crab when light contacts the
retina is measured; around 0.5
millivolts.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf}
2. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf}
3. ^ H. KEFFER HARTLINE AND C. H.
GRAHAM, "NERVE IMPULSES FROM SINGLE
RECEPTORS IN THE EYE", JOURNAL OF
CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932, p227. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} {03/01/1932}
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: H. KEFFER HARTLINE
AND C. H. GRAHAM, ''NERVE IMPULSES FROM
SINGLE RECEPTORS IN THE EYE'', JOURNAL
OF CELLULAR AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY,
V1, Num 2, 1932. Reprinted
in: American Journal of Physiology,
January 1938 vol. 121 no. 2
400-415. http://ajplegacy.physiology.or
g/content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html {Hart
line_Haldan_19320301.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/
content/121/2/400.full.pdf+html

[2] Haldan Keffer Hartline Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1967/hartline.jpg
68 YBN
[04/16/1932 AD] 12 		5182) Atomic fission and the first
nuclear transformation by protons:
Lithium atoms are split by protons
under 125 kilovolts into two Helium
atoms.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
2. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
3. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
4. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
5. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
6. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
7. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
8. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
9. ^ "John Cockcroft." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
10. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S.
WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by
Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
11. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S.
WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by
Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
12. ^ J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S.
WALTON , "Disintegration of Lithium by
Swift Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf} {04/16/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[2] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[3] H Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[4]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[5] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[6]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[7] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[8] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[9] "Cockcroft, John Douglas." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[10] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[11] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[12] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[13] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[14] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England11  
[1] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, ''Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons'', Nature 129, 649-649 (30
April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html {Cock
croft_John_19320416.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Enest S Walton,
Lord Rutherford and John Cockcroft:
1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.htmlhttp://
www.aip.org/history/exhibits/lawrence/im
ages/epa-12.jpg

[2] Enest S Walton, Lord Rutherford
and John Cockcroft: 1932 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/exhib
its/lawrence/images/epa-12.jpg
68 YBN
[05/08/1932 AD] 3 		5386) A light source from outside the
solar system is found to emit radio
frequencies of light.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves
from Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
2. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves from
Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf}
3. ^ Jansky, Karl G., "Radio Waves from
Outside the Solar System", Nature,
Volume 132, Issue 3323, pp. 66
(1933). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
933Natur.132...66J {Jansky_Karl_1932050
8.pdf} {05/08/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] Jansky, Karl G., "Directional
Studies of Atmospherics at High
Frequencies", Proceedings of the
Institute of Radio Engineers, 1932,
V20,
p1920. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/2005ASPC..345....3J
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) New York
City, New York, USA2  
[1] figure 1 from: Jansky, KG,
''Electrical phenomena that apparently
are of interstellar origin.'', Popular
Astronomy, 41, 548-55. (1935)
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi
-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&plate_s
elect=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&journal=
PA... {Jansky_Karl_19330914.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=41&p
late_select=NO&page=548&plate=&cover=&jo
urnal=PA...

[2] He built an antenna, pictured
here, designed to receive radio waves
at a frequency of 20.5 MHz (wavelength
about 14.5 meters). It was mounted on
a turntable that allowed it to rotate
in any direction, earning it the name
''Jansky's merry-go-round''. By
rotating the antenna, one could find
what the direction was to any radio
signal. After recording signals
from all directions for several months,
Jansky identified three types of
static: 1. nearby thunderstorms, 2.
distant thunderstorms, and 3. a faint
steady hiss of unknown origin. Jansky
spent over a year investigating the
third type of static. It rose and fell
once a day, leading Jansky to think at
first that he was seeing radiation from
the Sun. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/ima
ges/jansky1.gif
68 YBN
[06/15/1932 AD] 3 		5183) A variety of elements are
disintegrated using high-speed protons,
for example Fluorine into Oxygen and
Sodium into Neon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
2. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
3. ^ J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. II. The Disintegration
of Elements by High Velocity Protons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A July 1, 1932
137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
{06/15/1932}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Cockcroft." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 23 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-cockcr
oft
[2] "Ernest Walton." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 23 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-walt
on
[3] H. GREINACHER, “Eneugung einer
Gleichspannung vom vielfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformator,” Bull. SEV 11.59-66,
(1920)
[4] J. D. COCKCROFT and E. T. S.
WALTON, “Experiments with High
Velocity Ions,” Proc. Roy. SOC.
London, Series A 136, 619, (1932)
[5] H
Greinacher, "Erzeugung einer
Gleichspannung vom veilfachen Betrag
einer Wechselspannung ohne
Transformer" Bulletin des
Schweizerischen Elektrotechnischen
Vereins, des Verbandes Schweizerischer
Elektrizitätswerke, V11, p59-66, 1920
[6]
Joe W. Kwan, Oscar A. Anderson, Louis
L. Reginato, Michael C. Vella, Simon
S. Yu, Electrostatic Quadrupole DC
Accelerators for BNCT Applications,
04/1994
[7] "Heinrich Greinacher". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gr
einacher
[8]
http://www.electrosuisse.ch/g3.cms/s_pag
e/84410/s_name/greinacherh
[9] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions", Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 129, No. 811
(Nov. 3, 1930), pp.
477-489. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
496
[10] Henry A. Barton, "Comparison of
protons and electrons in the excitation
of x-rays by impact Original Research
Article", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Volume 209, Issue 1, January
1930, Pages
1-19. http://www.sciencedirect.com/scie
nce?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V04-49WK9PH-4G
H&_user=4422&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1930&_
alid=1617078843&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=
search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_cdi=5636&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&
view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version=1
&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=7ed91ac1
a7c90f1548a87974be6c3ca8&searchtype=a
[11] "Cockcroft, John Douglas."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 3. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 328-331. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900939&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[12] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Jan 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1951/
[13] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Artificial Production of Fast
Protons", nature 129, 242-242 (13
February
1932. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v129/n3250/abs/129242a0.html
[14] J. D. COCKCROFT , C. W. GILBERT &
E. T. S. WALTON , "Production of
Induced Radioactivity by High Velocity
Protons", nature 133, 328-328 (03 March
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3357/abs/133328a0.html
[15] J. D. COCKCROFT & E. T. S. WALTON
, "Disintegration of Lithium by Swift
Protons", Nature 129, 649-649 (30 April
1932). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v129/n3261/abs/129649a0.html
[16] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments
in the Method of Obtaining High
Velocity Positive Ions", Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A June 1, 1932 136:619-630;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/136/8
30/619.full.pdf+html
[17] J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S.
Walton, "Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. III. The Disintegration
of Lithium, Boron, and Carbon by Heavy
Hydrogen Ions", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
May 1, 1934 144:704-720;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0078 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/144/8
53/704.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[18] J. D. Cockcroft, C. W. Gilbert,
and E. T. S. Walton, "Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. IV. The
Production of Induced Radioactivity by
High Velocity Protons and Diplons",
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A January 1, 1935
148:225-240;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0015 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/148/8
63/225.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[19] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. V. Further Experiments
on the Disintegration of Boron", Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A March 2, 1936
154:246-261;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0049 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/246.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
[20] J. D. Cockcroft and W. B. Lewis,
"Experiments with High Velocity
Positive Ions. VI. The Disintegration
of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen by
Deuterons", Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A March
2, 1936 154:261-279;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0050 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/154/8
81/261.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
(Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge
University) Cambridge, England2  
[1] Figure 1 from: [2] J. D. Cockcroft
and E. T. S. Walton, ''Experiments with
High Velocity Positive Ions. II. The
Disintegration of Elements by High
Velocity Protons'', Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
A July 1, 1932 137:229-242;
doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133 http://rspa.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/137/8
31/229.full.pdf+html?sid=e2be827d-e445-4
270-a941-c4c2aaa2a385
{Cockcroft_John_19320615.pdf}
source: http://rspa.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/137/831/229.full.pdf+html
?sid=e2be827d-e445-4270-a941-c4c2aaa2a38
5

[2] Sir John Douglas
Cockcroft COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1951/cockcro
ft_postcard.jpg
68 YBN
[08/02/1932 AD] 6 		5381) The positive electron (the
positron) is identified using a cloud
chamber.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
2. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
3. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257 {Anderson_Carl_D_19320901.pdf}
4. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
5. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
6. ^ Carl D. Anderson, "The Positive
Electron", Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} {08/02/1932}
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California5  
[1] Figure 1: Carl D. Anderson, ''The
Positive Electron'', Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v43/i6/p491_1

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
68 YBN
[1932 AD] 3 		6261) Plastic magnetic recording tape.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p71.
2. ^
http://www.basf.com/group/corporate/en/a
bout-basf/history/1925-1944/index
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p71.
{1932}
(BASF) Ludwigshafen, Germany2  
[1] Sensation at the 1935 Berlin Radio
Fair: The magnetophone developed by AEG
with the new magnetic tape from
Ludwigshafen. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basf.com/group/corpor
ate/en/function/conversions:/publish/con
tent/about-basf/history/1925-1944/images
/Magnetophon.jpg

[2] English: German Radio Station
TORN.FU.G. Approx. 1939. Together
with tape recorder Ton Sb, it formed a
basic radio station of the regimental
control link. Transmitter power was 2
watts, wavelength range 85 - 120 meters
(2.5 to 3.5 MHz). As Red Army radio
stations (RAF, RB, RCB etc.) operated
in this frequency band also, in
combination with multifunction tape
unit it was used for radio intelligence
and spreading of false
information. Military History Museum
of Artillery, Engineers and Signal
Corps, Saint Petersburg. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%93%D0%95%D0
%A0%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%
D0%AF_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%
A1%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_T
ORN.FU.G._%28%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29
.jpg/1252px-%D0%93%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%
90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF_%D0%A0%
D0%90%D0%94%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9
0%D0%9D%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%AF_TORN.FU.G._%28
%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%29.jpg
67 YBN
[03/??/1933 AD] 4 		4164) The speed of light in a vacuum is
measured.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mysterious Variation in Speed of
Light", Popular Science Monthly, March
1934,
p25 http://books.google.com/books?id=GS
gDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25&dq=michelson+speed+li
ght+date:1933-1934&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepag
e&q=michelson%20speed%20light%20date%3A1
933-1934&f=false
2. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F Pearson,
"Measurement of the velocity of light
in a partial vacuum", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M
3. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F Pearson,
"Measurement of the velocity of light
in a partial vacuum", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M
4. ^ AA Michelson, FG Pease, F Pearson,
"Measurement of the velocity of light
in a partial vacuum", The Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 82, 1935,
p26. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/193
5ApJ....82...26M {frmo 09/1929-03/1933
results reported in 1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Albert Abraham Michelson." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[2] "Albert Abraham Michelson."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 07 Nov. 2009.
http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-abra
ham-michelson
[3] "Albert Abraham Michelson".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Abra
ham_Michelson
[4]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1907/michelson-bio.html
[5] Albert Michelson, "Interference
phenomena in a new form of
refractometer", Philosophical magazine.
1882, volume: 13 issue: 81 page:
236 http://books.google.com/books?id=4J
AOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philosoph
ical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+int
erference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilosop
hical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A1882
-1882%20interference&f=false
and http://books.google.com/books?id=HP
cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editio
ns:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepage&
q=michelson&f=false
[6] Albert A. Michelson, "The relative
motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous ether", The American
Journal of Science, Volume 122, 1881,
p120. http://books.google.com/books?id=
S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[7] Albert Michelson, "Studies in
Optics", Chicago Universityt Press,
1927, p156
[8] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p478
[9] "Michelson,
A.A.." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Nov.
2009
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9052
478>
[10] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p530-531
[11] George
FitzGerald, "The Ether and the Earth's
Atmosphere.", Science, Vol 13, Num 328,
1889,
p390. http://books.google.com/books?id=
8IQCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA378&dq=intitle:science
+date:1889-1889#v=onepage&q=michelson&f=
false
[12] Hendrik Lorentz, "The Relative
Motion of the Earth and the Ether",
Versl. K. Akad. W. Amsterdam, 1, 74,
1892
[13] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p543-544
[14] Albert
Michelson, "Interference Phenomena in a
new Form of Refractometer",
Philosophical Magazine, 1882,
p236. http://books.google.com/books?id=
4JAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=intitle:philoso
phical+intitle:Magazine+date:1882-1882+i
nterference#v=onepage&q=intitle%3Aphilos
ophical%20intitle%3AMagazine%20date%3A18
82-1882%20interference&f=false
[15] Albert Michelson and Edward
Morley, "On a Method of making the
Wave-length of Sodium Light the actual
and practical standard of length",
American Journal of Science, V134,
1887,
p427. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edit
ions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepag
e&q=michelson&f=false
[16] "Michelson, Albert Abraham."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 371-374. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Gale.
University of California - Irvine. 6
Nov. 2009
<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=GV
RL&u=univca20>
[17] Albert-A. MICHELSON, "Comparaison
du mètre international avec la
longueur d'onde de la lumière du
cadmium.", Comptes Rendus, v116, 1893,
p790. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k30724.r=michelson.f792.langEN tran
slation from French: Albert Michelson,
"Comparison of the International Metre
with the Wave-Length of the Light of
Cadmium.", Astronomy and astro-physics,
Volume 12,
1893. http://books.google.com/books?id=
_iKKbuNsc34C&pg=RA2-PA556&dq=michelson+d
ate:1893-1893#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[18]
http://books.google.com/books?id=wjrOAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA134&dq=michelson+betelgeuse+d
ate:1920-1920#v=onepage&q=michelson%20be
telgeuse%20date%3A1920-1920&f=false
[19] A. A. Michelson, "On the
Application of Interference Methods To
Astronomical Measurements", proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
vol 6, 1920,
p474. http://books.google.com/books?id=
OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA474&dq=michelson+date:
1920-1920#v=snippet&q=betelgeuse&f=false

[20] A. A. Michelson and F. G. Pease,
"Measurement of the diameter of α
Orionis with the interferometer", The
Astrophysical Journal, vol 53,
p49. http://books.google.com/books?id=v
Y0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56&dq=betelgeuse+as
trophysical+journal+date:1920-1921#v=one
page&q=betelgeuse&f=false
[21] A. A. Michelson and Henry G. Gale,
"The Rigidity of the Earth", The
Astrophysical Journal, v50,
p330. http://books.google.com/books?id=
HhvOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=michelson+water
+level&lr=#v=onepage&q=michelson%20water
%20level&f=false
[22] John L. Coontz, "Find Mysterious
Error in Speed of Light", Popular
Science Monthly, 12/1932,
p36. http://books.google.com/books?id=i
igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA36&dq=michelson+speed+l
ight+date:1932-1934&lr=&as_brr=1#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson%20speed%20light%20date%3A
1932-1934&f=false
[23] Froome and Essen, "The Velocity of
Light and Radio Waves", 1969, p v-vi
[24]
Froome and Essen, "The Velocity of
Light and Radio Waves", 1969, p51
[25]
Essen, L. and Gordon-Smith, A. C.
(1945) J. IEE, 92, Part III A, Num 9,
p1374
[26] Smith, Franklin, Whiting (1947)
JIEE, 94, Part III, p391
[27] Aslakson,
Nature, v64, 1949a, p711
[28] Froome and
Essen, "The Velocity of Light and Radio
Waves", 1969, p75-80
Irvine, CA, USA3  
[1] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
AND [2] from 1933 Popular
Science COPYRIGHTED AND [4] Albert
Michelson (verify) Photo made in 1887
PD
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gifhttp://books.google.com/books?id=GSg
DAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs
_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=falsehttp://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=OxYLAAAAYAAJ&pg
=PA474&dq=michelson+date:1920-1920#v=sni
ppet&q=betelgeuse&f=false

[2] Figure from 1935 paper in
Astrophysical Journal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/cache/seri/ApJ../0082/600/0000029.000
.gif
67 YBN
[07/30/1933 AD] 4 5 6 		5069) Frequency modulation (or FM)
radio communication.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726.
2. ^ Armstrong, E.
H., U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
3. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
4. ^ Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066
{07/30/1933}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p725-726. {1939}
6. ^ "Edwin
H. Armstrong." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/35567/Edwin-H-Armstrong>. {1933}

MORE INFO
[1] "Regenerative circuit".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerativ
e_circuit
[2] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,113,149, Wireless receiving system,
1914. http://www.google.com/patents?vid
=1113149
[3] "superheterodyne reception."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/574335/superheterodyne-reception>
[4] Armstrong, E. H., U.S. Patent
1,342,885, Method of receiving high
frequency oscillation,
1922. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
EZpBAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
New York City, New York, USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: Armstrong, E. H.,
U.S. Patent 1,941,066,
1933 http://www.google.com/patents/abou
t?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&dq=1941066 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents/ab
out?id=uyFoAAAAEBAJ&output=text

[2] Edwin Howard Armstrong, Radio
Engineer COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.todaysengineer.org/20
08/Dec/images/history-pic.jpg
66 YBN
[01/29/1934 AD] 4 5 6 		5192) The first chemical proof of
atomic transmutation and atomic
fusion.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Joliot, Frédéric." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 151-157. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902211&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Curie, Ir�ne, and Fr�d�ric
Joliot. "S�paration chimique des
nouveaux radio�l�ments �metteurs
d��lectrons positifs." Comptes
rendus 198 (1934):
559-561. http://archive.org/details/Com
ptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0198 {Comp
tesRendusAcadmieDesSciences-Tome198-Janv
ier-juin1934_text.pdf}
3. ^ F. Joliot, "Les nouveaux
radioéléments. Preuves chimiques des
transmutations", Journal de chimie
physique, 31 (1934), 611.
{Joliot_Frederic_19341114.pdf}
4. ^ Curie, Ir�ne, and Fr�d�ric
Joliot. "S�paration chimique des
nouveaux radio�l�ments �metteurs
d��lectrons positifs." Comptes
rendus 198 (1934):
559-561. http://archive.org/details/Com
ptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0198 {Comp
tesRendusAcadmieDesSciences-Tome198-Janv
ier-juin1934_text.pdf}
5. ^ "Joliot-Curie, Irène." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 7. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 157-159. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 24 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902212&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {01/15/1934}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p771-772,758-759.
{1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frédéric and Irène
Joliot-Curie." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/1353203/Frederic-and-Irene-Joliot-Curi
e>
[2] I. Curie, F. Joliot, "Artificially
Produced Radioelements", Joint
Conference of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Physics, and the
Physical Society, 1 (Cambridge, 1934)
(Radium Institute) Paris, France3
 
[1] Figure from: I. Curie, F. Joliot,
''Un nouveau type de radioactivé'',
Comptes rendus, V198 (1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image

[2] Chemical equation from; I.
Curie, F. Joliot, ''Un nouveau type de
radioactivé'', Comptes rendus, V198
(1934),
p254. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k31506/f254.image {Curie_Irene_Joli
ot_Frederic_19340115.pdf}
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/bpt6k31506/f254.image
66 YBN
[03/09/1934 AD] 8 		4755) The atomic fusion of two Hydrogen
atoms into a Helium atom.4 5 6
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
3. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck
and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
4. ^ "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 10 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
5. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
6. ^ M. L. E. Oliphant, P. Harteck
and Lord Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 144, No. 853 (May 1, 1934), pp.
692-703 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5553 {Oliphant_Marcus_19340414.pdf}
7. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}
8. ^ Ernest Rutherford, Marcus
Oliphant, Paul Hartek, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Nature, March 17, 1934, 133, p413.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v133/n33
59/abs/133407a0.html/abs/133413a0.html
AND http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-Histo
ry/Rutherford-1934a/Rutherford-1934a.htm
l {Rutherford_19340309.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ernest Rutherford."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 12 Aug. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernest-ruth
erford-1st-baron-rutherford-of-nelson
[2] "Ernest Rutherford". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Ruth
erford
[3] Ernest Rutherford, "Radioactive
transformations", C. Scribner's Sons,
1906
http://books.google.com/books?id=Rb0KA
AAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=rutherfor
d&hl=en&ei=C4lkTIvqDZOjnQe_urBe&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
[4] Ernest Rutherford, Collected
papers., New York, Interscience
Publishers, 1962, 3 volumes
[5] Ernest
Rutherford, "A Magnetic Detector of
Electrical Waves, and Some of its
applications", Philosophical
Transactions A, 01/01/1897,
189:1-24. http://rsta.royalsocietypubli
shing.org/content/189/1.full.pdf+html?si
d=75c97b8c-5669-4ad5-a5fb-51b24afaa343
[6] Ernest Rutherford (obituary), The
London, Edinburgh and Dublin
philosophical magazine and journal of
science, 1937, p1022
[7] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Modern Theories of Electricity and
their Relation to the Franklinian
Theory", The record of the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Benjamin Franklin, American
Philosophical Society, delivered April
18, 1906,
p123. http://books.google.com/books?id=
wQIOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false
[8] Rutherford, "The Velocity and rate
of Recombination of the Ions of Gases
exposed to Rontgen Radiation.",
Philosophical Magazine, S5, V44, N270,
Nov 1897,
p422. http://books.google.com/books?id=
utXnmtFZ6TUC&pg=PA422&dq=The+velocity+an
d+rate+of+recombination+of+the+ions+of+g
ases+exposed+to+R%C3%B6ntgen+radiation&h
l=en&ei=A8JpTJKVDYzWtQO8mp2kBw&sa=X&oi=b
ook_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCkQ6
AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Rutherford
publications: http://www.rutherford.org
.nz/bibliography.htm
[10] Rutherford, "Uranium Radiation and
the Electrical Conduction Produced by
It", Phil Mag ser 5 xlvii 109-163
1899. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ipMOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110&dq=Uranium+Radiati
on+and+the+Electrical+Conduction+Produce
d+by+It&hl=en&ei=TctpTKKkOZO8sAObsu2mBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&v
ed=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Uranium%20Rad
iation%20and%20the%20Electrical%20Conduc
tion%20Produced%20by%20It&f=false
[11] Rutherford, "A Radioactive
Substance emitted from Thorium
Compound", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix 1-14
1900.
http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/
Rutherford-half-life.html
[12] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p395
[13] Rutherford, "Radioactivity
Produced in Substances by the Action of
Thorium Compounds", Phil Mag ser 5 xlix
161-192
1990 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
EwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22Rad
ioactivity+Produced+in+Substances+by+the
+Action+of+Thorium+Compounds%22&source=b
l&ots=-cyiagAP1C&sig=jdQ3u179zO6Xi1azPnw
X4kW8Bgc&hl=en&ei=8xxrTMbZJZH0tgOPn-lG&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Radioactivi
ty%20Produced%20in%20Substances%20by%20t
he%20Action%20of%20Thorium%20Compounds%2
2&f=false
[14] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p664-665
[15] Rutherford and
Soddy, "The Radioactivity of Thorium
Compounds II, The Cause and Nature of
Radioactivity", Transactions of the
Chemical Society, v81, 1902,
pp837-860. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=uVWNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq
=editions:UOM39015067129323#v=onepage&q=
rutherford&f=false
[16] Rutherford, Brooks, "Comparison of
the Radiations from Radioactive
Substances", Phil Mag, s6, 4, pp1-23,
July 1902
[17] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the
Easily Absorbed Rays from Radium",
Phil. Mag., S6, V 4, Feb 1903,
pp177-187.
http://books.google.com/books?id=EFQwAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=The+Magnetic
+and+Electric+Deviation+of+the+Easily+Ab
sorbed+Rays+from+Radium&source=bl&ots=hd
6YYVJA6n&sig=jXFrc1rH_POEoKypoNDmYkoHIHw
&hl=en&ei=4b9tTJmFI5OisQPYo7H5Cg&sa=X&oi
=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBI
Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Magnetic%20and
%20Electric%20Deviation%20of%20the%20Eas
ily%20Absorbed%20Rays%20from%20Radium&f=
false
[18] "emanation." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20
Aug. 2010.
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[19] Rutherford, Soddy, "Note on the
condensation points of thorium and
radium emanations", Proc Chem Soc
219-20
1902. http://books.google.com/books?id=
ro0FAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=Note+on+the+con
densation+points+of+thorium+and+radium+e
manations&hl=en&ei=cRNvTJ3eHIi-sAOopo26C
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Note%20on%2
0the%20condensation%20points%20of%20thor
ium%20and%20radium%20emanations&f=false
[20] Rutherford, Soddy, "Condensation
of the Radioactive Emanations", Phil
Mag ser 6, v 561-76 1903
[21] Rutherford,
"Charge Carried by the α and β Rays
of Radium", Phil Mag, August 1905, s6,
v10, pp193-208
[22] Rutherford, "Radioactivity",
ed 1
1904. http://books.google.com/books?id=
xDwJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=u-dyTO3LC4m6sAOOhfTMDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ve
d=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false
[23] Rutherford, "Radioactivity" ,ed 2
1905. http://books.google.com/books?id=
g0MNAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ruth
erford&hl=en&ei=YudyTOL9E4nGsAP3ppzDDQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ve
d=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
[24] E. Rutherford, H. Geiger, "A
Method of Counting the Number of α
Particles from Radio-active Matter",
Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 1908, V52, N9,
pp1-3
[25] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p687-688
[26] Rutherford, "The
Scattering of the α and β Rays and
the Structure of the Atom", Proceedings
of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 4, 55,
03/07/1911, pp18-20
[27] Ernest Rutherford,
"The Structure of the Atom", Phil Mag,
March 1914, s6, v27,
pp488-498. http://www.chemteam.info/Che
m-History/Rutherford-1914.html
[28] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Aug.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[29] Rutherford, "Radiations from
Exploding Atoms", Nature, 95,
1915,pp494-8
[30] Rutherford, Collision of α
Particles with Light Atoms, Phil. Mag.
June 1919, s6, 37, pp537-61
[31] Ernest
Rutherford, "Collision of α Particles
with Light Atoms", Phil. Mag. June
1919, s6, 37, pp581-87
[32] Ernest Rutherford,
"Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
Backerian Lecture", The Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 97, 1920,
pp374-400
[33] Ernest Rutherford, "The
Disintegration of Elements by
α-Particles", Nature, March 10, 1921,
107, p41
[34] Ernest Rutherford,
"Artificial Disintegration of the
Elements", Proceedings of the Physical
Society, August 1924, 36, pp417-22
[35] Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p729-730
[36] Ernest
Rutherford, "Disintegration of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature, April 4 1925, 115,
pp493-4
[37] Rutherford, Wynn-Williams, Lewis,
Bowden, "Analysis of α-Rays by an
Annular Magnetic Field", Proceedings of
the Royal Society, A, 139, 1933,
pp617-37
[38] Oliphant, Rutherford, "Experiments
on the Transmutation of Elements by
Protons, Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, 141, 1933, pp259-81
[39] Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, "Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England7  
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.

[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
66 YBN
[03/19/1934 AD] 3 4 		5210) Supernovas are distinguished from
ordinary novas.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762.
2. ^ W. Baade and F.
Zwicky, "On Super-Novae", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf}
3. ^ W. Baade and F. Zwicky, "On
Super-Novae", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf}
{03/19/1934}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p761-762. {1934}
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA2  
[1] W. Baade and F. Zwicky, ''On
Super-Novae'', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A. 1934 May; 20(5):
254–259. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-00
06.pdf {Zwicky_Fritz_19340319.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED AND Zwicky and
Baade UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1076395/pdf/pnas01745-0006.p
dfhttp://admin.sathyasaibaba.hu/spaw/upl
oads/images/_quest_of_infinity/part_04/z
wicky_baade_.png

[2] Zwicky and Baade UNKNOWN
source: http://admin.sathyasaibaba.hu/sp
aw/uploads/images/_quest_of_infinity/par
t_04/zwicky_baade_.png
66 YBN
[05/??/1934 AD] 8 9 		5275) Atomic fission of uranium by
neutrons.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
2. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
3. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
4. ^ E Fermi, F Rasetti, "Sulla
possibilità di produrre elementi di
numero atomico maggiore di 92", Ric.
Sci., 1934, p452,536. E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, 0. DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E.
Segre, Rie. Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452;
5. ^
Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production of
Elements of Atomic Number Higher than
92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf}
6. ^ "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html {F
ermi_Enrico_19381212.pdf}
7. ^ Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}
8. ^ E Fermi, F
Rasetti, "Sulla possibilità di
produrre elementi di numero atomico
maggiore di 92", Ric. Sci., 1934,
p452,536. E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, 0.
DAgostino, F. Rasetti, E. Segre, Rie.
Sci. 5(1) (1934) 452; {05/1934}
9. ^ Enrico
Fermi, "Possible Production of Elements
of Atomic Number Higher than 92",
Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html {Ferm
i_Enrico_19340616.pdf} {06/16/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
(University of Rome) Rome, Italy7
 
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
66 YBN
[07/11/1934 AD] 3 		4248) The theory of particle beams as
weapons that can destroy planes and
kill millions of people without a trace
in an instant.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf}
2. ^ "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf}
3. ^ "Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam"', New York Times, July 11,
1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf} {07/11/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] "Tesla, Nikola."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9071
814>
[2] "Nikola Tesla." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[3] "Nikola Tesla." The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
Columbia University Press., 2003.
Answers.com 22 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nikola-tesl
a
[4] "Nikola Tesla". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesl
a
[5] "commutator." McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.
Answers.com 23 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/commutator
[6] list of Tesla's
patents: http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/m
ore/317ntcp.htm
[7] Tesla Patent 334,823 Commutator
For Dynamo-Electric
machines http://www.google.com/patents?
id=Tm1BAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[8] Tesla Patent 336,961 REGULATOR FOR
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINES http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jk5EAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[9] Tesla patent 391,968
10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[10] Tesla patent
11/30/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
0JFhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[11]
http://www.teslauniverse.com/timeline-18
61?PHPSESSID=3ejd9q8tm4gpsn4np06imifoe5;
#goto-1883
[12] "magnetic flux density." The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Answers.com 24 Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fi
eld-density
[13] "magnetic flux." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 24
Feb. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/magnetic-fl
ux
[14] Tesla Patent 381968
10/12/1887 http://www.google.com/patent
s?id=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom
=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage
&q=&f=false
[15] New York Times, 11 July 1935, p
23, c.8
[16] New York Herald Tribune, 11
September 1932
[17] Tesla patent 382280
10/12/1887 Electrical Transmission of
Power http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1ipiAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false
[18] Tesla Patent 454622 files
04/25/1891 System of Electric
Lighting http://www.google.com/patents?
id=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4
&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q
=&f=false
[19] Tesla coil
music http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s
ne_uI2Yq4
[20] "Tesla coil". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_coil
[21]
http://www.pbs.org/tesla/index.html
(Hotel New Yorker) New York City, NY,
USA2  
[1] ''Tesla, at 78, Bares New
'Death-Beam''', New York Times, July
11, 1934, p. 18, c.
1 http://www.tesla-coil-builder.com/Art
icles/jul_11_1934a.htm {Tesla_articles.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.neatorama.com/imag
es/2010-03/tesla-death-beam.jpg

[2] Image from Tesla's 1891 patent
#454622 System of Electric Lighting PD

source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=wmBOAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
66 YBN
[08/18/1934 AD] 7 		5087) The first atomic fission caused
by light particles:1 Gamma rays
disintegrate a deuterium atom (an
isotope of hydrogen containing one
proton and one neutron2 ).3 4 From
this the mass of a neutron is estimated
to be more than a hydrogen atom.5
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ LEO SZILARD, T. A. CHALMERS,
"Detection of Neutrons Liberated from
Beryllium by Gamma Rays: a New
Technique for Inducing Radioactivity",
Nature 134, 494-495 (29 September
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v134/n3387/pdf/134494b0.pdf
and http://www.nature.com/physics/looki
ng-back/szilard/index.html {Szilard_Leo
_19340917.pdf}
2. ^ "deuterium>.". Dictionary.com
Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc.
"deuterium." The American Heritage®
Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 19 May. 2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/d
euterium>.
3. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
4. ^ J. Chadwick and M. Goldhaber, "The
Nuclear Photoelectric Effect",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 151, No. 873
(Sep. 2, 1935), pp.
479-493. http://www.jstor.org/stable/96
561 {Chadwick_James_19350802.pdf}
5. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
6. ^ "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
7. ^ J Chadwick, M Goldhaber, "A
Nuclear Photo-effect: Disintegration of
the Diplon by γ-Rays", Volume 134
Number 3381
p237. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v134/n3381/pdf/134237a0.pdf
{Chadwick_James_19340818.pdf}
{08/18/1934}

MORE INFO
[1] J. Chadwick, "The Existence
of a Neutron", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1,
1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816
[2] J Chadwick, M. Goldhaber,
"Disintegration by slow neutrons",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society,
(1935), 31:
612-616. http://journals.cambridge.org/
abstract_S0305004100013621
[3] J Chadwick, "The Scattering of
α-Particles in Helium", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and
Physical Character, Vol. 128, No. 807
(Jul. 1, 1930), pp.
114-122. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
449
[4] J. Chadwick, P. M. S. Blackett and
G. P. S. Occhialini, "Some Experiments
on the Production of positive
Electrons", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing
Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, Vol. 144, No. 851 (Mar. 1,
1934), pp. 235-249
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2935587
[5] J Chadwick, "The charge on the
atomic nucleus and the law of force",
Philosophical Magazine Series 6, V40
(1920), 734-746
[6] Chadwick, J., Russell, A.
S., "The Excitation of γ -Rays by the
α -Rays of Ionium and Radiothorium",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Volume 88, Issue 602, pp.
217-229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/93
322
[7] "radiothorium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 02
Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radiothoriu
m
[8] "Rutherford, Ernest." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 12. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 25-36. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 2 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903798&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[9] J. Chadwick, "Possible Existence of
a Neutron", Nature, vol 129, 1932,
p312.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
129/n3252/pdf/129312a0.pdf
[10] J Chadwick, "An attempt to detect
a neutral particle of small mass",
Mathematical Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (1934),
30:
59-61. http://journals.cambridge.org/ac
tion/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid
=1735460
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England6  
[1] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg

[2] Description Goldhaber,Maurice
1937.jpg English: Maurice Goldhaber,
probable 1937 on the occasion of an
colloquy with Nobel Price
winners. Deutsch: Maurice Goldhaber,
vermutlich 1937 anläßlich eines
Kolloquims mit
Nobelpreisträgern. Date
1937(1937) Source Own
work Author GFHund GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/48/Goldhaber%2CMaurice_1
937.jpg
66 YBN
[12/04/1934 AD] 5 		5126) That a heavier isotope tends to
react more slowly than a lighter
isotope is used to build up quantities
of rare isotopes.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p739-740.
2. ^ Harold C. Urey,
Lotti J. Greiff, "Isotopic Exchange
Equilibria", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1935,
57 (2), pp
321–327. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01305a026 {Urey_Harold_193412
04.pdf}
3. ^ Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
{12/05/1931}
4. ^ "Harold Clayton Urey." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/harold-c-ur
ey
5. ^ Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html {Urey_Harold_19311205.pdf}
{12/05/1931}

MORE INFO
[1] H. C. Urey, “Natural System
of Atomic Nuclei”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 53 (1931),
2872
[2] H. C. Urey and Charles A. Bradley.
Jr., “On the Relative Abundances of
Isotopes,” Physical Review, 38
(1931), 718–724
[3] H. C. Urey, C. F. G.
Brickwedde and G. M. Murphy, “A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its
Concentration,” Physical Review, 40
(1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
[4] "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules and
quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[6] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[7] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
[9] A. Ruark and Harold Urey, "Atoms,
Molecules, and Quanta", (New York,
1930)
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA3 4  
[1] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
66 YBN
[1934 AD] 6 7 		5356) Cherenkov {Cu-reN-KoF1 }
radiation: blue light is found emitted
by various liquids bombarded by gamma
rays.2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "cherenkov." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/c
herenkov>.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801.
3. ^ "Pavel
Alekseevich Cherenkov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov
4. ^ PA Cherenkov, "The visible glow of
pure liquids under the action of
gamma-rays", Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR, Sov. Phys. Dokl., V2, p451, 1934
5. ^
"Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 21 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p801. {1934}
7. ^ "Pavel
Alekseevich Cherenkov." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/pavel-aleks
eyevich-cherenkov {1934}

MORE INFO
[1] I Tamm, “Kogerentnoe
izluchenie bystrogo elektrona v
srede” (“Coherent Radiation of Fast
Electrons Passing Through Matter”),
Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR, 14, no. 3
(1937), 107 – 112
[2] I Tamm, I. M. Frank
and P. A. Cherenkov, "Svechenie
chistykh zhidkostey pod deystviem
bystrykh elektronov" ("Luminenscence of
Pure Liquids Under the Influence of
Fast Electrons"), Izvestiya Akademii
nauk SSSR, Seria fiz. (1938), nos. 1
– 2, 29
(Lebedev Institute of Physics) Moscow,
(Soviet Union now) Russia5  
[1] English: Pavel A.
Cherenkov Русский: Павел
Алексеевич
Черенков Date
1958(1958) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1958/cerenkov-bio.html
Author Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cerenkov.jpg/22
0px-Cerenkov.jpg
65 YBN
[02/??/1935 AD] 5 		5162) The artificial silk: nylon.1 2 3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
2. ^ Julian W. Hill, Wallace H.
Carothers, "Cyclic and Polymeric
Formals", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1935, 57
(5), pp
925–928 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/1
0.1021/ja01308a045 {Caruthers_Wallace_1
9350321.pdf}
3. ^ Wallace Hume Carothers, patent
2130948 "Synthetic
Fiber" http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT2130948&id=crtfAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=W+Carothers+diamine&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 22 Jan. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/96637/Wallace-Hume-Carothers>.
5. ^ Furukawa, Yasu. "Carothers,
Wallace Hume." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 47-50.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Jan. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905560&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {02/1935}

MORE INFO
[1] Wallace H. Carothers, Julian
W. Hill, "STUDIES OF POLYMERIZATION AND
RING FORMATION. XII. LINEAR
SUPERPOLYESTERS", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1932, 54 (4), pp
1559–1566. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01343a048
[2] Wallace H. Carothers, Ira.
Williams, Arnold M. Collins, James E.
Kirby, "ACETYLENE POLYMERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. II. A NEW SYNTHETIC
RUBBER: CHLOROPRENE AND ITS POLYMERS",
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1931, 53 (11), pp
4203–4225. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01362a042
(E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company)
Wilmington, Delaware, USA4  
[1] Wallace Carothers. Carothers
demonstrating a piece of his new
synthetic rubber in laboratory. AP
IMAGES. Wallace
Carothers COPYRIGHTED
source: http://listverse.files.wordpress
.com/2007/10/carothers.jpg
65 YBN
[10/22/1935 AD] 6 7 		5451) The scanning electron microscope
(SEM), a device that moves a focused
electron beam in rows and columns over
the surface of an object, and receives
both the electrons scattered by the
object and the secondary electrons
produced by it.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"
2. ^ M. Knoll and R. Theile,
"Elektronenabtaster zur
Strukturabbildung von Oberflächen und
dünnen Schichten", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
113, Numbers 3-4, 260-280, DOI:
10.1007/BF01341357 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g17gt38328152704/ {Knol
l_Max_19390503.pdf}
English: "Charging potential and
secondary emission of bodies under
electron irradiation"
3. ^ "Scanning electron
microscope." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 07 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scanning-el
ectron-microscope
4. ^ "scanning electron microscope."
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Archaeology. Oxford University Press,
2002, 2003. Answers.com 07 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/scanning-el
ectron-microscope
5. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"
6. ^ Knoll, Max, "Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper". Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation" {10/22/1935}
7. ^ Knoll, Max,
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik
1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: "C
harging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation"

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[4] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[5] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] M. Knoll, J. Kugler, "Subjective
Light Pattern Spectroscopy in the
Encephalographic Frequency Range",
Nature, V184, N4701, 12/05/1959,
p1823-1824. http://www.nature.com/natur
e/journal/v184/n4701/pdf/1841823a0.pdf
(Technischen Hochschule/Technical
University) Berlin, Germany5
(presumably) 
[1] Knoll, Max, ''Aufladepotentiel und
Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter
Körper''. Zeitschrift für technische
Physik 1935, 16: 467–475.
{Knoll_Max_19351022.pdf} English: ''
Charging potential and secondary
emission of bodies under electron
irradiation'' COPYRIGHTED
source:

[2] Max Knoll (1897-1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://ernst.ruska.de/daten_d/pe
rsonen/personen_archiv/knoll_max/_grafik
en/img.knoll1967.gif
65 YBN
[11/19/1935 AD] 3 		5498) The theory that when an electric
current is passed into a nerve, an
electric potential increases until a
threshold voltage is reached, and
"excitation" occurs.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
}
2. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
}
3. ^ A. V. Hill, "Excitation and
Accommodation in Nerve", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814
(Feb. 1, 1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} {11/19/1935}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1922/hill.html
(University College) London, England2
 
[1] Figure 1 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9

[2] Figure 2 from: A. V. Hill,
''Excitation and Accommodation in
Nerve'', Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 119, No. 814 (Feb. 1,
1936), pp.
305-355. http://www.jstor.org/stable/81
869 {Hill_Archibald_Vivian_19351119.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8186
9
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 4 		4786) An artificial heart.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p473.
2. ^ "Alexis Carrel." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 08 Sep.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
3. ^ "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el
4. ^ "Alexis Carrel." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
08 Sep. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/alexis-carr
el {1935}

MORE INFO
[1] "Carrel, Alexis."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2010. Web. 8 Sept. 2010
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9020
489>
[2] "Alexis Carrel". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carr
el
[3] Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani.
Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics
and Population Research under Vichy
(French historical studies, 25:2 Spring
2002), p. 339. Also quoted in French by
Didier Daeninckx in Quand le
négationnisme s’invite à
l’université., on Amnistia.net
website
[4] Quoted in Szasz, Thomas. The
Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse
University Press, 1977
[5] Carrel A, Guthrie
CC., "Functions of a transplanted
kidney, Science
1905;22:473 http://www.sciencemag.org/c
gi/reprint/22/563/473.pdf?ijkey=3fd812ba
500b7242d35bdbf85fd806af00b43325
[6] Carrel, The Surgery of Blood
Vessels, Bull., Johns Hopkins Hosp,
1907, v18, p18
[7] Theodore Tuffier and
Alexis Carrel, "PATCHING AND SECTION OF
THE PULMONARY ORIFICE OF THE HEART", J
Exp Med 1914 20:3-8. Published July 1,
1914, doi:10.1084/jem.20.1.3
http://jem.rupress.org/content/20/1/3.
full.pdf+html
(The Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA2
3  
[1] Description Alexis Carrel
02.jpg French surgeon and biologist
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) Date
Unknown Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.34418. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Alexis_Carrel_02.jpg
65 YBN
[1935 AD] 4 		6627) Polyethylene is synthesized;1 2
the most widely used plastic on Earth.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "major industrial polymers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 27 Apr.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/468698/industrial-polymers>.
2. ^ Fawcett, E. W. "Polymerisation of
ethylene.", General Discussion, Trans.
Faraday Soc 32 (1936):
p119. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ar
ticlelanding/1936/tf/tf9363200115 {Fawc
ett_Polyethylene_1936.pdf}
3. ^ "polyethylene (PE)." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2013. Web. 27 Apr. 2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/468511/polyethylene>.
4. ^ "major industrial polymers."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 27 Apr.
2013.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/468698/industrial-polymers>.
 
[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene A
ND http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyeth
ylene GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eth
ylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyet
hylene

[2] Description English: Photo of a
pillbox made from the first pound of
polythene made and then presented to
Frank Bebbington in 1936 Date June
2011 Source Photo by
user:geni Author
Geni Permission (Reusing this file)
GFDL CC-BY-SA GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fb/First_polythene_pillb
ox.JPG
64 YBN
[03/11/1936 AD] 3 		5496) Muscle contraction (in crabs) can
be varied in strength by changing the
frequency of electrical current pulses
on the nerve connected to the muscle.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Bernhard Katz,
"Neuromuscular Transmission in Crabs",
Journal of Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.pd
f}
3. ^ Bernhard Katz, "Neuromuscular
Transmission in Crabs", Journal of
Physiology, 1936,
p199 http://jp.physoc.org/content/87/3/
199.full.pdf {Katz_Bernhard_19360311.pd
f} {03/11/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] Bernhard Katz, "Multiple
Response to Constant Current in Frog's
Medullated Nerve", Journal of
Physiology, 1936, p239
(University College) London, England2
 
[1] Bernard Katz Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1970/katz.jpg
64 YBN
[08/17/1936 AD] 3 		5336) Neutrons are "diffracted" with
crystals of Magnesium oxide. A neutron
beam is shown to have a wavelength of
160 pm, similar to x-rays.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf}
2. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf}
3. ^ Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, "Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 486–487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf} {08/17/1936}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p447
[4]
E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur
Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften des
Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178
[7] E. Fermi, W.
J. Sturm, and R. G. Sachs, "The
Transmission of Slow Neutrons through
Microcrystalline Materials", Phys. Rev.
71, 589–594
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v71/i9/p589_1
[8] O. Halpern, M. Hamermesh, and M. H.
Johnson, "The Passage of Neutrons
Through Crystals and Polycrystals",
Phys. Rev. 59, 981–996
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i12/p981_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] Dana P. Mitchell and Philip N.
Powers, ''Bragg Reflection of Slow
Neutrons'', Phys. Rev. 50, 486-487
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i5/p486_2 {Mitchell_Dana_19360817
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v50/i5/p486_2

[2]
http://www.atomicheritage.org/mediawiki/
images/3/34/Fermi_Dunning_Mitchell_Colum
bia_Cyclotron_%28AIP%29.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicheritage.org/me
diawiki/images/3/34/Fermi_Dunning_Mitche
ll_Columbia_Cyclotron_%28AIP%29.jpg
64 YBN
[1936 AD] 4 5 		5422) A virus is cultured in vitro; in
human embryonic nervous tissue.1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Sabin, "Cultivation of
poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human
embryonic nervous tissue", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, (1936) volume: 31 page:
357.
2. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
3. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>.
4. ^ Sabin, "Cultivation of
poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human
embryonic nervous tissue", Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Biology
and Medicine, (1936) volume: 31 page:
357.
5. ^ "Albert Bruce Sabin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/515055/Albert-Bruce-Sabin>. {1936}
(Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research) New York City, New York, USA3
 
[1] Albert Bruce Sabin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
es/showFullWatermarked.html/H419079-Albe
rt_Bruce_Sabin-SPL.jpg?id=724190079
63 YBN
[03/17/1937 AD] 4 		5471) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is
detected in a virus.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie,
"The Isolation and some Properties of
Liquid Crystalline Substances from
Solanaceous Plants Infected with Three
Strains of Tobacco Mosaic Virus",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series B, Biological Sciences,
Vol. 123, No. 832 (Aug. 3, 1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p827-828.
3. ^ F. C. Bawden and
N. W. Pirie, "The Isolation and some
Properties of Liquid Crystalline
Substances from Solanaceous Plants
Infected with Three Strains of Tobacco
Mosaic Virus", Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Biological
Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 832 (Aug. 3,
1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
4. ^ F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie, "The
Isolation and some Properties of Liquid
Crystalline Substances from Solanaceous
Plants Infected with Three Strains of
Tobacco Mosaic Virus", Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 832
(Aug. 3, 1937), pp.
274-320. http://www.jstor.org/stable/82
116 {Bawden_Frederick_19370317.pdf}
{03/17/1937}
(Rothamsted Experimental Station)
Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England3
 
[1] * Buy a print of this image *
License this image Sir Frederick
Charles Bawden by Walter
Bird bromide print, 1967 8 1/8 in. x
6 1/8 in. (205 mm x 156 mm) NPG
x163955 UNKNOWN
source: http://images.npg.org.uk/790_500
/6/8/mw109368.jpg
63 YBN
[04/??/1937 AD] 4 		6268) The turbo jet engine1 : a gas
combustion engine that propels air
vehicles by hot exhaust gases from fuel
burned with drawn in air.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Frank Whittle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>.
2. ^ "jet engine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jet-engine
3. ^ "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le
4. ^ "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le {04/1937}
(British Thomson-Houston works) Rugby,
England3  
[1] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG

[2] Description Frank Whittle
adjusts a slide rule while seated at
his desk at the Ministry of Aircraft
Production. Date 30 December
1943 Source IWMLondonThumbnail.jpg
This is photograph No. CH 11867 from
the Imperial War Museum Collections.
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Author
British Government PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Frank_Whittle_CH_0118
67.jpg
63 YBN
[05/14/1937 AD] 6 		5548) The first transuranium elements.
Elements 93 through 96 are identified
from the collision of neutrons with
uranium.3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
2. ^ "Otto Hahn -
Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
3. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
4. ^ "Otto Hahn -
Nobel Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1944/hahn-lecture.html {
Hahn_Otto_19461213.pdf}
5. ^ L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
6. ^ L. Meitner, O.
Hahn and F. Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ {Hahn
_Otto_19370514.pdf} English: "On the
conversion of the uranium series,
produced by neutron irradiation"
{05/14/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Lise Meitner." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/373527/Lise-Meitner>
[2] "Lise Meitner." A Dictionary of
Chemistry. Oxford University Press,
2008. Answers.com 25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/lise-meitne
r-1
[3] "Meitner, Lise." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 9. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 260-263. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830902897&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[4] "Lise Meitner". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitne
r
[5] "Otto Robert Frisch". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert
_Frisch
[6] "Frisch, Otto Robert." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 320-322. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905122&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] "Otto Robert Frisch." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/220450/Otto-Robert-Frisch>
[8] "Otto Robert Frisch." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-robert
-frisch-1
[9] "Otto Hahn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. 25 Dec. 2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/251675/Otto-Hahn>
[10] "Otto Hahn." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 25 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/otto-hahn
[11] Otto Hahn, "Über ein neues
radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran",
Naturwissenschaften, Volume 9, Number
5, 84, DOI:
10.1007/BF01491321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/uhukv60t536j7486/
(Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany5  
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg

[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
63 YBN
[05/22/1937 AD] 16 17 		5515) The first image of individual
atoms. Atoms are visually confirmed to
be about 100 pm in size.9 10
The
field-emission electron microscope
magnifies the tip of a tungsten needle
200,000 times.11 12 13 14
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
2. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
3. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
4. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
5. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
6. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
7. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
8. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
9. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
10. ^ "Erwin
Wilhelm Müller." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 20 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396828/Erwin-Wilhelm-Muller>.
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p839.
12. ^ "Erwin
Mueller." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 21 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
13. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
14. ^
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob
=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TVX-46SXSBK-1T&_user=
4422&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F1978&_rdoc=1&_
fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_
sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C0000596
00&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422
&md5=90abdb4ffb2f0d4f68ef1bf267ac94d5&se
archtype=a
15. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er
16. ^ Erwin W. Müller,
"Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen
von Feldkathoden", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume
106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: "Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode"
{05/22/1937}
17. ^ "Erwin Mueller." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/erwin-muell
er {1936}

MORE INFO
[1] "Erwin Wilhelm Mueller".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Wilhe
lm_Mueller
(Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany15
 
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/

[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
63 YBN
[06/30/1937 AD] 16 		5364) Element 43, the first completely
artificial element, the radioactive
metal7 technetium {TeKnEsEuM8 } is
created by particle collision.9 10 11
12 13

Technetium has no stable isotopes.14
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
2. ^ "technetium." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
echnetium>.
3. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
4. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
5. ^ E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209 {Se
gre_Emilio_194307xx.pdf}
6. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
7. ^ "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
8. ^ "technetium." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/t
echnetium>.
9. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
10. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal {Segre_Emilio_19390110.p
df}
11. ^ E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209 {Se
gre_Emilio_194307xx.pdf}
12. ^ "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
13. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803.
14. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p803.
15. ^ C. Perrier
and E. Segrè, "Some Chemical
Properties of Element 43", J. Chem.
Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df}
16. ^ C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1 {Segre_Emilio_19370630.p
df} {06/30/1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "technetium (Tc)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Dec.
2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/585354/technetium-Tc>
(Royal University) Polermo, Italy15
 
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg

[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
63 YBN
[09/??/1937 AD] 4 5 		5525) The first radio telescope that
has a reflector or radio dish.1 2
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840-841.
2. ^ "Grote Reber."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/493316/Grote-Reber>.
3. ^ Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All {Reber_Gro
te_19571105.pdf}
4. ^ Grote Reber. "Early Radio
Astronomy in Wheaton, Illinois." Proc.
IRE, 46, 15,
1958. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search
/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4065216&q
ueryText%3DEarly+Radio+Astronomy+at+Whea
ton%2C+Illinoiss*%26openedRefinements%3D
*%26searchField%3DSearch+All {Reber_Gro
te_19571105.pdf} {09/1937}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p840-841. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_reber.
shtml
[2] G. Reber and E. H. Conklin, "UHF
receivers", Radio, no. 225, pp. 112
1938
[3] G. Reber, "Electric resonance
chambers", Communications , vol. 18,
pp. 5 1938
[4] G. Reber, "Electromagnetic
horns", Communications , vol. 19,
pp. 13 1939
[5] G. Reber, Radio, no. 235,
pp. 17 1939
[6] G. Reber, "Cosmic
static", Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol.
28, pp. 68 1940.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=1687092&tag=1
[7] G. Reber, "Solar radiation at 480
Mc/sec.", Nature, vol. 158, pp. 945
1946
[8]
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.
jsp?arnumber=1265335
[9]
http://www.nrao.edu/archives/Reber/reber
_publist.shtml
Wheaton, Illinois, USA3  
[1] Figure 3: The first ''dish'' radio
telescope. Source: Estate of G
Reber UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_ORIGDISHa.jpg

[2] Figure 2: Grote Reber as a young
man. This picture is copied from ''A
Play Entitled the Beginning of Radio
Astronomy'', by Grote Reber, in The
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada, Vol.82, No.3, June
1988, page 93. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atnf.csiro.au/news/ne
wsletter/jun05/Reber_YOUNGMAN.jpg
63 YBN
[1937 AD] 7 		3622) The process of xerography
{Zi-roG-ru-FE1 } (or
electrophotography2 ), which uses
electrostatic charges and heat to copy
documents;3 the basis of photocopiers
and laser printers.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "xerography." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 27 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/x
erography>.
2. ^
http://www.xerox.com/go/xrx/template/019
a.jsp?view=Details&subject=Other+Photos&
Xcntry=USA&Xlang=en_US
3. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>.
4. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>.
5. ^ "laser printer." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2008. Answers.com 30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/laser-print
er
6. ^ "Chester Carlson." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
30 Sep. 2008.
http://www.answers.com/topic/chester-car
lson
7. ^ "photocopying machine."
Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30
Sep. 2008
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/457786/photocopying-machine>. {1937}

MORE INFO
[1] "Chester Carlson". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Car
lson
New York City NY, USA6  
[1] Astoria 10-22-38 (The first
xerographic image) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xerox.com/images/usa/
en/p/pa_firstimage.jpg

[2] Schematic drawing of the
xeroxgraphic photocopying process.
Vectorization of the image. Original
image made by 'Wschneider' on the
German wikipedia. 1. Charging:
The surface of a cylindrical drum is
given an electrostatic charge by either
a high voltage wire called a corona
wire or a charge roller. The drum is
coated with a photoconductive material.
A is a semiconductor that becomes
conductive when exposed to light.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates
the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect
the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum. The areas of the
drum that are exposed to light (those
areas that correspond to white areas of
the original document) become
conductive and therefore discharge to
ground. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the
original document) remain negatively
charged. The result is a latent
electrical image on the surface of the
drum. 3. Developing: The toner is
positively charged. When it is applied
to the drum to develop the image, it is
attracted and sticks to the areas that
are negatively charged (black areas),
just as paper sticks to a toy balloon
with a static charge. 4. Transfer:
The resulting toner image on the
surface of the drum is transferred from
the drum onto a piece of paper with a
higher negative charge than the
drum. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Xerographic_pho
tocopy_process_en.svg/309px-Xerographic_
photocopy_process_en.svg.png
62 YBN
[04/??/1938 AD] 4 		6271) Teflon is invented.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p82.
2. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p82.
3. ^ US 2230654, Plunkett, Roy
J, "Tetrafluoroethylene polymers",
issued 4 February
1941. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
S1JQAAAAEBAJ and
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc
?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2230654
4. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p82.
{04/1938}
(E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company) 2
Wilmington, Delaware, USA3  
[1] US 2230654, Plunkett, Roy J,
''Tetrafluoroethylene polymers'',
issued 4 February
1941. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
S1JQAAAAEBAJ PD AND ProBake Teflon
Platinum Nonstick 12-Cup Muffin Pan
from Amazon UNKNOWN AND [2]
Polytetrafluoroethylene GNU AND Reena
ctment of the 1938 discovery of Teflon.
Left to right: Jack Rebok, Robert
McHarness, and Roy Plunkett. Courtesy
Hagley Museum and Library. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=S1JQAAAAEBAJhttp://ecx.images-amazon.co
m/images/I/41dpo4IJ3GL._SX450_.jpghttp:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teflonhttp://www.
chemheritage.org/Images/Main-Images-250x
290/Discover/Themes/Petrochemistry-and-S
ynthetic-Polymers/plunkett1.jpg

[2] Freshly cooked frozen w:blintzes
in a frying pan. Photo taken by me, in
the kitchen of my house. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/90/100_0783.JPG/12
80px-100_0783.JPG
62 YBN
[06/16/1938 AD] 10 		5382) Both positively and negatively
charged particles with a mass in
between that of an electron and
proton,4 5 are identified (from cosmic
rays) and given the name "mesotron"6 ,
which will later be changed to "meson"
{meZoN7 }8 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p805-806.
2. ^ Seth H.
Neddermeyer and Carl D. Anderson,
"Cosmic-Ray Particles of Intermediate
Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
3. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
4. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf}
5. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Nature of Cosmic-Ray
Particles", Rev. Mod. Phys. 11, 191
(1939). http://rmp.aps.org/pdf/RMP/v11/
i3-4/p191_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193910xx.p
df}
6. ^ Robert A. Millikan, "Mesotron as
the Name of the New Particle", Phys.
Rev. 55, 105
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v55/i1/p104_1 {Anderson_Carl_D_193812
07.pdf}
7. ^ "meson." The American Heritage�
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/meson
8. ^ Record ID5339. Universe, Life,
Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
9. ^ Carl D.
Anderson, "The Positive Electron",
Phys. Rev. 43, 491
(1933). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v43/i6/p491_1 {Anderson_Carl_19330228
.pdf}
10. ^ Seth H. Neddermeyer and Carl D.
Anderson, "Cosmic-Ray Particles of
Intermediate Mass", Phys. Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} {06/16/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1936". Nobelprize.org. 22 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1936/
[2] Carl D. Anderson, "The Apparent
Existence of Easily Deflectable
Positives", Science, 1932, V76, (pp.
238-239). http://www.jstor.org/stable/1
658257
[3] Carl D. Anderson and Seth H.
Neddermeyer, "Cloud Chamber
Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300
Meters Elevation and Near Sea-Level",
Phys. Rev. 50, 263
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i4/p263_1
(California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California9  
[1] Figure 1 from: Seth H. Neddermeyer
and Carl D. Anderson, ''Cosmic-Ray
Particles of Intermediate Mass'', Phys.
Rev. 54, 88
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v54/i1/p88_2 {Anderson_Carl_D_1938061
6.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v54/i1/p88_2

[2] Carl David Anderson searching for
mesons. From LBNL archives, dated 1937.
from en:Image:Carl anderson.1937.jpeg
2005-10-28 04:46:20 . . Salsb PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9e/Carl_anderson.1937.jp
g
62 YBN
[06/22/1938 AD] 9 		5448) The first image of a virus is
captured.4 5 6

Viruses are confirmed to be about 150
nm in size.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
2. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
3. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
4. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
5. ^ http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
6. ^ Record ID5446. Universe,
Life, Science, Future. Ted Huntington.
7. ^ B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
"Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
8. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf}
9. ^ B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H.
Ruska, "Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.", Klin.
Wochenschrift 17 (1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} {06/22/1938}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Ruska u. M. Knoll,
Zeitschrift für technische Physik, 12,
389, 448, 1931
[2] "The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1986". Nobelprize.org. 5 Mar
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1986/
[3] M. Knoll and E. Ruska, "Das
Elektronenmikroskop", Zeitschrift für
Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,Volume 78,
Numbers 5-6, 318-339, DOI:
10.1007/BF01342199 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/x7l53h8685108383/
[4] Ernst Ruska, "Über eine
Berechnungsmethode des
Kathodenstrahloszillographen auf Grund
der experimentell gefundenen
Abhängigkeit des
Schreibfleckdurchmessers von der
Stellung der Konzentrierspule.",
Studienarbeit Technische Hochschule
Berlin, Lehrstuhl für
Hochspannungstechnik, eingereicht am
10.5.1929. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q001/q001.html
[5] E. Ruska und M. Knoll, "Die
magnetische Sammelspule für schnelle
Elektronenstrahlen.", Z. techn. Physik
12 (1931) 389-400 und 448, eingegangen
am
28.4.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q003/q003.html
[6] M. Knoll und E. Ruska, "Beitrag zur
geometrischen Elektronenoptik.", Ann.
Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen
am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[7] Knoll, Max (1935).
"Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission
elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
Zeitschrift für technische Physik 16:
467–475
[8] "Microscope". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
[9] E. Ruska, "Über Fortschritte im
Bau und in der Leistung des
magnetischen Elektronenmikroskops.", Z.
Phys. 87 (1934) 580-602. eingegangen am
12.12.1933. http://ernstruska.digilibra
ry.de/bibliographie/q013/q013.html En
glish: "On progress in construction
and performance of the magnetic
electron microscope."
[10] "Ernst Ruska."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 06 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/513086/Ernst-Ruska>
(Berliner Medizinischen
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany8  
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html

[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
61 YBN
[04/30/1939 AD] 13 14 		5835) The bipedal (or two leg walking)
robot.9 10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
2. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
3. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
4. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
5. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
6. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
7. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
8. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
9. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm
10. ^ N Sharkey, A Sharkey,
"Electro-mechanical robots before the
computer", Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Volume 223, Number
1 / 2009,
Pages 235-241. http://journals.pepublis
hing.com/content/j15unr6757440045/ {Sha
rkey_200901xx.pdf}
11. ^ Scott Schaut, Robots of
Westinghouse 1924-today, 2006, p91,185.
12. ^
"Elektro". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro
13. ^
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-histo
ry/new-york-worlds-fair-opens {around)
04/30/1939 (opening of World's Fair}
14. ^
http://davidszondy.com/future/robot/elek
tro1.htm {1939 (verify}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuyTRbj8Q
SA&feature=related
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay225WkU4
Gs&feature=related
[3] Scott Schaut, "Robots of
Westinghouse, 1924-today", Mansfield,
Ohio : Scott Schautt, Mansfield
Memorial Museum, 2006
[4]
http://www.archive.org/details/middleton
_family_worlds_fair_1939
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation)
Mansfield, Ohio, USA11 12  
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg

[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
60 YBN
[03/03/1940 AD] 3 		5462) That uranium-235 produces far
more fissions per minute than
uranium-238 is demonstrated.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J.
R. Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf}
2. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf}
3. ^ Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, "Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes",
.Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf} {03/03/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] "John Dunning, 1st Baron
Ashburton." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-dunnin
g-1st-baron-ashburton
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA2  
[1] Alfred O. Nier, E. T. Booth, J. R.
Dunning, and A. V. Grosse, ''Nuclear
Fission of Separated Uranium
Isotopes'', .Phys. Rev. 57, 546–546
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p546_1 {Dunning_John_Ray_19400
303.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v57/i6/p546_1

[2] Description: middle age, three
quarter view, suit Date:
Unknown Credit: AIP Emilio Segre
Visual Archives Names: Dunning, John
Ray UNKNOWN
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/dunning_john_a2.jpg
60 YBN
[05/28/1940 AD] 4 		5285) Uranium and thorium are fissioned
by γ-rays.1

This is the first fissioning of large
atoms with light particles.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}

2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E.
Shoupp, W. E. Stephens, and W. H.
Wells, "Photo-Fission of Uranium and
Thorium", Phys. Rev. 59, 57–62
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i1/p57_1 {Wells_W_H_19400830.pdf}

4. ^ R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
"Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
{05/28/1940}
(Westinghouse Research Laboratories)
East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA3
 
[1] R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
''Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v58/i1/p92_1

[2] R. O. Haxby, W. E. Shoupp, W. E.
Stephens, and W. H. Wells,
''Photo-Fission of Uranium and Thorium,
Phys. Rev. 58, 92–92
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p92_1 {Wells_W_H_19400528.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v58/i1/p92_1
60 YBN
[06/14/1940 AD] 3 		5568) The spontaneous fission of
uranium is observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846.
2. ^ Flerov and
Petrjak, "Spontaneous Fission of
Uranium", Phys. Rev. 58, 89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2
3. ^ Flerov and Petrjak, "Spontaneous
Fission of Uranium", Phys. Rev. 58,
89–89
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v58/i1/p89_2 {06/14/1940}
(Physico Technical Institute and Radium
Institute) Leningrad, (U.S.S.R. now)
Russia2  
[1] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
60 YBN
[08/24/1940 AD] 6 7 		5217) An anti-bacterial form of the
fungus Penicillin is found to be
effective against at least three kinds
of bacteria in mice.1 2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sir Howard Walter Florey." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/howard-walt
er-florey
2. ^ E Chain, HW Florey, AD Gardner,
NG Heatley, "Penicillin as a
Chemotherapeutic agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p763-764.
4. ^ "Ernst Boris
Chain." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 28 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ernst-boris
-chain
5. ^ E Chain, HW Florey, AD Gardner,
NG Heatley, "Penicillin as a
Chemotherapeutic agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf}
6. ^ E Chain, HW Florey, AD Gardner,
NG Heatley, "Penicillin as a
Chemotherapeutic agent", Lancet, 1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} {08/24/1940}
7. ^ "Sir Howard
Walter Florey." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 31 Jan.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/howard-walt
er-florey {1939}
(University of Oxford) Oxford, England5
 
[1] Table from: E Chain, HW Florey,
AD Gardner, NG Heatley, ''Penicillin as
a Chemotherapeutic agent'', Lancet,
1940
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY-1&_cd
i=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601087281
&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_co
verDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=997633895&wch
p=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b15f2f4
b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf {Florey_
Howard_19400824.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T1B-49N2V2F-MY
-1&_cdi=4886&_user=4422&_pii=S0140673601
087281&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_it
em&_coverDate=08%2F24%2F1940&_sk=9976338
95&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkzS&md5=77efee12aba47b
15f2f4b87566fdacd3&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

[2] Description Howard Florey,
Baron Florey Source
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laur
eates/1945/florey-bio.html Article
Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Portion used Entire
photo Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use To
identify and illustrate Howard Florey
in the article Howard Florey, Baron
Florey Replaceable? No; Howard
Florey died in 1968. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a7/Howard_Florey.png
60 YBN
[11/13/1940 AD] 5 		5524) A circular electron accelerator
is built which creates artificial gamma
rays.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ D. W. Kerst, "The Acceleration of
Electrons by Magnetic Induction", Phys.
Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf}
2. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p840.
4. ^ Donald W. Kerst
et al, "MAGNETIC INDUCTION
ACCELERATOR", Patent number: 2297305,
Filing date: Nov 13, 1940, Issue date:
Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
5. ^ Donald W. Kerst et al, "MAGNETIC
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR", Patent number:
2297305, Filing date: Nov 13, 1940,
Issue date: Sep 29,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT2297305&id=wk9oAAAAEBAJ&
oi=fnd&dq=%22DW+Kerst%22&printsec=abstra
ct#v=onepage&q=%22DW%20Kerst%22&f=false
{11/13/1940}
(General Electric Company) Scotia, New
York, USA4  
[1] Figure 4 from: D. W. Kerst, ''The
Acceleration of Electrons by Magnetic
Induction'', Phys. Rev. 60, 47–53
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v60/i1/p47_1 {Kerst_Donald_William_19
410418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v60/i1/p47_1

[2] Donald W. Kerst (on left) UNKNOWN

source: http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/p
hotos/kerst2.jpg
60 YBN
[12/02/1940 AD] 3 		5439) The first color television images
are broadcast.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
2. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl
3. ^ "Peter Goldmark." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
04 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/goldmark-pe
ter-carl {12/02/1940}

MORE INFO
[1] Peter C. Goldmark,
"Television", Patent number: 2329194,
Filing date: Jan 9, 1941, Issue date:
Sep 14,
1943 http://www.google.com/patents?id=9
dZuAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
[2] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2435962,
Filing date: Nov 20, 1940, Issue date:
Feb 17,
1948. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
D6lLAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[3] Peter C. Goldmark, "COLOR
TELEVISION", Patent number: 2304081,
Filing date: Sep 7, 1940, Issue date:
Dec 8,
1942. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
1K9LAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
(Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.)
New York City, New York, USA2  
[1] From Popular Science, Jul 1941,
p65 http://books.google.com/books?id=vy
YDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65 UNKNOWN AND
Peter Carl Goldmark 2004 Upper Deck
The History of the United States
Inventors and Inventions No.
II46 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vyYDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65http://www.
popsci.com/files/imagecache/photogallery
_image/articles/3-Color-TV_0.jpg

[2] From Popular Science, Jul 1941,
p65 http://books.google.com/books?id=vy
YDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65 UNKNOWN
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=vyYDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65
59 YBN
[01/23/1941 AD] 5 		5580) That the oxygen liberated in
photosynthesis comes from the water
molecule and not from carbon dioxide is
proven by using oxygen-18, a stable but
rare oxygen isotope.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
3. ^ "Martin David
Kamen." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2011. Answers.com 28
Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/martin-davi
d-kamen
4. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf}
5. ^ Samuel Ruben, Merle Randall,
Martin Kamen, James Logan Hyde, "Heavy
Oxygen (O18) as a Tracer in the Study
of Photosynthesis", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1941, 63 (3), pp
877–879. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01848a512 {Kamen_Martin_D_194
10123.pdf} {01/23/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] S. Ruben, W. Z. Hassid, M. D.
Kamen, "Radioactive Carbon in the Study
of Photosynthesis", Journal of the
American Chemical Society 1939 61 (3),
661-663. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10
.1021/ja01872a034
[2] Samuel Ruben and Martin D. Kamen,
"Radioactive Carbon of Long Half-Life",
Phys. Rev. 57, 549–549
(1940). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v57/i6/p549_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Dr. Martin Kamen - Scientist who
discovered radioactive carbon-14 which
revolutionized archeology (carbon-14
dating) and laid a foundation for
deciphering the chemical processes in
plants and animals, but who spent many
years ostracized on suspicion that he
was a Russian spy (later exonerated),
died at age 89. UNKNOWN
source: http://lifeinlegacy.com/2002/090
7/KamenMartin.jpg
59 YBN
[02/24/1941 AD] 3 		5283) Uranium is fissioned by
Alpha-Particles under an electric
potential of 32-Mev.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè , "Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles", Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf}
2. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè , "Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles", Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf}
3. ^ E. Fermi and E. Segrè , "Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles", Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf} {02/24/1941}

MORE INFO
[1] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e
contro la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[2] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[3] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p447
[4]
E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode zur
Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften des
Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938".
Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[6] E. Fermi, "Sulla quantizzazione del
gas perfetto monoatomico", Ren. Lincei,
3, 1926, p145-149. reprinted in:
Enrico Fermi, "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers", V1, p178
[7] R. O. Haxby,
W. E. Shoupp, W. E. Stephens, and W. H.
Wells, "Photo-Fission of Uranium and
Thorium", Phys. Rev. 59, 57–62
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i1/p57_1
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA2  
[1] E. Fermi and E. Segrè , ''Fission
of Uranium by Alpha-Particles'', Phys.
Rev. 59, 680–681
(1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v59/i8/p680_2 {Fermi_Enrico_19410224.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED AND Enrico Fermi
Nobel photo COPYRIGHTED AND This
is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v59/i8/p680_2http://nobelprize.org/nobe
l_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jp
ghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge.png

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
59 YBN
[10/08/1941 AD] 5 		5331) That a sequence of DNA (a gene1 )
controls the production of a particular
protein, is proven when X-rays cause a
genetic mutation in a bread mold which
results in the mold failing to make
vitamin B6. This mutation is also shown
to be inherited.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "gene." The Oxford Companion to
the Body. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2003. Answers.com 29 Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gene
2. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf}
3. ^ "George Wells Beadle." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/george-well
s-beadle
4. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf}
5. ^ G. W. BEADLE AND E. L. TATUM,
"GENETIC CONTROL OF BIOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS IN NEUROSPORA", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1941 November 15;
27(11): 499–506.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1078370/ {Beadle_George_19411008.
pdf} {10/08/1941}
(Stanford University) Stanford,
California, USA4  
[1] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED AND Edward Lawrie
Tatum Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpghtt
p://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine
/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg

[2] George Beadle Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/beadle.jpg
59 YBN
[1941 AD] 5 		6648) The plastic polyester.1 2 3
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "polyester." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 21 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/polyester
2. ^ W. T. ASTBURY & C. J. BROWN.
"Chemistry of Terylene." Nature 158,
871-871 (14 December 1946)
doi:10.1038/158871a0
3. ^ Whinfield, J. R. "Chemistry of
Terylene." Nature 158 (1946):
920-931. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v158/n4026/abs/158930a0.html
4. ^ Caron, F., P. Erker, and W.
Fischer. Innovations in the European
Economy Between the Wars. De Gruyter,
1995,
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9xCGZs75b7YC&pg=PA190
5. ^ Caron, F., P. Erker, and W.
Fischer. Innovations in the European
Economy Between the Wars. De Gruyter,
1995,
p190. http://books.google.com/books?id=
9xCGZs75b7YC&pg=PA190
(Calico Printers' Association, Ltd.)
England4  
[1] Description English: A close-up
of a 100% Polyester shirt. I took this
picture myself just moments ago. Date
30 August 2004 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
ronhjones to Commons by
ronhjones. Author Damieng at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Polyester_Shirt%2C_cl
ose-up.jpg

[2] Description English:
Resin-identification-code-1-PETE Date
23 April 2007 (original upload
date) Source Own work (Original text:
“TotoBaggins (talk) (Uploads)”) -
Self made from PNG. Author
TotoBaggins at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Resin-identific
ation-code-1-PETE.svg/1000px-Resin-ident
ification-code-1-PETE.svg.png
58 YBN
[03/12/1942 AD] 3 		5428) The first detailed image of a
virus is captured.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
2. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
}
3. ^ S. E. Luria and Thomas F.
Anderson, "The Identification and
Characterization of Bacteriophages with
the Electron Microscope", Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of
the United States of America, Vol. 28,
No. 4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} {03/12/1942}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://helmut.ruska.de/?page_id=14
(RCA Research Laboratories) Camden,
New Jersey, USA2  
[1] Plate 1 from: S. E. Luria and
Thomas F. Anderson, ''The
Identification and Characterization of
Bacteriophages with the Electron
Microscope'', Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, Vol. 28, No.
4 (Apr. 15, 1942), pp.
127-130. http://www.jstor.org/stable/87
648 {Luria_Salvador_Edward_19420312.pdf
} EXPLANATION OF PLATE PLATE I 1.
Electron micrograph of particles from a
high titer suspension of
bacteriophage anti-coli PC. X
38,000. 2. Particles from a high titer
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC. X 84,000. 3. Escherichia coli from
suspension in distilled water. X
17,000. 4. Escherichia coli in
suspension of bacteriophage anti-coli
PC for ten minutes. X
17,500. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/8764
8

[2] Salvador Edward Luria Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1969/luria.jpg
58 YBN
[11/04/1942 AD] 4 		5289) The first explicit claim of a
planet of a different star; recognized
from the movement in photos of the
nearby star 61 Cygni.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p785.
3. ^ Strand, K. A.,
"61 Cygni as a Triple System",
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
4. ^ Strand, K. A., "61 Cygni as a
Triple System", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 55, No. 322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
{11/04/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] http://theperfectsilence.com/
(Sproul Observatory, Swartmore
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l

[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
58 YBN
[12/02/1942 AD] 12 		5277) A self-sustained uranium fission
reaction.7 8 9

Cadmium rods are slowly withdrawn from
a pile of graphite blocks with uranium
inside, and the first uranium fission
chain reaction becomes self-sustaining,
driven only by neutrons spontaneously
emitted by uranium.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. Fermi, "Work Carried Out by
the Physics Division", Report CP-387
for month Ending December 15, 1942.
Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi, Collected
Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
2. ^ "Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction", American Journal of Physics,
20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
4. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
5. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
7. ^ E. Fermi, "Work
Carried Out by the Physics Division",
Report CP-387 for month Ending December
15, 1942. Reprinted in "Enrico Fermi,
Collected Papers, v2, 1965, p270.
8. ^
"Experimental production of a Divergent
Chain Reaction", American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
10. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
11. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
12. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p781-783.
{12/02/1942}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1938". Nobelprize.org. 7 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/
[2] E Fermi, "Eine statistische Methode
zur Bestimmung einiger Eigenschaften
des Atoms und ihre Anwendung auf die
Theorie des periodischen Systems der
Elemente", Zeitschrift für Physik A
Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 48, Numbers
1-2, 73-79. "A statistical method for
determining some properties of the atom
and its application to the theory of
the periodic table of
elements" http://www.springerlink.com/c
ontent/v762582061464612/
[3] E. Fermi, "Zur Quantelung des
idealen einatomigen Gases", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 36, Numbers 11-12,
902-912. "The quantization of the
ideal monatomic
gas" http://www.springerlink.com/conten
t/k763270092273181/
[4] E. Fermi, "Argomenti pro e contro
la ipotesi dei quanti di luce"
("Arguments for and against the
hypothesis of quanta of light"), Il
Nuovo Cimento (1924-1942), Volume 3,
Numbers 1-2,
xlvii-liv. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/lm022085605043uh/
[5] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991, p465
[6]
E. Fermi, "Magnetic Moments of Atomic
Nuclei", Nature 125, 16-16 (04 January
1930)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
125/n3140/abs/125016a0.html
[7] E. Fermi, "Quantum Theory of
Radiation", Rev. Mod. Phys. 4, 87–132
(1932). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v4/i1/p87_1
[8] E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, B. Pontecorvo,
E. Rasetti and E. Segré, La Ricerca
Scientifica, 2, No. 12; 1933
[9] "Versuch
einer Theorie der β-Strahlen. I ",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 88, Numbers 3-4, 1933,
161-177. http://www.springerlink.com/co
ntent/wq2r06j058382226/
[10] "Chadwick, James." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 143-148. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 4 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905049&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[11] Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 5,
p282 (1934); Fermi, 'Ric. Scient.,'
vol. 1, pp. 283, 330 (1934); Amaldi,
D'Agostino, Fermi, Rasetti and Segre,
'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp. 452, 652,
21 (1934); Fermi, Rasetti and
D'Agostino, 'Ric. Scient.,' vol. 1, pp.
533 (1934); Fermi, 'Nature,'
"Radioactivity Induced by Neutron
Bombardment" vol. 133, N3368 pp. 757,
898 (1934). See also Fermi, ' Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 429 (1934); Amaldi,
Fermi, Rasetti and Segre, 'Nuovo
Cim.,' vol. 11, p. 442 (1934); Amaldi
and Segre, 'Nuovo Cim.,' vol.11,. p.
452 (1934); ' D'Agostino ' Gazz. Chim.
Ital.,' in press (1934)
[12] E. Fermi, E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti and
E. Segre, "Artificial Radioactivity
Produced by Neutron Bombardment",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Containing Papers of
a Mathematical and Physical Character,
Vol. 146, No. 857 (Sep. 1, 1934), pp.
483-500 http://www.jstor.org/stable/293
5604
[13] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[14] E. Segre (Ed.): "Enrico Fermi:
Collected Papers" (Nore e Memorie),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
(Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
Roma) 1962, Vol. 1 , p. 640
[15] E Fermi,
"Le ultime particelle costitutive della
materia", Societa italiana per il
progresso, 1934
[16] Fermi, Amaldi,
Pontecorvo, Rasetti, Segre, 'Ric.
Scient.,' vol. 2, p. 280 (1934);
[17] E.
Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, E. Fermi, B.
Pontecorvo, F. Rasetti and E. Segrè,
"Artificial Radioactivity Produced by
Neutron Bombardment. II", Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences Vol. 149, No. 868 (Apr. 10,
1935), pp.
522-558 http://www.jstor.org/stable/963
79
[18] ENRICO FERMI, "Reactions Produced
by Neutrons in Heavy Elements", Nature
146, 640-642 (16 November
1940). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v146/n3707/abs/146640a0.html
[19] E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, "On the
Absorption and the Diffusion of Slow
Neutrons", Phys. Rev. 50, 899–928
(1936). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v50/i10/p899_1
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA11  
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1

[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
57 YBN
[05/25/1943 AD] 5 		5578) Changes in light absorption
spectral lines are used to determine
that molecular changes have occurred.1
2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Britton Chance, "The kinetics of
the enzyme-substrate compound of
peroxidase", Journal of biological
chemistry, (1943) volume: 151 issue:
2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p847-848.
3. ^
http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/190
0s/chance_britton.html
4. ^ Britton Chance, "The kinetics of
the enzyme-substrate compound of
peroxidase", Journal of biological
chemistry, (1943) volume: 151 issue:
2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf}
5. ^ Britton Chance, "The kinetics of
the enzyme-substrate compound of
peroxidase", Journal of biological
chemistry, (1943) volume: 151 issue:
2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} {05/25/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Britton Chance." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/britton-cha
nce
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Britton Chance,
''The kinetics of the enzyme-substrate
compound of peroxidase'', Journal of
biological chemistry, (1943) volume:
151 issue: 2 page: 553.
http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2/553.f
ull.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2e-b594
-e33b2c903bf6 {Chance_Britton_19430526.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jbc.org/content/151/2
/553.full.pdf+html?sid=d94bc504-c1d4-4a2
e-b594-e33b2c903bf6

[2] Britton Chance
(1913-2010) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/im
g/20060628001bchance200.jpg
57 YBN
[11/01/1943 AD] 5 		4916) The DNA molecule is recognized as
being responsible for the creation and
inheritance of structural changes in a
body,2 when a DNA molecule is found to
change a rough appearing bacteria into
a smooth one, which is then passed onto
later generations.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
2. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
3. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
4. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf}
5. ^ Avery, MacLeod and McCarty.
“Studies on the Chemical Nature of
the Substance Inducing Transformation
of Pneumococcal Types. Induction of
Transformation by Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus
Type III”, Journal of Experimental
Medicine, V79, N2, Feb, 1944,
137–158. http://jem.rupress.org/conte
nt/79/2/137.full.pdf {Avery_Oswald_1943
1101.pdf} {11/1/1943}

MORE INFO
[1] "Oswald Avery." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
25 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/oswald-aver
y
[2] "Avery, Oswald T." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 342-343. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 25 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830900196&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[3] "Oswald Theodore Avery". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theo
dore_Avery
[4] Maclyn McCarty and Oswald T. Avery,
"STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE
SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF
PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: III. AN IMPROVED
METHOD FOR THE ISOLATION OF THE
TRANSFORMING SUBSTANCE AND ITS
APPLICATION TO PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPES II,
III, AND VI J Exp Med 1946 83:97-104.
Published February 1, 1946,
doi:10.1084/jem.83.2.97
http://jem.rupress.org/content/83/2/97
.full.pdf
(Rockefeller Institute, now called
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA4  
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf

[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
57 YBN
[1943 AD] 3 		4949) That direct electrical
stimulation to the brain can cause cats
to become enraged or scared is shown.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf}
2. ^ "Walter Rudolf Hess." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 28 Dec.
2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-rudo
lf-hess
3. ^ Akert K., "Walter Rudolf Hess
(1881-1973) and His Contribution to
Neuroscience", Journal of the history
of the neurosciences 0964-704X. ^
Akert (1999) volume: 8 issue: 3
page:
248. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/cont
ent/tandf/jhin/1999/00000008/00000003/ar
t00004 {Hess_Rudolf_contributions_1999.
pdf} {1943}

MORE INFO
[1] Hardcastle, Valerie Gray.
"Hess, Walter Rudolf." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 21. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 302-306. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 28 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905745&v=2.1&u=&it=r&p=GVR
L&sw=w
[2] "Walter Rudolf Hess". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rudo
lf_Hess
[3] Walter Rudolf Hess, The Biology of
Mind (1964)
[4] Hess WR, Brügger M (1943):
Das subkortikale Zentrum der affektiven
Abwehr. Helv Physiol Pharmakol Acta 1:
33-52
[5] Hess WR (1942) Biomotorik als
Organisationsproblem. Naturwissenschaft
en 30: 441-448,
537- 541. http://www.springerlink.com/
content/r112270005657240/fulltext.pdf
(University of Zurich), Zurich,
Switzerland2  
[1] From Hess, 1943 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://docserver.ingentaconnect.
com/deliver/connect/tandf/0964704x/v8n3/
s4.pdf?expires=1293515670&id=60427856&ti
tleid=10598&accname=University+of+Califo
rnia&checksum=AD47147550DF109FC08950558A
18A9D3

[2] Walter Rudolf Hess (March 17, 1881
– August 12, 1973), Swiss
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for
mapping the areas of the brain involved
in the control of internal
organs Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/271/0001
28884/walter-hess.jpg Article
Walter Rudolf Hess Portion used
Entire Low resolution?
Yes Purpose of use It is
only being used to illustrate the
article in question UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/27/Walter_Rudolf_Hess.jpg
55 YBN
[07/16/1945 AD] 6 		5311) The first atomic fission bomb is
exploded;3 a plutonium bomb that
compares to about 21,000 tons of TNT.4

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
3. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
4. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
5. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml
6. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/col
dwar/p7_image.shtml {07/16/1945}

MORE INFO
[1] "Manhattan Project." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 08 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/manhattan-p
roject
[2] "Project Orion (nuclear
propulsion)". Wikipedia. Wikipedia,
2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Ori
on_(nuclear_propulsion)
(Alamogordo Test Range) Jornada del
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA5  
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg

[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD

source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
55 YBN
[10/08/1945 AD] 7 		6272) The microwave oven.3

Microwave light frequencies are
strongly absorbed by water molecules,
and so heat materials containing
water.4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
2. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
3. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
4. ^ Physics. LETTS EDUCATIONAL, 2007.
Revise GCSE,
p57. http://books.google.com/books?id=9
eYqS2Fj76YC&pg=PT58
5. ^ "microwave oven." How Products are
Made. The Gale Group, Inc, 2002.
Answers.com 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/microwave-o
ven
6. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
7. ^ US patent 2495429, Spencer, Percy
L., "Method of treating foodstuffs",
issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429
{10/08/1945}
(Raytheon Manufacturing Company)
Newton, Massachusetts, USA6  
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ

[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
54 YBN
[01/10/1946 AD] 3 4 		5528) Radio light is reflected off the
moon and received back on Earth.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola,
E.K.;, "Detection of Radio Signals
Reflected from the Moon", Proceedings
of the IRE, March 1949, Volume: 37
Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf}
2. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch1.htm
3. ^ Dewitt, J.H., Jr.; Stodola, E.K.;,
"Detection of Radio Signals Reflected
from the Moon", Proceedings of the IRE,
March 1949, Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} {01/10/1946}
4. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch1.htm
{01/10/1946}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4217/ch2.htm
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, USA2  
[1] Figure 13 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1

[2] Figure 6 from: Dewitt, J.H., Jr.;
Stodola, E.K.;, ''Detection of Radio
Signals Reflected from the Moon'',
Proceedings of the IRE, March 1949,
Volume: 37 Issue:3, p229 -
242. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/ab
s_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1 {Dewit
t_John_H_19480311.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/
abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1697973&tag=1
54 YBN
[02/??/1946 AD] 4 5 		5459) ENIAC, the first programmable
general-purpose electronic digital
computer.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p823,870.
2. ^ "J. Presper
Eckert." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 08 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/j-presper-e
ckert
3. ^ "ENIAC." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>.
4. ^ "ENIAC." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/183842/ENIAC>. {02/1946}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p823,870. {1946}

MORE INFO
[1] "History of computing
hardware". Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_
computing_hardware
(University of Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA3  
[1] Description Eniac.jpg en:ENIAC
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Glen
Beck (background) and Betty Snyder
(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328 Date c. 1947 to
1955 Source U.S. Army
Photo http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-c
omputers PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg

[2]
http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw1/sucfm/
19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg UNKNOWN

source: http://www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk/jdw
1/sucfm/19071980mauchlyjohnwilliam.jpg
54 YBN
[06/01/1946 AD] 5 		5472) Radio-carbon dating. That C14
produced by cosmic-ray neutrons, can be
used to determine the age of the
Earth's atmosphere, surface, and living
matter is recognized.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p829-830.
3. ^ "Willard Frank
Libby." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 09
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/338917/Willard-Frank-Libby>.
4. ^ W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf}
5. ^ W. F. Libby, "Atmospheric Helium
Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic
Radiation", Phys. Rev. 69, 671–672
(1946). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v69/i11-12/p671_2 {Libby_Willard_Fran
k_19460601.pdf} {06/01/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby,
"Age Determinations by Radiocarbon
Content: Checks with Samples of Known
Age", Science, New Series, Vol. 110,
No. 2869 (Dec. 23, 1949), pp.
678-680. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77049
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA4  
[1] Description Willard Frank
Libby (December 17, 1908 – September
8, 1980), American physical
chemist Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/470/000100
170/willard-libby-1-sized.jpg Article
Willard Libby Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg
54 YBN
[08/22/1946 AD] 4 		5697) Multiple telescopes are used in
parallel to observe a larger area.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
2. ^ M. Ryle, "A New Radio
Interferometer and Its Application to
the Observation of Weak Radio Stars",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London. Series A, Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, Vol. 211, No. 1106
(Mar. 6, 1952), pp.
351-375 http://www.jstor.org/stable/988
50 {Ryle_Martin_19511010.pdf}
3. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
4. ^ M. RYLE & D. D. VONBERG, "Solar
Radiation on 175 Mc./s", Nature 158,
339-340 (07 September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
{08/22/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Martin Ryle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/514574/Sir-Martin-Ryle>
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England3  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: M. RYLE &
D. D. VONBERG, ''Solar Radiation on 175
Mc./s'', Nature 158, 339-340 (07
September 1946),
doi:10.1038/158339b0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v158/n4010/abs/158339
b0.html {Ryle_Martin_19460822.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v158/n4010/abs/158339b0.html

[2] Sir Martin Ryle. Harry Todd—Fox
Photos/Archive Photos/Getty
Images COPYRIGHTED
source: http://media-1.web.britannica.co
m/eb-media/56/20956-004-D0293979.jpg
54 YBN
[09/17/1946 AD] 4 		5742) Sexual reproduction (conjugation)
is found in bacteria (E. Coli).1 2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
2. ^ "conjugation." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 01 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/132820/conjugation>.
3. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf}
4. ^ JOSHUA LEDERBERG, E. L. TATUM,
"Gene Recombination in Escherichia
Coli", Nature 158, 558-558 (19 October
1946) doi:10.1038/158558a0 Letter
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
158/n4016/abs/158558a0.html {Lederberg_
Joshua_19460917.pdf} {09/17/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] Joshua Lederberg, Luigi L.
Cavalli, and Esther M. Lederberg, "Sex
Compatibility in Escherichia Coli",
Genetics. 1952 November; 37(6):
720–730.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1209583/
[2] Joshua Lederberg and E. L. Tatum,
"Sex in Bacteria: Genetic Studies,
1945-1952",Science, New Series, Vol.
118, No. 3059 (Aug. 14, 1953), pp.
169-175. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
80189
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA3  
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1

[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
54 YBN
[10/10/1946 AD] 3 		3848) The first solar spectrum is
captured from the upper atmosphere by a
rocket which confirms that the
atmosphere of Earth absorbs light with
ultraviolet frequency.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
2. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
3. ^ E. O. HULBURT, "The Upper
Atmosphere of the Earth," J. Opt. Soc.
Am. 37, 405-405
(1947) http://www.opticsinfobase.org/jo
sa/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-37-6-405
{10/10/1946}

MORE INFO
[1] Götz Hoeppe, John Stewart,
"Why the Sky is Blue" ("Blau: Die Farbe
des Himmels",1999), Princeton
University Press, 2007,
p247-250. http://books.google.com/books
?id=-7inyeQbBjQC&pg=RA1-PA250&dq=chappui
s+ozone&ei=P6t_SZ3xLo3qkQTx9KXRBg#PRA1-P
A250,M1
(White Sands proving area) New Mexico,
USA2  
[1] Solar spectra from the V-2 rocket
flight of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010

[2] Tenatively assumed
temperature-height curves. The short
curve was derived from the V-2 pressure
data of October 10, 1946. PD?
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/Di
rectPDFAccess/1F0674EE-BDB9-137E-C7FE1A8
E4EC33A4E_77185.pdf?da=1&id=77185&seq=0&
CFID=25437192&CFTOKEN=60659010
53 YBN
[01/10/1947 AD] 6 7 		5581) Radar is used to see meteor
showers, even during daylight.1 2 3 4
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf}
2. ^ Clegg, J. A., Hughes, V. A., &
Lovell, A. C. B., "The Daylight Meteor
Streams of 1947 May-August", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.369 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
47MNRAS.107..369C
3. ^ Lovell, A. C. B., Banwell, C. J.,
& Clegg, J. A., "Radio echo
observations of the Giacobinids
meteors, 1946", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.164. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1947MNRAS.107..164L/0000164.000
.html
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
5. ^ "Bernard
Lovell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
6. ^ Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} {01/10/1947}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848. {1946}
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England5  
[1] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P. M.,
Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P

[2] Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg [1] Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpg
53 YBN
[06/26/1947 AD] 4 		5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83
(bismuth) are fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions, or neutrons using up to
400 Mev.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
2. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
3. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df}
4. ^ I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
"Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles", Phys. Rev. 72, 352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} {06/26/1947}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA3  
[1] I. Perlman, R. H. Goeckermann, D.
H. Templeton, and J. J. Howland,
''Fission of Bismuth, Lead, Thallium,
Platinum, and Tantalum with High Energy
Particles'', Phys. Rev. 72,
352–352
(1947). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v72/i4/p352_1 {Howland_J_J_19470626.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v72/i4/p352_1
53 YBN
[08/31/1947 AD] 5 		5582) Radio echos are captured off of
an Aurora Borealis.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p848.
3. ^ "Bernard
Lovell." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/bernard-lov
ell
4. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
5. ^ A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A. CLEGG &
C. D. ELLYETT, "Radio Echoes from the
Aurora Borealis", nature 160, 372-372
(13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
{08/31/1947}

MORE INFO
[1] Lovell, A. C. B., Banwell, C.
J., & Clegg, J. A., "Radio echo
observations of the Giacobinids
meteors, 1946", Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.164. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1947MNRAS.107..164L/0000164.000
.html
[2] Clegg, J. A., Hughes, V. A., &
Lovell, A. C. B., "The Daylight Meteor
Streams of 1947 May-August", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.369 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
47MNRAS.107..369C
[3] Prentice, J. P. M., Lovell, A. C.
B., & Banwell, C. J., "Radio echo
observations of meteors", Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
(University of Manchester: Jodrell
Bank) Cheshire, England3 4  
[1] {ULSF: todo: was this telescope, or
even a radio dish used to make this
measurement?} A. C. B. LOVELL , J. A.
CLEGG & C. D. ELLYETT, ''Radio Echoes
from the Aurora Borealis'', nature 160,
372-372 (13 September 1947),
doi:10.1038/160372a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v160/n4063/abs/160372
a0.html {Lovell_Bernard_19470831.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Description
BernardLovell.jpg English: Sir
Bernard Lovell Date
Unknown Source
http://www.jb.man.ac.uk/gallery/Berna
rdLovell.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) ''They are copyright free
although we would like credit to be
assigned to Jodrell Bank, University of
Manchester, if possible
somewhere!'' PD AND The Lovell
Telescope. Credit: Anthony Holloway,
Jodrell Bank COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v160/n4063/abs/160372a0.html http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/b/b1/BernardLovell.jpghttp://www.jodrel
lbank.manchester.ac.uk//multimedia/image
s/library/Lovell9_1024x768.jpg

[2] Figure 3 from: Prentice, J. P.
M., Lovell, A. C. B., & Banwell, C. J.,
''Radio echo observations of meteors'',
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Vol. 107,
p.155. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P {Lovell_Bernard_1947
0110.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
947MNRAS.107..155P
53 YBN
[10/14/1947 AD] 3 		5603) An airplane moves faster than the
speed of sound in air.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896.
2. ^ "Chuck Yeager."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/652364/Chuck-Yeager>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896. {1014/1947}
(over Rogers Dry Lake) Edwards,
California, USA2  
[1] Description X-1.jpg English:
Under the X1. Date 17:34, 13 July
2010 (UTC) (21 August 2006(2006-08-21)
(first version); 13 July
2010(2010-07-13) (last
version)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Logan using
CommonsHelper. (Original text : I
(350z33 (talk)) created this work
entirely by myself.) Author
350z33 (talk). Original uploader
was LWF at en.wikipedia. Later
version(s) were uploaded by 350z33 at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/X-1.jpg

[2] Description Chuck
Yeager.jpg en:Chuck Yeager with
en:Bell X-1. Date 2004-02-09
(first version); 2005-04-18 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Triddle at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-USGOV-MILITARY. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7a/Chuck_Yeager.jpg
52 YBN
[04/16/1948 AD] 4 5 		5417) The theory that the atomic
nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons arranged in shells.1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
2. ^ Maria Goeppert Mayer, "On Closed
Shells in Nuclei. II" Physical Review,
75, p1969–1970
(1949) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v75/i12/p1969_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Maria_
19490204.pdf}
3. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf}
4. ^ Maria G. Mayer, "On Closed Shells
in Nuclei.", Physical Review, 2nd ser.,
74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} {04/16/1948}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p813-814,823.
{1948}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id
=1193&search=Mayer,+Maria+
(Argonne Laboratory) Argonne, Illinois3
 
[1] Figure 1 from Maria G. Mayer, ''On
Closed Shells in Nuclei.'', Physical
Review, 2nd ser., 74 (1948),
p235–239. http://prola.aps.org/abstra
ct/PR/v74/i3/p235_1 {Goeppert-Mayer_Mar
ia_19480801.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v74/i3/p235_1

[2] Description Maria
Goeppert-Mayer.gif English: Maria
Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureates in
Physics Date Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:
Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.gif Author
This file is lacking author
information. Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-old PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.
gif
52 YBN
[06/17/1948 AD] 6 7 		5295) The semiconductor transistor (or
solid-state electric switch and
amplifier).3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
2. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
3. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
4. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
5. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain,
"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor
Triode", Phys. Rev. 74, 230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf}
6. ^ John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
"Three-Electrode Circuit Element
Utilizing Semiconductive Materials",
Patent number: 2524035, Filing date:
Jun 17, 1948, Issue date: Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false {06/17/1948}
7. ^ J. Bardeen and W. H.
Brattain, "The Transistor, A
Semi-Conductor Triode", Phys. Rev. 74,
230–231
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v74/i2/p230_1 {Brattain_William_Barde
en_John_19480625.pdf} {06/25/1948}

MORE INFO
[1] "William Shockley." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 13 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-sho
ckley
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956".
Nobelprize.org. 13 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1956/
[3] W. Shockley, "A "try simplest
cases" approach to the
heredity-poverty-crime problem.", Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1967 June; 57(6):
1767–1774.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC224545/
[4] Shockley, William B., "Negro IQ and
Heredity." SCHOOL AND SOCIETY, 1968,
96:127-128
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA5  
[1] Figures from: John Bardeen, Walter
H. Brattain, ''Three-Electrode Circuit
Element Utilizing Semiconductive
Materials'', Patent number: 2524035,
Filing date: Jun 17, 1948, Issue date:
Oct
1950. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=FDhnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description
Brattain.jpg English: Walter H.
Brattain Date 1956(1956) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1956/brattain-bio.html
Author Nobel
foundation Permission (Reusing this
file) Public domainPublic
domainfalsefalse Public domain This
Swedish photograph is free to use
either of these cases: * For
photographic works (fotografiska verk),
the image is public domain:
a) if the photographer died before
January 1, 1944, or b) if the
photographer is not known, and cannot
be traced, and the image was created
before January 1, 1944. * For
photographic pictures (fotografiska
bilder), such as images of the press,
the image is public domain if created
before January 1, 1969 (transitional
regulations 1994). The
photographer, if known, should always
be attributed.
Always provide source information. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Brattain.jpg
52 YBN
[06/21/1948 AD] 4 		6551) The first computer to run a
stored program.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Rául Rojas; Ulf Hashagen (2002).
The first computers: history and
architectures. MIT Press. p. 379. ISBN
978-0-262-68137-7. http://books.google.
com/books?id=nDWPW9uwZPAC&pg=PA379#v=one
page&q&f=false
2. ^ Kilburn, T. "The University of
Manchester universal high-speed digital
computing machine." Nature 164.4173
(1949):
684-687. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v164/n4173/abs/164684a0.html {Ki
lburn_19491022.pdf}
3. ^ Kilburn, T. "The University of
Manchester universal high-speed digital
computing machine." Nature 164.4173
(1949):
684-687. {Kilburn_19491022.pdf}
4. ^ Rául Rojas; Ulf Hashagen (2002).
The first computers: history and
architectures. MIT Press. p. 379. ISBN
978-0-262-68137-7. http://books.google.
com/books?id=nDWPW9uwZPAC&pg=PA379#v=one
page&q&f=false
(Electrical Engineering Laboratories at
the University of Manchester)
Manchester, England3  

source:
52 YBN
[1948 AD] 3 		6273) The hook and loop fastener
(Velcro).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p91.
2. ^ De Mestral, "Separable
Fastening Device", Patent number:
3009235, Filing date: May 9, 1958,
Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p91.
{1948}
Nyon, Switzerland2  
[1] Figure from: De Mestral,
''Separable Fastening Device'', Patent
number: 3009235, Filing date: May 9,
1958, Issue date: Nov 21,
1961 http://www.google.com/patents?id=m
vJkAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mvJkAAAAEBAJ

[2] Description English: Velcro
hooks. Deutsch: Klettband
(Haken). Date 7 March
2010 Source Own work Author
Alexander Klink CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Velcro_Hooks.jp
g/1280px-Velcro_Hooks.jpg
51 YBN
[07/27/1949 AD] 3 		6270) The first large passenger jet
airplane (or jetliner) flies.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p79.
2. ^ Green, William and Gordon
Swanborough, eds. "Jet Jubilee (Part
1)". Air International, Vol. 12, No. 3,
March 1977, pp. 124–131 (Part 2); Air
International, Vol. 12, No. 4, April
1977, pp. 171–180.
3. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p79. {07/27/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Sir Frank Whittle."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Academic Edition.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 27
Nov. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/642958/Sir-Frank-Whittle>
[2] "Frank Whittle." Biographies.
Answers Corporation, 2006. Answers.com
27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-whitt
le
[3] "jet engine." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 27 Nov.
2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/303238/jet-engine>
[4] "jet engine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
Nov. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jet-engine
Hatfield, England2  
[1] Description en:De Havilland
Comet, ATP 18376C. Source
Imperial War Museum online
collection Source by Bzuk 26 November
2010. Date 4 October 1949 Author
Photographer: De Havilland
photographer for Ministry of Aircraft
Production Permission (Reusing this
file) British Government Copyright
expired (50 years) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/77/Comet_Prototype_at_Hatfiel
d.jpg

[2] Whittle W2/700 Engine. Frank
Whittle developed the first turbojet
engine with enough operating thrust to
power an aircraft in 1939. The W2
was the second, more powerful, version
of a flight-ready turbojet engine
developed by Whittle. The W2/700
engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the
first British aircraft to fly with a
turbojet engine, and the Gloster
Meteor. Photographed Farnborough,
22-Jan-06. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2
-700.JPG
51 YBN
[10/10/1949 AD] 4 		5539) A neutral Meson is identified.1 2
3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H.
L. Bradt, "Evidence for Multiple Meson
and γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray
Stars", Phys. Rev. 76, 1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
2. ^ R. E. Marshak, "Remarks on
Multiple Meson and Gamma-Ray
Production", Phys. Rev. 76, 1736–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1736_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf}
3. ^ Eugene Gardner, Walter H. Barkas,
F. M. Smith, Hugh Bradner, "Mesons
Produced by the Cyclotron", Science,
New Series, Vol. 111, No. 2878 (Feb.
24, 1950), pp.
191-197. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
77433?&Search=yes&searchText=meson&searc
hText=neutral&list=hide&searchUri=%2Fact
ion%2FdoBasicResults%3Fla%3D%26wc%3Don%2
6acc%3Don%26gw%3Djtx%26Query%3Dmeson%2Bn
eutral%26sbq%3Dmeson%2Bneutral%26filter%
3Djid%253A10.2307%252Fj100000%26si%3D1%2
6jtxsi%3D1%26jcpsi%3D1%26artsi%3D1%26so%
3Dold%26Go.x%3D10%26Go.y%3D8%26Go%3DGo%2
6hp%3D25&prevSearch=&item=15&ttl=174&ret
urnArticleService=showFullText {Gardner
_Eugene_19500224.pdf}
4. ^ M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H. L.
Bradt, "Evidence for Multiple Meson and
γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray Stars",
Phys. Rev. 76, 1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf} {10/10/1949}

MORE INFO
[1] "Luis Alvarez - Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html http
://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/l
aureates/1968/alvarez-bio.html
[2] Eugene Gardner and C. M. G. Lattes,
"Production of Mesons by the 184-Inch
Berkeley Cyclotron", Science, New
Series, Vol. 107, No. 2776 (Mar. 12,
1948), pp.
270-271. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
75815
(University of Rochester) Rochester,
New York, USA 
[1] M. F. Kaplon, B. Peters, and H. L.
Bradt, ''Evidence for Multiple Meson
and γ-Ray Production in Cosmic-Ray
Stars'', Phys. Rev. 76,
1735–1736
(1949). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v76/i11/p1735_1 {Kaplon_M_F_19491010.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v76/i11/p1735_1
51 YBN
[11/24/1949 AD] 3 4 		5228) That antibodies are only formed
after birth is demonstrated.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf}
2. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf}
3. ^ F. M. BURNET, JOYCE D. STONE AND
MAEGARET EDNEY, "THE FAILURE OF
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN THE CHICK
EMBRYO", Australian Journal of
Experimental Biology and Medical
Science (1950) 28,
291–298. http://www.nature.com/icb/jo
urnal/v28/n3/abs/icb195029a.html {Burne
tt_Frank_19491124.pdf} {11/24/1949}
4. ^ Isaac
Asimov, "Asimov's biographical
encyclopedia of science and
technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p769-770. {1949}

MORE INFO
[1] F. Burnett, "The Clonal
Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity",
(1959)
[2] F. Burnett, "Immunological
Surveillance", (1970)
(Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of
Medical Research) Melbourne, Australia2
 
[1] Description Burnet 2jpg.jpg Sir
Frank Macfarlance Burnet, cropped Date
1945(1945) Source Own work
by uploader, cropped from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Imag
e:Burnet_in_1945.jpg Author
Machocarioca Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Burnet_2jpg.jpg
50 YBN
[01/13/1950 AD] 3 		5237) The theory that there is a cloud
of about 100 billion comets that
surrounds our Sun about halfway to the
nearest stars.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oort, J. H., "The structure of
the cloud of comets surrounding the
Solar System and a hypothesis
concerning its origin", Bull. Astron.
Inst. Neth., vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O
2. ^ Oort, J. H., "The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin", Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O
3. ^ Oort, J. H., "The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin", Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O {01/13/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Oort, J. H., "Observational
evidence confirming Lindblad's
hypothesis of a rotation of the
galactic system", Bulletin of the
Astronomical Institutes of the
Netherlands, Vol. 3,
p.275. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/1927BAN.....3..275O/0000275.000.
html
[2] Oort, J. H., "Investigations
concerning the rotational motion of the
galactic system together with new
determinations of secular parallaxes,
precession and motion of the equinox",
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes
of the Netherlands, Vol. 4,
p.79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/19
27BAN.....4...79O
(Observatory at Leiden) Leiden,
Netherlands2  
[1] Oort, J. H., ''The structure of the
cloud of comets surrounding the Solar
System and a hypothesis concerning its
origin'', Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth.,
vol. 11, p. 91-110
(1950). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/
1950BAN....11...91O COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
950BAN....11...91O

[2] Jan Hendrik Oort UNKNOWN
source: http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/
biografia/o/fotos/oort.jpg
50 YBN
[03/07/1950 AD] 4 		5127) That the abundance of the O18
isotope in calcium carbonate varies
with the temperature at which it is
deposited from water and so can be used
to create a temperature history of the
past, is recognized.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. C UREY, H. A LOWENSTAM, S
EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY, "MEASUREMENT
OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURES
OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF ENGLAND,
DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES", BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62. PP.
399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf}
2. ^ SAMUEL EPSTEIN, RALPH BUCHSBAUM,
HEINZ LOWENSTAM and HAROLD C UREY,
"CARBONATE-WATER ISOTOPIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE", Geological Society of America
Bulletin
1951;62;417-426 http://gsabulletin.gsap
ubs.org/content/62/4/417.abstract {Urey
_Harold_19500308.pdf}
3. ^ H. C UREY, H. A LOWENSTAM, S
EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY, "MEASUREMENT
OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURES
OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF ENGLAND,
DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES", BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62. PP.
399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf}
4. ^ H. C UREY, H. A LOWENSTAM, S
EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY, "MEASUREMENT
OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURES
OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF ENGLAND,
DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES", BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62. PP.
399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} {03/07/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] H. C. Urey, “Natural System
of Atomic Nuclei”, Journal of the
American Chemical Society, 53 (1931),
2872
[2] H. C. Urey and Charles A. Bradley.
Jr., “On the Relative Abundances of
Isotopes,” Physical Review, 38
(1931), 718–724
[3] H. C. Urey, C. F. G.
Brickwedde and G. M. Murphy, “A
Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2 and its
Concentration,” Physical Review, 40
(1932),
1–15. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103
/PhysRev.40.1
[4] "Urey, Harold Clayton." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 18. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 943-948. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 17 Jan.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905374&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] HC Urey, "Atoms, molecules and
quanta", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 37
(1931), 506-507.
http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1931-
37-07/S0002-9904-1931-05170-3/home.html
[6] HC Urey, "The separation and
properties of the isotopes of
hydrogen", Science, Volume 78, Issue
2034, pp.
566-571. http://www.jstor.org/stable/16
59134?origin=ads
[7] Edward W. Washburn and Harold C.
Urey, "Concentration of the H2 Isotope
of Hydrogen by the Fractional
Electrolysis of Water", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1932 July; 18(7): 496–498.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1076263/
[8]
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1934/
[9] A. Ruark and Harold Urey, "Atoms,
Molecules, and Quanta", (New York,
1930)
[10] Harold C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde,
and G. M. Murphy, "A Hydrogen Isotope
of Mass 2", Physical Review, 39 (1932),
164.
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v39/i
1/p164_1
and http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/urey
.html
[11] Harold C. Urey, Lotti J. Greiff,
"Isotopic Exchange Equilibria", J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1935, 57 (2), pp
321–327. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01305a026
[12] Thomas Ivan Taylor and Harold C.
Urey, "Fractionation of the Lithium and
Potassium Isotopes by Chemical Exchange
with Zeolites", J. Chem. Phys. 6, 429
(1938). http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/j
cpsa6/v6/i8/p429_s1
(University of Chicago) Chicago,
Illinois, USA3  
[1] Plate 1 from: H. C UREY, H. A
LOWENSTAM, S EPSTEIN and C. R McKINNEY,
''MEASUREMENT OF PALEOTEMPERATURES AND
TEMPERATURES OF THE UPPER CRETACEOUS OF
ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES'', BULLETIN OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, VOL. 62.
PP. 399-416, 1 FIG- 1 PL. APRIL
1951. http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/co
ntent/62/4/399.full.pdf+html {Urey_Haro
ld_19500307.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/c
ontent/62/4/399.full.pdf

[2] Harold Clayton Urey The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1934 was awarded to
Harold C. Urey ''for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen''. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey.
jpg
50 YBN
[03/15/1950 AD] 4 		5553) The fission of medium weight
elements (copper, bromine, silver, and
tin) by protons using 70 million
electron volts.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528-528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
2. ^ Roger E. Batzel and Glenn T.
Seaborg, "Fission of Medium Weight
Elements", Phys. Rev. 79, 528-528
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v79/i3/p528_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195006
14.pdf}
3. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf}
4. ^ S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A.
Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, "Element
98", Phys. Rev. 78, 298-299
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v78/i3/p298_2 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_195003
15.pdf} {03/15/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p842-843
[2] "The Nobel Prize
in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. 25
Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/
[3] "Glenn T. Seaborg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 25 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/530808/Glenn-T-Seaborg>
[4] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"Radioactive Iodine Isotopes", Phys.
Rev. 53, 1015–1015
(1938). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v53/i12/p1015_2
[5]
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=
0&q=author:%22GT+seaborg%22&hl=en&as_sdt
=0,5&as_ylo=1920&as_yhi=1942
[6] J. J. Livingood and G. T. Seaborg,
"A Table of Induced Radioactivities",
Rev. Mod. Phys. 12, 30–46
(1940). http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP
/v12/i1/p30_1
[7] J. W. Gofman and G. T. Seaborg,
"Production and properties of U232 and
Pa232", Paper No. 19.14, The
Transuranium Elements, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949, National
Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Vol
14B. http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5696929
[8] Enrico Fermi, "Possible Production
of Elements of Atomic Number Higher
than 92", Nature 133, 898-899 (16 June
1934). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v133/n3372/abs/133898a0.html
[9] "Enrico Fermi - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1938/fermi-lecture.html
[10] "Glenn T. Seaborg - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 26 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1951/seaborg-lecture.html

[11] L. Meitner, O. Hahn and F.
Strassmann, " Über die
Umwandlungsreihen des Urans, die durch
Neutronenbestrahlung erzeugt werden",
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 3-4,
249-270, DOI:
10.1007/BF01340321 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/r861050u50u85l00/ Eng
lish: "On the conversion of the
uranium series, produced by neutron
irradiation"
[12] Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl,
"The Chemical Properties of Elements 94
and 93", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70
(3), pp
1128–1134. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja01183a076
[13] G. T. Sepborg, Ea M. McMillan, J.
W. Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl, Phys. Rev.,
69, 366 (1946) (submitted January 28,
1941)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v69/i
7-8/p366_2
[14] G. T. Seaborg, A. C. Wahl and J.
W. Kennedy, Physical Review, 69, 367
(1946) (submitted March 7,
1941). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v69/i7-8/p367_1
[15] Glenn T. Seaborg and Joseph G.
Hamilton, "The Production of Elements
95 and 96", Science New Series, Vol.
102, No. 2657 (Nov. 30, 1945), p.
556. Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1673521
[16] S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, and G.
T. Seaborg, "Element 97", Phys. Rev.
77, 838–839
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v77/i6/p838_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA3  
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif

[2] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
50 YBN
[04/26/1950 AD] 3 		5542) Negatively charged mesons are
shown to disintegrate atoms.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
2. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
3. ^ Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, "Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative π
Mesons.", Philosophical Magazine, S7,
V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf}
{04/26/1950}
(University of Bristol) Bristol,
England2  
[1] Menon, Muirhead, Rochat, ''Nuclear
Reactions produced by Slow Negative
Ï€ Mesons.'', Philosophical
Magazine, S7, V41, N317, June 1950,
p583. {Rochat_O_19500426.pdf} COPYRIGH
TED
source: Menon, Muirhead, Rochat,
"Nuclear Reactions produced by Slow
Negative π Mesons.", Philosophical
Magazine, S7, V41, N317, June 1950,
p583.
50 YBN
[09/11/1950 AD] 6 		5555) The atomic fusion of large
atoms.2

Accelerated carbon-12 ions collide and
fuse with Aluminum-27 to produce
Chlorine-34, and with Gold-197 to
produce Astatine-205 {aSTe-TEN3 }.4
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
2. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
3. ^ "astatine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/astatine
4. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
5. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
}
6. ^ J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T.
M. Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B.
Rossi, "Acceleration of Stripped C12
and C13 Nuclei in the Cyclotron",
Phys. Rev. 80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} {09/11/1950}

MORE INFO
[1] Luis W. Alvarez et al,
"TWO-ELEMENT VARIABLE-POWER SPHERICAL
LENS", Patent number: 3305294, Filing
date: Dec 3, 1964, Issue date: Feb 21,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT3305294&id=3sRwAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=%22LW+alvarez%22+lens&printsec=
abstract#v=onepage&q=%22LW%20alvarez%22%
20lens&f=false
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968".
Nobelprize.org. 20 Mar 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1968/
[3] Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog,
"He3 in Helium", Phys. Rev. 56,
379–379
(1939). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v56/i4/p379_2
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA5  
[1] J. F. Miller, J. G. Hamilton, T. M.
Putnam, H. R. Haymond, and G. B. Rossi,
''Acceleration of Stripped C12 and C13
Nuclei in the Cyclotron'', Phys. Rev.
80, 486–486
(1950). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v80/i3/p486_1 {Rossi_G_B_19500911.pdf
} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v80/i3/p486_1

[2] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg

50 YBN
[1950 AD] 5 		5298) That viruses can be coded in
bacteria DNA is shown.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ LWOFF, A. 1951 "Conditions de
l'efficacité inductrice du rayonnement
ultra-violet chez une bactérie
lysogène." Annales de l'Institut
Pasteur, 81, 370-388.
2. ^ "André Michel
Lwoff." A Dictionary of Scientists.
Oxford University Press, 1993, 1999,
2003. Answers.com 14 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-micha
el-lwoff
3. ^ André Lwoff, "Lysogeny",
Bacteriol Rev. 1953 December; 17(4):
269–337. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC180777/
4. ^ LWOFF, A. 1951 "Conditions de
l'efficacité inductrice du rayonnement
ultra-violet chez une bactérie
lysogène." Annales de l'Institut
Pasteur, 81, 370-388.
5. ^ "André Lwoff -
Biography". Nobelprize.org. 14 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/lwoff-bio.html
{1950}

MORE INFO
[1] LWOFF, A. 1952 "Cycle du
bacteriophage chez une bacterie
lysogone.", Bull. World Health
Organization, 6, 249-263.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2554171/
(Institut Pasteur) Paris, France4
 
[1] André Michel Lwoff Nobel photo
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1965/lwoff.jpg
49 YBN
[11/11/1951 AD] 3 		6274) Moving images are recorded on
magnetic tape (videotape).1 2
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ "Tape Recording Used by Filmless
'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12,
1951, p. 21.
2. ^ Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis
Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic
Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE
Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN 0-07-041275-8
3. ^ Yenne
and Grosser, "100 Inventions That
Shaped World History", 1993, p94.
{1951}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/blvideo.htm
[2] Stolaroff, Myron J. "Magnetic
recording system." U.S. Patent No.
2,563,882. 14 Aug. 1951
[3] Camras, Marvin.
"CAMRAS." U.S. Patent No. 2,585,913. 19
Feb. 1952
[4] Nmungwun, Aaron F. Video
Recording Technology: Its Impact on
Media and Home Entertainment.
Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates,
1989. Print
Los Angeles, California, USA 
[1] Nmungwun, Aaron F. Video Recording
Technology: Its Impact on Media and
Home Entertainment. Hillsdale, N.J: L.
Erlbaum Associates, 1989. Print. p119.
{Nmungwun_Video_1989.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: Nmungwun, Aaron F. Video
Recording Technology: Its Impact on
Media and Home Entertainment.
Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates,
1989. Print. p119.

[2] English: A reel of 2'' Quadruplex
(aka 2'' Quad) videotape dating from
the mid-1970s, compared with a
modern-day miniDV digital videocassette
for size comparison. From w:en
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:2-inc
h_Quad_Tape_Reel_with_miniDV_cassette.jp
g Author:
w:en:User:Misternuvistor GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/2-inch_Quad_Tape_Reel
_with_miniDV_cassette.jpg
49 YBN
[12/20/1951 AD] 6 7 		5444) The first atomic fission reactor
to produce electricity.1 2
The heat
from uranium fission heats water to
make steam which drives an electrical
generator.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Experimental Breeder Reactor 1
factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf
2. ^ "Fifty years ago in December:
Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first
electricity", American Nuclear Society
Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf
3. ^ Experimental Breeder Reactor 1
factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf
4. ^ "Experimental Breeder Reactor
I#cite note-factsheet-2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenta
l_Breeder_Reactor_I#cite_note-factsheet-
2
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Experimental Breeder
Reactor 1 factsheet, Idaho National
Laboratory http://www.inl.gov/factsheet
s/ebr-1.pdf {12/20/1951}
7. ^ "Fifty years ago in
December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced
first electricity", American Nuclear
Society Nuclear news, November
2001. http://www.ans.org/pubs/magazines
/nn/docs/2001-11-2.pdf {12/20/1951}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=wzinn.html
[2] "Walter Henry Zinn." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 04 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/657413/Walter-Henry-Zinn>
[3] "breeder reactor." The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,
2002. Answers.com 05 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/breeder-rea
ctor
[4] "Walter Henry Zinn." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 05 Mar.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/walter-henr
y-zinn
[5] WH Zinn, "Introduction to nuclear
engineering", American Journal of
Physics, January 1955 Volume 23, Issue
1, pp.
74. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/ajpi
as/v23/i1/p74_s1
[6] W. H. ZINN, "FAST NEUTRON REACTION
SYSTEM", Patent number: 2975117, Filing
date: Jan 9, 1947, Issue date: Mar 14,
1961. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
xJhUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[7] W. H. ZINN, "POWER REACTOR", Patent
number: 2841545, Filing date: Jun 15,
1954, Issue date: Jul 1,
1958. http://www.google.com/patents/abo
ut?id=5n1MAAAAEBAJ&dq=zinn+w
(Experimental Breeder Reactor-1) Arco,
Idaho4 (verify5 ) 
[1] The first production of usable
nuclear electricity in Idaho National
Laboratory occured in December 20,
1951, when four light bulbs were lit
with electricity generated from the
EBR-1 reactor. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_li
t_bulbs.jpeg

[2] Description
Ebr-1.zdv.jpg Photo of Experimental
Breeder Reactor Number One
(EBR-1). Date Source
http://www.inel.gov/featurestories/
images/ebr-1.jpg Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/43/Ebr-1.zdv.jpg
49 YBN
[1951 AD] 5 		5876) That some genes can turn on or
off another gene, and can control the
rate at which a gene is switched on and
off is discovered.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barbara McClintock, "CHROMOSOME
ORGANIZATION AND GENIC EXPRESSION",
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1951
16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html
2. ^ "Barbara McClintock." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/barbara-mcc
lintock
3. ^ "Barbara McClintock." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 04 Jun.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/barbara-mcc
lintock
4. ^ Barbara McClintock, "CHROMOSOME
ORGANIZATION AND GENIC EXPRESSION",
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1951
16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html
5. ^ Barbara McClintock, "CHROMOSOME
ORGANIZATION AND GENIC EXPRESSION",
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1951
16:
13-47; http://symposium.cshlp.org/conte
nt/16/13.full.pdf+html

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1983".
Nobelprize.org. 4 Jun 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1983/
[2] L. F. Randolph and B. McClintock,
"Polyploidy in Zea Mays L.", The
American Naturalist, Vol. 60, No. 666
(Jan. - Feb., 1926), pp.
99-102 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2456
317
(Carnegie Institute of Washington) Cold
Spring Harbor, New York, USA4  
[1] McClintock,
Barbara Portrait Born: 1902 AD Died:
1992 AD, at 90 years of age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.s9.com/images/portrai
ts/19876_McClintock-Barbara.jpg
48 YBN
[11/01/1952 AD] 3 		5470) The first hydrogen fusion bomb is
exploded.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "nuclear weapon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/421827/nuclear-weapon>.
2. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbo
mb/page_13.shtml
3. ^
http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbo
mb/page_13.shtml {11/01/1952}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of
test: http://www.sonicbomb.com/modules.
php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=184
and
http://www.archive.org/details/Operati
onIVY1952
(Elugelab Island in the Enewatak Atoll
of the) Marshall Islands, Pacific
Ocean2  
[1] The MIKE test PD
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/hbomb/images/mike_test_s.jpg

[2] Edward Teller UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/His
tory/coldwar/images/teller_edward_s.jpg
48 YBN
[1952 AD] 4 5 		5123) The most distant galaxies are
estimated to be 5 to 6 billion light
years away.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739.
2. ^ W Baade, "A
revision of the extra-galactic distance
scale", Transactions of the
International Astronomical Union, 1952,
p397-398. {Baade_Walter_1952xxxx.pdf}
3. ^ Richardson, R. S., "A
New Asteroid with Smallest Known Mean
Distance", Publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific,
Vol. 61, No. 361,
p.162. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1949PASP...61..162R/0000162.000
.html {Baade_Walter_19490626.pdf}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p737-739. {1952}
5. ^ W
Baade, "A revision of the
extra-galactic distance scale",
Transactions of the International
Astronomical Union, 1952,
p397-398. {Baade_Walter_1952xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
[1] Baade, W., "NGC 147 and NGC
185, Two New Members of the Local Group
of Galaxies", Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 100,
p.147. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..147B
[2] Baade, W., "Nova Ophiuchi of 1604
AS a Supernova.", Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 97,
p.119. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1943ApJ....97..119B/0000119.000
.html
[3] Baade, W., "The Resolution of
Messier 32, NGC 205, and the Central
Region of the Andromeda Nebula.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 100,
p.137. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
944ApJ...100..137B
(Mount Wilson Observatory) Mount
Wilson, California, USA3  
[1] From Huntington Library, San
Marino, California. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.astrosociety.org/pubs
/mercury/31_04/images/baade.jpg
47 YBN
[02/26/1953 AD] 5 		5397) The Perseus, Orion, and
Sagittarius arms of the Milky Way
Galaxy are identified.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "William Wilson Morgan." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 26 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/william-wil
son-morgan
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p809.
3. ^ Morgan, W. W.,
Whitford, A. E., & Code, A. D.,
"Studies in Galactic Structure. I. a
Preliminary Determination of the Space
Distribution of the Blue Giants.",
Astrophysical Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M
4. ^ Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., &
Code, A. D., "Studies in Galactic
Structure. I. a Preliminary
Determination of the Space Distribution
of the Blue Giants.", Astrophysical
Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M
5. ^ Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., &
Code, A. D., "Studies in Galactic
Structure. I. a Preliminary
Determination of the Space Distribution
of the Blue Giants.", Astrophysical
Journal, 1953, vol. 118,
p.318. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
953ApJ...118..318M {02/26/1953}
(Yerkes Observatory, University of
Chicago) Williams Bay, Wisconsin, USA4
 
[1] William Wilson Morgan January 3,
1906 — June 21, 1994 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/wmorgan.JPG
47 YBN
[04/02/1953 AD] 24 		5660) The double helix structure of DNA
is understood.13 14 15

The DNA molecule is a double helix made
of a sugar-phosphate backbone, with the
connected nitrogenous bases (adenine
{aDN-EN16 }, thymine {tI-mEN17 },
cytosine {SITe-SEN18 } or guanine
{GWo-nEN19 }) extending toward the
center of the helix from each of the
two backbones. The double helix form
requires that an adenine can only pair
with a thymine, and a cytosine can only
pair with a guanine. The process of
copying (replication) can now be
explained as the two strands of the
double helix being unwound, and each
single helix then serves as a model for
its complement.20 21 22
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
3. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
4. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
6. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
7. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
8. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
9. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
10. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
11. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
12. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
13. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
14. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
15. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
16. ^ "adenine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/adenine
17. ^ "thymine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/thymine
18. ^ "cytosine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cytosine
19. ^ "guanine." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/guanine
20. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887.
21. ^ "Francis Harry Compton Crick."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/142894/Francis-Harry-Compton-Crick>.
22. ^ "Maurice Wilkins." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 11 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-wil
kins
23. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
24. ^ J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK,
"Molecular structure of nucleic acids;
a structure for deoxyribose nucleic
acid", Nature, (1953) volume: 171
issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html and
also: http://www.faculty.sbc.edu/jmuir/
bio112/watson_crick.pdf {Crick_Francis_
Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf}
{04/02/1953}
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England23  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
47 YBN
[05/29/1953 AD] 5 		5700) A human reaches the top of Mount
Everest, the highest point of Earth
(9000 meters or 29,000 feet- 5 miles
up).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.870-871.
2. ^ "Sir Edmund
Hillary." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
3. ^ "Mount Everest." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/mount-evere
st
4. ^ "Sir Edmund Hillary."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
5. ^ "Sir Edmund Hillary."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/265867/Sir-Edmund-Hillary>.
{05/29/1953}
Mount Everest, border between Nepal and
the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.3
4  
[1] Title: Tenzing Norgay on the
summit Date: May 29,
1953 Origin: Edmund
Hillary
Information: Tenzing Norgay
on the summit of Mount Everest at 11.30
am. Tenzing waves his ice-axe on which
are strung the flags of the United
Nations, Britain, India and
Nepal. TenzingonSummit.jpg‎ (300 ×
443 pixels, file size: 116 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Tenzing Norgay
achieves the summit of Mt. Everest, May
29, 1953. Photograph taken by Edmund
Hillary. Copyright Royal Geographic
Society and taken from
http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/
themes/everest/gallery/resource/?id=216
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unlockingthearchives.
rgs.org/resources/images/ten-on-summit-e
nlarged.jpg

[2] Sir Edmund Hillary was a famous
mountain climber from Auckland. After
climbing Mount Everest he helped build
schools in Nepal. UNKNOWN
source: http://ourkiwirolemodels.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/3797.jpg/163780247/379
7.jpg
46 YBN
[01/21/1954 AD] 5 		5230) The first nuclear powered
submarine is launched.1 2
The fuel
supply of uranium lasts for months
without the need to surface to recharge
batteries.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
2. ^
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/inde
x.shtml
3. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839
4. ^
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/inde
x.shtml
5. ^ "USS Nautilus." The Oxford
Essential Dictionary of the U.S.
Military. Oxford University Press,
2001, 2002. Answers.com 31 Jan. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uss-nautilu
s-1839 {01/21/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p770-771
Thames River, Connecticut, USA4  
[1] Nautilus in NYC UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
Nautilus_in_NYC.jpg

[2] Cross section of USS
Nautilus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.subguru.com/nautilus/
nautilus_cross-section.gif
46 YBN
[05/05/1954 AD] 33 34 		5649) The MASER (which stands for
"microwave amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation").25 26 27 28 29
30

A beam of ammonia molecules emerges
through a hole, passes through an
electrostatic field into a cavity with
an oscillating electric potential at
the molecular transition frequency.
This causes microwave light to be
emitted by the molecules in the cavity
which then induces the transition to
light emission in the molecules
entering the cavity causing
self-sustained oscillations with a very
stable frequency. So the MASER can be
used as a very stable oscillator (or
atomic clock), as an amplifier of
microwaves near a molecular resonance,
and as a microwave spectrometer.31
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
2. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
3. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
4. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
5. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
6. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
7. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
8. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C.
H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
9. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
10. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
11. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
12. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
13. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
14. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
15. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
16. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
17. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
18. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
19. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
20. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
21. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
22. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
23. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
24. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
25. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
26. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "The Maser—New Type of
Microwave Amplifier, Frequency
Standard, and Spectrometer", Phys. Rev.
99, 1264
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v99/i4/p1264_1
{Townes_Charles_Hard_19550504.pdf}
27. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
Proc. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.S.R.) 101,
47 (1945). (Doklady Akademii Nauk
SSSR) English:
28. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov,
J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys. U.S.S.R., 27,
431 (1954) English:
29. ^ N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov, J. Exptl, Theoret. Phys.
U.S.S.R., 28, 249
(1955) English: Soviet Phys. JETP 1,
184 (1955). {Basov_N_G_19541101.pdf}
30. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
31. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
32. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf}
33. ^ J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and
C. H. Townes, "Molecular Microwave
Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure
in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3",
Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} {first publication:)
05/05/1954}
34. ^ "Charles Hard Townes."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 05 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/601072/Charles-Hard-Townes>.
{12/1953}

MORE INFO
[1] "Charles Hard Townes." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 04 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-tow
nes
[2] K. Shimoda, T. C. Wang, and C. H.
Townes, "Further Aspects of the Theory
of the Maser", Phys. Rev. 102, 1308
(1956). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v102/i5/p1308_1
[3] "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
[4] T. S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murray,
and C. H. Townes, "Test of Special
Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space
by Use of Infrared Masers", Phys. Rev.
133, A1221
(1964). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v133/i5A/pA1221_1
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA32  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1

[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
46 YBN
[10/21/1954 AD] 3 		5250) A single neuron is made to fire
by electrical stimulation (direct
neuron writing).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
2. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf}
3. ^ ARAKI, T. & OTANI, T. (1955).
"Response of single motoneurons to
direct stimulation in toad's spinal
cord." J. Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} {10/21/1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Granit R., "The components of
the retinal action potential in mammals
and their relation to the discharge in
the optic nerve.", J Physiol. 1933 Feb
8;77(3):207-39. http://jp.physoc.org/co
ntent/77/3/207.long
[2] R. Granit, Sensory Mechanisms of
the Retina (1947)
[3] R. Granit, "The Visual
Pathway" (1962)
[4] Colour receptors of the
frog's retina
[5] RAGNAR GRANIT, "The Spectral
Properties of the Visual Receptors of
the Cat", Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, Volume 5, Issue 2-3,
pages 219–229, April
1943. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1943.tb02050.x/abs
tract
[6] RAGNAR GRANIT AND P. O. THERMAN.,
"EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE
RETINA AND IN THE OPTIC NERVE.", J
Physiol, 1935, p359
[7] RAGNAR GRANIT, A.
MUNSTERHJELM AND M. ZEWI, "THE RELATION
BETWEEN CONCENTRATION OF VISUAL PURPLE
AND RETINAL SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT DURING
DARK ADAPTATION", J. Physiol. (1939)
96, 31-44
[8] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine 1967". Nobelprize.org. 5
Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1967/
[9] R Granit, "Principles and technique
of the electrophysiological analysis of
colour reception with the aid of
microelectrodes", Upsala
läkareförenings förhandlingar :
Acta societatis medicorum Upsaliensis.
1 45, 161-177, 1939
[10] ARAKI T, OTANI T,
FURUKAWA T., "The electrical activities
of single motoneurones in toad's spinal
cord, recorded with intracellular
electrodes.", Japan J Physiol. 1953 Dec
15;3(4):254-67
[11] R. GRANIT, D. KERNELL AND G. K.
SHORTESS, "QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
REPETITIVE FIRING OF MAMMALIAN
MOTONEURONES, CAUSED BY INJECTED
CURRENTS", J. Physiol. (1963), 168, pp.
911-931. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1359475/
(Kyoto University) Kyoto, Japan2  
[1] Figure 1 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4

[2] Figure 2 from: ARAKI, T. & OTANI,
T. (1955). ''Response of single
motoneurons to direct stimulation
in toad's spinal cord.'' J.
Neurophysiol. 18,
472-485. http://jn.physiology.org/conte
nt/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c
8ac-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4 {Araki_Tatsu
nosuke_19541021.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jn.physiology.org/content
/18/5/472.full.pdf+html?sid=0ddda869-c8a
c-4438-b023-aabdae748ef4
46 YBN
[1954 AD] 8 		5323) Progesterone {PrO-JeSTe-rON1 }, a
female hormone2 , is found to prevent
ovulation (discharge of an ovum or
ovule from the ovary3 ) in humans.4
This leads to the first birth control
pill for humans.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "progesterone." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/progesteron
e
2. ^ "progesterone." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 10 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
rogesterone>.
3. ^ "Ovulation." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ovulation-2

4. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus
5. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus
6. ^ Pincus G, Rock J, Garcia CR,
Rice-Wray E, Paniagua M, Rodgriquez I
(1958). "Fertility control with oral
medication". Am J Obstet Gynecol, June
1958, 75 (6):
1333–46. {Pincus_Gregory_195806xx.pdf
}
7. ^ PINCUS G, CHANG MC., "The effects
of progesterone and related compounds
on ovulation and early development in
the rabbit.", Acta physiologica latino
americana,
1953;3(2-3):177-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm
.nih.gov/pubmed/13138262 {Pincus_Gregor
y_1953xxxx.pdf}
8. ^ "Gregory Goodwin Pincus." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 17 Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/gregory-goo
dwin-pincus {1954}

MORE INFO
[1] Gregory Pincus, "SOME EFFECTS
OF PROGESTERONE AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
UPON REPRODUCTION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT
IN MAMMALS",Acta Endocrinologica, 1956,
Vol 23, 4 Suppl,
S18-S36 http://www.eje-online.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/23/4_Suppl/S18
(Worchester Foundation for Experimental
Biology) Shrewsbury, Massachusetts,
USA7  
[1] Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)
performed studies in animals to confirm
the contraceptive effects of
norethinodrel. His data were used to
justify human research using the same
chemical. He collaborated closely with
the obstetrician John Rock, and was
supported financially and politically
by Katherine Dexter McCormick, Margaret
Sanger and other birth control
activists. [t 1967 seems a very early
death - probably galvanized by violent
antipleasurists.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.br-online.de/bildung/
databrd/ms26.htm/ms26b11.jpg
45 YBN
[08/22/1955 AD] 7 		5710) Radioimmunoassay
{rADE-O-iMye-nO-aSA1 }: a method to
measure tiny amounts of substances by
comparing the quantity of binding of a
radiolabeled substance to an antibody.2
3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "radioimmunoassay." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 29
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radioimmuno
assay
2. ^ "radioimmunoassay." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 27
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/radioimmuno
assay
3. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I" METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf} {08/22/1955}
4. ^ "Rosalyn S.
Yalow." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 23
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/651417/Rosalyn-S-Yalow>.
5. ^ "Rosalyn Yalow - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
6. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I131 METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf}
7. ^ Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Arthur Bauman, Marcus A.
Rothschild, Katharina Newerly,
"INSULIN-I" METABOLISM IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS: DEMONSTRATION OF INSULIN
BINDING GLOBULIN IN THE CIRCULATION OF
INSULIN TREATED SUBJECTS", J. Clin.
Invest. 1956;
35(2):170. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/103262/version/1 {Yalow_Rosalyn_Su
ssman_19550822.pdf} {08/22/1955}

MORE INFO
[1] Solomon A. Berson, Rosalyn S.
Yalow, Sidney S. Schreiber, Joseph
Post, "TRACER EXPERIMENTS WITH I131
LABELED HUMAN SERUM ALBUMIN:
DISTRIBUTION AND DEGRADATION STUDIES",
J. Clin. Invest. 1953;
32(8):746. http://www.jci.org/articles/
view/102789/citation
(Veterans Administration Hospital)
Bronx, New York, USA6  
[1] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED AND Rosalyn Yalow
preparing the ''atomic cocktail,'' a
radio-iodine mixture used in thyroid
diagnostic procedures, 1948, source:
Radioisotope Unit, Veterans
Administration Hospital, Bronx, New
York. UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.htmlhttp://timeline.aps.org/images/post
ers/55_2a.jpg

[2] Figure 4 from: ''Rosalyn Yalow -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture.html {
Yalow_Rosalyn_19771208.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1977/yalow-lecture
.html
45 YBN
[10/24/1955 AD] 5 6 		5366) The antiproton is identified by
the impact of very high speed protons
on copper atoms.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
2. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803,873-874.
4. ^ Owen
Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde
Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf}
5. ^ Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè,
Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis,
"Observation of Antiprotons", Phys.
Rev. 100, 947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} {10/24/1955}
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p803, 873-874. {1955}

MORE INFO
[1] "Emilio Segrè." A Dictionary
of Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/segr-emilio
-gino
[2] E. Segrè, "Artificial
Radioactivity and the Completion of the
Periodic System of the Elements", The
Scientific monthly, (1943), volume: 57
page: 12.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/18209
[3] "technetium." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 21
Feb. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[4] "technetium." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 21 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/technetium
[5] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959".
Nobelprize.org. 21 Feb 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1959/
[6] Seidel, Robert. "Segrè, Emilio
Gino." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 407-411.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906083&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[7] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43", J.
Chem. Phys. 5, 712
(1937). http://link.aip.org/link/jcpsa6
/v5/i9/p712/s1
[8] C. Perrier and E. Segrè, "Some
Chemical Properties of Element 43. II",
J. Chem. Phys. 7, 155
(1939). http://scitation.aip.org/getpdf
/servlet/GetPDFServlet?filetype=pdf&id=J
CPSA6000007000003000155000001&idtype=cvi
ps&prog=normal
[9] Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.;
Segrè, E. "Artificially Radioactive
Element 85". Phys. Rev. 1940, 58:
672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672
[10] O. Chamberlain, W. W. Chupp, G.
Goldhaber, E. Segrè, C. Wiegand, E.
Amaldi, G. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, C.
Franzinetti and A. Manfredini, "On the
observation of an antiproton star in
emulsion exposed at the bevatron", Il
Nuovo Cimento (1955-1965), Volume 3,
Number 2, 447-467, DOI:
10.1007/BF02745430. http://www.springer
link.com/content/74740076316k6m36/
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1

[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
44 YBN
[03/??/1956 AD] 7 8 9 		5688) A bacteria enzyme is found to
synthesize DNA molecules using
nucleotides and ATP. This enzyme will
be isolated and named "polymerase".1 2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN
IR, SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
2. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866.
4. ^ "Arthur
Kornberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 16
Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/322505/Arthur-Kornberg>.
5. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
6. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN IR,
SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
7. ^ A. KORNBERG, I. R. LEHMAN AND E.
S. SIMMS, "Polydesoxyribonucleotide
synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia
coli.", Federation Proceedings, 15
(1956)
291. {Kornberg_Arthur_195603xx.pdf}
{03/1956}
8. ^ BESSMAN MJ, KORNBERG A, LEHMAN IR,
SIMMS ES., "Enzymic synthesis of
deoxyribonucleic acid.", Biochim
Biophys Acta. 1956
Jul;21(1):197-8. http://www.sciencedire
ct.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B73G9
-47KPCGY-PM&_user=4422&_coverDate=07%2F3
1%2F1956&_alid=1720717197&_rdoc=2&_fmt=h
igh&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rs
lt_list_item&_cdi=11521&_sort=r&_st=13&_
docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600
&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&m
d5=b9049e182c61588c11e9dd3d40c56311&sear
chtype=a
{Kornberg_Arthur_19560502.pdf}
{05/02/1956}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.866. {1956}
(Washington University) Saint Louis,
Missouri, USA5 6  
[1] Arthur Kornberg Nobel Prize
photograph COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1959/kornberg.jpg
44 YBN
[12/03/1956 AD] 4 		5703) The first solid maser (also the
first multi-level and continuous
maser).1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
2. ^ J. O. Artman, N. Bloembergen, and
S. Shapiro, "Operation of a Three-Level
Solid-State Maser at 21 cm", Phys. Rev.
109, 1392–1393
(1958). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v109/i4/p1392_1 {Bloembergen_Nicolaas
_19571226.pdf}
3. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf}
4. ^ H. E. D. Scovil, G. Feher, and H.
Seidel, "Operation of a Solid State
Maser", Phys. Rev. 105, 762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} {12/03/1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Physics
1981". Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1981/
[2] "Nicolaas Bloembergen." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 18 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nicolaas-bl
oembergen
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: H. E. D. Scovil, G.
Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of a
Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1

[2] Figure 2 from: H. E. D. Scovil,
G. Feher, and H. Seidel, ''Operation of
a Solid State Maser'', Phys. Rev. 105,
762–763
(1957). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v105/i2/p762_1 {Seidel_Harold_1956120
3.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v105/i2/p762_1
44 YBN
[1956 AD] 4 		5408) Sound reflection is used to show
that the mid-Atlantic ridge is a
mountain range extending throughout the
oceans of the world and is some
64,000 km (or 40,000 miles) long.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
2. ^ Kendall Hunt,, "BSCS science &
technology: Investigating earth
systems", 2005,
p258 http://books.google.com/books?id=d
nJL9kVhCa8C&pg=PA258-IA2&lpg=PA258-IA2&d
q=first+image+of+mountains+on+ocean+floo
r+Heezen&source=bl&ots=sdkQaLM5Mk&sig=Hh
BQAb9gvoboOT76OEQKJLcNYvI&hl=en&ei=3dC8T
f-fNZS4sAPG1bHZBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct
=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false
3. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng
4. ^ "Maurice Ewing." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 27 Feb.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/maurice-ewi
ng {1956}

MORE INFO
[1] "Ewing, William Maurice."
Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 2008. 275-279. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905107&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[2] WM Ewing, CL Pekeris…,
"Propagation of sound in the ocean",
1948 - Geological Society of America
[3] CL
Pekeris, WM Ewing, "Propagation of
sound in the ocean: Explosion sounds in
shallow water...", 1948 - Geological
Society of America
(Columbia University) New York City,
New York, USA3  
[1] William Maurice Ewing UNKNOWN
source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_gNIHS1PHL1
Q/SO941XFj4CI/AAAAAAAAATk/tMf7NRc0kIU/50
0.jpg
43 YBN
[01/16/1957 AD] 4 		5711) Transfer RNA (T-RNA) is
identified.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm "A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS", J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf}
2. ^ "transfer RNA (tRNA)."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 23 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/602542/transfer-RNA>.
3. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C.
Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002
4. ^ Mahlon B. Hoagland, Paul C.
Zamecnik, Mary L. Stephenson,
"Intermediate reactions in protein
biosynthesis", Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta, 1957, V24,
p215-216. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/00063002 {01/16/1957}

MORE INFO
[1] M. B. Hoagland, E. B. Keller,
and P. C. Zamecnik, J. Biol. Chem.,
218, 345, 1956
[2] Robert W. Holley, "An
Alanine-dependent,
Ribonuclease-inhibited Conversion of
AMP to ATP, and its Possible
Relationship to Protein Synthesis", J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 1957, 79 (3), pp
658–662 DOI:
10.1021/ja01560a040 http://pubs.acs.org
/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01560a040
(Harvard University, Massachusetts
General Hospital) Boston,
Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Mahlon B. Hoagland, Mary Louise
Stephenson, Jesse F. Scott, Liselotte
I. Hecht, and Paul C. Zamecnikm ''A
SOLUBLE RIBONUCLEIC ACID INTERMEDIATE
IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS'', J. Biol. Chem.
1958 231: 241-257.
http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/1 {Ho
agland_Mahlon_Bush_19570927.pdf} COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://intl.jbc.org/content/231/
1

[2] Description Peptide
syn.png English: illustration of tRNA
building peptide chain Date 1
March 2009(2009-03-01) Source Own
work Author
Boumphreyfr Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
43 YBN
[10/04/1957 AD] 8 		5486) The first human-made satellite.5


An 83-kg (or 184-pound) aluminum sphere
that carries four antennas, reaches an
Earth orbit with an apogee (farthest
point from Earth) of 940 km (or 584
miles), and circles Earth every 96
minutes.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
3. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
4. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
5. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
6. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
8. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>. {10/04/1957}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam)
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.7  
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
43 YBN
[11/03/1957 AD] 4 		5487) The first animal to orbit Earth;
a dog.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Sputnik." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 13 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/561534/Sputnik>.
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-002A {11/03/1957}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1957-001B
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.3  
[1] Sputnik 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/sputnik2_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
43 YBN
[1957 AD] 3 		6502) Direct neuron writing to hearing
using an implanted electric device; the
first cochlear implants.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Djourno A, Eyries C. 1957.
Prothese auditive par excitation
electrique a distance du nerf sensoriel
a l’aide d’un bobinage inclus a
demeure. Presse médicale 35:14–17.
2. ^ Humayun,
Mark S., et al. "Visual perception in a
blind subject with a chronic
microelectronic retinal prosthesis."
Vision research 43.24 (2003):
2573-2581. http://midas.inrf.uci.edu/gr
oups/bats/uploads/Xsense/Weiland_AnnRevB
ioEng_2005.pdf
3. ^ Djourno A, Eyries C. 1957.
Prothese auditive par excitation
electrique a distance du nerf sensoriel
a l’aide d’un bobinage inclus a
demeure. Presse médicale 35:14–17.
 
[1] Figure 1. Intraorbital X-ray of
bilateral cochlear implants in a
child. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0957583906000789#gr1

[2] Illustration of cochlear implant
from the National Institute on Deafness
and Other Communication Disorders at
the National Institutes of Health. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Cochlear_implant.jpg
42 YBN
[01/09/1958 AD] 7 		5772) The "Mössbauer {moS-BoUR1 }
effect": when atoms are in a
crystalline lattice, the lattice
prevents them from recoiling, and so
the atoms can emit and absorb gamma
radiation of the same exact frequency
(resonantly). This phenomenon allows
highly precise measurements of
frequency.2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Mössbauer." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 29 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/M
össbauer>.
2. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887-888.
4. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig
Mössbauer." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/393799/Rudolf-Ludwig-Mossbauer>.
5. ^ "Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer." The
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth
Edition. Columbia University Press.,
2011. Answers.com 09 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/rudolf-ludw
ig-mossbauer-german-physicist
6. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
7. ^ Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/ {Mossbauer_Rudol
f_Ludwig_19580109.pdf}
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191" {01/09/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Mössbauer, Rudolf L.,
"Kernresonanzabsorption von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191",
Naturwissenschaften, 1958-01-01, V45,
I22,
p538. http://www.springerlink.com/conte
nt/ph36815q8k930060/
[2] Rudolf L. Mössbauer and Werner H.
Wiedemann, "Kernresonanzabsorption
nicht Doppler-verbreiterter
Gammastrahlung in Re187", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei Volume 159, Number 1,
33-48. http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/p405hj776261p63v/
English: "Nuclear magnetic resonance
absorption without Doppler-broadened
gamma radiation in Re187"
[3] Mössbauer,
"Recoilless resonance absorption of
gamma quanta in solids", Soviet
physics. Uspekhi (1961) volume: 4
issue: 6 page:
866 http://iopscience.iop.org/0038-5670
/3/6/R05/pdf/PHU_3_6_R05.pdf
[4] P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1, p76.
(1950) http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-1
298/64/1/311 {Moon_Philip_Burton_195008
02.pdf}
(Institut fur Physik im
Max-Planck-Institut fur medizinische
Forschung {Institute of Physics at the
Max Planck Institute for Medical
Research}) Heidelberg, Germany6  
[1] Description
Mossbauer.jpg English: Rudolf
Mössbauer Date
1961(1961) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1961/mossbauer-bio.htm
l Author Nobel
foundation COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Mossbauer.jpg
42 YBN
[05/01/1958 AD] 7 		5608) A high intensity of corpuscular
radiation temporarily trapped in the
Earth's magnetic field is discovered.
These layers will come to be called the
magnetosphere {maG-nE-Tu-SFER1 } or the
"Van Allen" radiation belts.2 3 4
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ "magnetosphere." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 29 Jun.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/m
agnetosphere>.
2. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p850-852.
4. ^ Van Allen, J.
A., paper presented at joint meeting of
National Academy of Sciences and
American Physical Society on May 1,
1958.
5. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
6. ^
http://books.google.com/books?id=NMk3adg
qfawC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=may+1958+joi
nt+meeting+american+physical+society&sou
rce=bl&ots=hT0DTimGKV&sig=NaTG_FyNBx85ny
M23OULhn-l0WA&hl=en&ei=4LySTZmxMYa-sQOjt
7m4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resn
um=8&sqi=2&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f
=false
7. ^ JAMES A. VAN ALLEN, LOUIS A.
FRANK, "Radiation Around the Earth to a
Radial Distance of 107,400 km.", Nature
183, 430-434 (14 February 1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
{05/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] Timeline:
http://www.astronautix.com/astros/vanall
en.htm
[2]
http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/rockoon.h
tm
[3] J. A. Van Allen and H. E. Tatel,
"The Cosmic-Ray Counting Rate of a
Single Geiger Counter from Ground Level
to 161 Kilometers Altitude", Phys. Rev.
73, 245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1
[4] J. A. Van Allen and S. F. Singer,
"On the Primary Cosmic-Ray Spectrum",
Phys. Rev. 78, 819
(1950) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
[5] L. H. Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb, and
J. A. Van Allen, "Direct Detection of
Soft Radiation above 50 Kilometers in
the Auroral Zone", Phys. Rev. 97, 201
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v97/i1/p201_1
[6] Annual report - National Academy of
Sciences, By National Academy of
Sciences (U.S.), National Research
Council (U.S.), National Academy of
Engineering, Institute of Medicine
(U.S.),
1958. http://books.google.com/books?id=
30QrAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA91&dq=%22van+allen
%22&hl=en&ei=41yUTc7pAoPCsAPR-tTMBQ&sa=X
&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0
CEQQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=%22van%20allen%
22&f=false
(National Academy of Science and
American Physical Society joint
meeting) Washington, D. C., USA5 6
 
[1] Figure 5 from: JAMES A. VAN ALLEN,
LOUIS A. FRANK, ''Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107,400
km.'', Nature 183, 430-434 (14 February
1959)
doi:10.1038/183430a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430
a0.pdf
{Van_Allen_James_Alfred_19590214.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v183/n4659/pdf/183430a0.pdf

[2] Figure 4 from: J. A. Van Allen
and H. E. Tatel, ''The Cosmic-Ray
Counting Rate of a Single Geiger
Counter from Ground Level to 161
Kilometers Altitude'', Phys. Rev. 73,
245
(1948). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v73/i3/p245_1 {Van_Allen_James_Alfred
_19471016.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v78/i6/p819_1
42 YBN
[08/01/1958 AD] 17 		5606) The first atomic explosion in
empty space and first rocket launched
atomic explosion.11 12 13 14 15
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
2. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
3. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
4. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
5. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
6. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
7. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
8. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
9. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
10. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
11. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
12. ^
http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johslan
d.htm
13. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
14. ^ Operation Hardtack final report:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we
b&cd=5&ved=0CC4QFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fww
w.hss.energy.gov%2FHealthSafety%2FIHS%2F
marshall%2Fcollection%2Fdata%2Fihp2a%2F1
028_a.pdf&rct=j&q=hardtack%20yucca%20apr
il%201958%20site%3Agov%20first&ei=00GUTf
S6GJH6sAP4_Mi3BQ&usg=AFQjCNGK3bPUO2I9Vq0
85Kvryl8BnQKxBA&cad=rja
15. ^ Video of Hardtack Teak explosion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBxpHNCDf
ZQ
16. ^
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Test
s/Hardtack1.html
17. ^
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14162962/High-
altitude-nuclear-explosions-HANE
{08/01/1958}

MORE INFO
[1] "Hardtack Teak". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Te
ak
(Johnson Island) Pacific Ocean16  
[1] Hardtack Teak test PD
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
BxpHNCDfZQ
42 YBN
[1958 AD] 5 		6550) The integrated circuit (or IC).3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
2. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
3. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
4. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
5. ^ "integrated circuit (IC)".
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 26 Jan.
2013 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecke
d/topic/289645/integrated-circuit-IC>.
(Texas Instruments and Fairchild
Semiconductor)4  
[1] First Integrated Circuit - Jack
Kilby invented the integrated circuit
at Texas Instruments in 1958. Comprised
of only a transistor and other
components on a slice of germanium,
Kilby's invention, 7/16-by-1/16-inches
in size, revolutionized the electronics
industry. The roots of almost every
electronic device we take for granted
today can be traced back to Dallas more
than 40 years ago.
source: http://www.ti.com/corp/graphics/
press/image/print/co1034.tif
41 YBN
[01/03/1959 AD] 4 		5596) The first ship to pass the moon.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
2. ^
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A {01/03/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.3  
[1] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg

[2] Luna 1 Spacecraft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna-1.jpg
41 YBN
[01/27/1959 AD] 4 		5672) The Earth is found to be slightly
pear shaped from the motion of a 1 kg
(or 3 pound) satellite.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ J. A. O'Keefe, Ann Eckels, R. K.
Squires, "Vanguard Measurements Give
Pear-Shaped Component of Earth's
Figure", New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3348
(Feb. 27, 1959), pp.
565-566 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175
7833 {O_Keefe_John_Aloysius_19590127.pd
f}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.862.
3. ^ Obituary: John
Aloysius O'Keefe,
1917(sic)-2000 Rubincam, David P.;
Lowman, Paul D. Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1683-1684 http://articles.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/full/2000BAAS...32.1683R
4. ^ J. A. O'Keefe, Ann Eckels, R. K.
Squires, "Vanguard Measurements Give
Pear-Shaped Component of Earth's
Figure", New Series, Vol. 129, No. 3348
(Feb. 27, 1959), pp.
565-566 http://www.jstor.org/stable/175
7833 {O_Keefe_John_Aloysius_19590127.pd
f} {01/27/1959}
 
[1] Vanguard 1 satellite PD
source: http://ecoble.com/wp-content/upl
oads/2008/04/vanguard1_nasm_lg.jpg

[2] O'Keefe John Aloysius UNKNOWN
source: http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/po
rtraits/candidates/okeefe_john.jpg
41 YBN
[04/??/1959 AD] 6 		5787) Signals from life of other stars
are searched for.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Frank Drake, "Project Ozma",
Physics today, (1961) volume: 14
issue: 4 page:
40 http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/serv
let/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTOAD0
00014000004000040000001&idtype=cvips&gif
s=yes {Drake_Frank_196104xx.pdf}
2. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake

3. ^ "Drake equation." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 16 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
4. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake

5. ^ Frank Drake, "Project Ozma",
Physics today, (1961) volume: 14
issue: 4 page:
40 http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/serv
let/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTOAD0
00014000004000040000001&idtype=cvips&gif
s=yes {Drake_Frank_196104xx.pdf}
6. ^ "Frank Drake." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 16 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frank-drake
 {04/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] "Frank Donald Drake".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Donal
d_Drake
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892
[3] "Drake equation."
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2003. Answers.com 16
May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/drake-equat
ion
[4]
http://www.lifeinuniverse.org/Drakeequat
ion-07-02.html
(National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
Green Bank, West Virginia, USA4 5
 
[1] Frank Drake UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bigear.org/CSMO/Image
s/CS09/cs09p09s.jpg
41 YBN
[09/14/1959 AD] 8 		5597) A ship impacts the moon of
Earth.5

The moon is shown to have no
significant magnetic field or radiation
belts.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A {09/14/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.7  
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg

[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
41 YBN
[10/18/1959 AD] 3 		5598) The first pictures of the
far-side of the moon of Earth.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A {by
10/18/1959}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (U.S.S.R.)2  
[1] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif

[2] Luna 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna_3.jpg
41 YBN
[11/05/1959 AD] 5 		191) A device inside the body is
controlled remotely; a radio controlled
artificial heart pacemaker.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
2. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
3. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
4. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
5. ^ Glenn WWL, Mauro A, Longo E,
Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905
(Yale University School of Medicine)
New Haven, New Jersey, USA4  
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905

[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
41 YBN
[12/07/1959 AD] 3 		5372) An X-ray telescope.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO
ROSSI, "A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
2. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI,
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf}
3. ^ RICCARDO GIACCONI and BRUNO ROSSI,
"A 'Telescope' for Soft X-Ray
Astronomy", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V65, N2, Feb 1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} {12/07/1959}

MORE INFO
[1] Bruno Rossi, "On the Magnetic
Deflection of Cosmic Rays", Phys. Rev.
36, 606
(1930). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v36/i3/p606_1
[2] Bruno Rossi, "Directional
Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near
the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
45, 212
(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
[3] Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
[4] Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
Feb. 2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830906055&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
[5] G. Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
40 YBN
[01/23/1960 AD] 4 5 		4992) Humans reach around 11 km (or 7
miles) below sea level.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
2. ^ "Auguste
Piccard." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. Web. 29
Dec. 2010.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459310/Auguste-Piccard>.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p694-695.
{01/23/1960}
5. ^ "Piccard, Auguste." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 10. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 597-598. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 29 Dec.
2010. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830903405&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {01/23/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "Auguste Piccard."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 29 Dec. 2010.
http://www.answers.com/topic/auguste-pic
card
Marianas Trench of the Pacific Ocean3
 
[1] Español: Batiscafo
Trieste. from en wikipedia. The
Bathyscaphe Trieste is hoisted out of
the water in a tropical port, circa
1958-59, soon after her purchase by
the Navy. Photography was released by
the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory,
San Diego, California. (U.S. Naval
Historical Center Photograph.) Photo
#NH 96801: U.S. Navy Bathyscaphe
Trieste (1958-1963). Source : U.S.
Naval Historical Center PD
AND Description
AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer.jpg Englis
h: Paul Kipfer and August Piccard
prepare to enter the stratosphere in a
pressurized gondola lifted by a
hydrogen filled balloon on May 27th,
1931. Date May 27th, 1931.
2007-10-24 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Storkk using CommonsHelper. CC
AND Title: Auguste Piccard
People in the image: *
Piccard, Auguste Prof.: Physiker,
Ballonfahrer, Stratosphären- und
Tiefseeforscher, Schweiz August
1932(1932-08) Source Deutsches
Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive),
Bild 102-13738 Author Unknown CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.j
pghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/17/AugustePiccardandPaulKipfer
.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
a/commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-137
38%2C_Auguste_Piccard.jpg

[2] Español: Batiscafo
Trieste. from en wikipedia. The
Bathyscaphe Trieste is hoisted out of
the water in a tropical port, circa
1958-59, soon after her purchase by
the Navy. Photography was released by
the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory,
San Diego, California. (U.S. Naval
Historical Center Photograph.) Photo
#NH 96801: U.S. Navy Bathyscaphe
Trieste (1958-1963). Source : U.S.
Naval Historical Center PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.j
pg
40 YBN
[03/09/1960 AD] 9 		5774) Light is proven to have mass.
Gravity is shown to change the
frequency of light proving that the
speed of light is not constant.4 5 6

The Mössbauer effect is used (with
radioactive Iron-57) to show that the
wavelength of a beam of light with
gamma wavelength is increased (or
red-shifted) as the beam is sent from
the top floor of a tower to the
basement. This is because of the
stronger gravity field at the basement
which is closer to the center of
Earth.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer,
and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of
the Gravitational Red Shift Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 163-164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
2. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer*, T. E.
Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an
Accelerated System Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165-166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
3. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
4. ^ T. E. Cranshaw, J. P. Schiffer,
and A. B. Whitehead, "Measurement of
the Gravitational Red Shift Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 163-164
(1960). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v4/i4/p163_1 {Whitehead_A_B_19600127.p
df}
5. ^ H. J. Hay, J. P. Schiffer*, T. E.
Cranshaw, and P. A. Egelstaff,
"Measurement of the Red Shift in an
Accelerated System Using the
M�ssbauer Effect in Fe57", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165-166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
6. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887-888.
8. ^ R. V. Pound and
G. A. Rebka, Jr., "Apparent Weight of
Photons", Phys. Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf}
9. ^ R. V. Pound and G. A. Rebka, Jr.,
"Apparent Weight of Photons", Phys.
Rev. Letters, 4 (1960)
337. http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4
/i7/p337_1 {Rebka_Glen_Anderson_jr_1960
0309.pdf} {03/09/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Rudolf L. Mössbauer,
"Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von
Gammastrahlung in Ir191", Zeitschrift
für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei,
Volume 151, Number 2,
124-143 http://www.springerlink.com/con
tent/p4335870w53k7834/
English: "Nuclear resonance
fluorescence of gamma radiation in
Ir191"
[2] P B Moon, "Resonant Nuclear
Scattering of Gamma-Rays: Theory and
Preliminary Experiments", Proceedings
of the Physical Society. Section A
Volume 64 Number 1,
p76. http://iopscience.iop.org/0370-129
8/64/1/311
[3] JASCHA HOFFMAN, "Robert Pound,
Physicist Whose Work Advanced Medicine,
Is Dead at 90", NY TImes, April 19,
2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/20
/us/20pound.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=130491
7624-dPEMK8cOyCU8ikOVg6k5pA
(Harvard University) Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA8  
[1] [t Note that this is from Hay, et
al, and not from Pound and
Rebka] Figure 1 from: H. J. Hay, J.
P. Schiffer*, T. E. Cranshaw, and P. A.
Egelstaff, ''Measurement of the Red
Shift in an Accelerated System Using
the Mössbauer Effect in Fe57'', Phys.
Rev. Lett. 4, 165–166 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i4/
p165_1 {Whitehead_A_B_2_19600127.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v4/i4/p165_1

[2] Catalog #: Rebka Glen C1 Rebka,
Glen A. Jr.; Pound, Robert
Vivian Date: circa 1965 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://photos.aip.org/history/Th
umbnails/rebka_glen_c1.jpg
40 YBN
[04/19/1960 AD] 6 		5665) An x-ray photograph of the Sun.1
2 3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.861.
3. ^ "Herbert
Friedman." Dictionary of Astronomy,
John Wiley . Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
4. ^ Gursky, H., "Obituary: Herbert
Friedman, 1916-2000", Bulletin of the
American Astronomical Society, vol. 32,
no. 4, p.
1665-1666. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/fu
ll/2000BAAS...32.1665G
5. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
6. ^ Blake, R. L., Chubb, T. A.,
Friedman, H., & Unzicker, A. E.,
"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of
the Sun.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml {Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf}
{04/19/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] "Herbert Friedman." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/herbert-fri
edman
[2] Friedman, H., "Ultraviolet and X
Rays from the Sun", Annual Review of
Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1,
p.59. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1963ARA%26A...1...59F/0000059.00
0.html
[3] H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman, and E.
T. Byram, "Photon Counter Measurements
of Solar X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030
(1951). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v83/i5/p1025_1
(U. S. Naval Research Laboratory)
Washington, D. C., USA5  
[1] Figure 4 from: Blake, R. L.,
Chubb, T. A., Friedman, H., & Unzicker,
A. E., ''Interpretation of X-Ray
Photograph of the Sun.'', Astrophysical
Journal, vol. 137,
p.3. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000.h
tml
{Friedman_Herbert_19620829.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du//full/1963ApJ...137....3B/0000003.000
.html

[2] FRIEDMAN (Herbert)(1916-2000)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aip.org/history/newsl
etter/spring2001/images/friedman_lg.jpg
40 YBN
[04/22/1960 AD] 9 		5768) The LASER (which stands for
"light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation"). Light is fed
into a ruby cylinder from a flash lamp,
and the ruby emits light that is
monochromatic (single frequency) and
coherent (all the beams are in a single
direction). These coherent beams of
light can travel thousands of
kilometers without spreading very far
apart.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
2. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
3. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
4. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
5. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
6. ^ Theodore H. Mainman, "Ruby Laser
Systems", Patent number: 3353115,
Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date:
Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
7. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.886.
8. ^ T. H. Maiman,
"Optical and Microwave-Optical
Experiments in Ruby", Phys. Rev. Lett.
4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf}
9. ^ T. H. Maiman, "Optical and
Microwave-Optical Experiments in Ruby",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 4, 564–566 (1960)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v4/i11
/p564_1 {Maiman_Theodore_Harold_1960042
2.pdf} {04/22/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Douglas Martin (May 11,
2007). "Theodore Maiman, who built the
first laser, dies at 79". The New York
Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/world/
americas/13iht-obits.1.5685872.html
[2] T. H. MAIMAN, "Stimulated Optical
Radiation in Ruby", Nature 187, 493 -
494 (06 August 1960);
doi:10.1038/187493a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v187/n4736/abs/187493
a0.html
[3] T. H. Maiman, "Stimulated Optical
Emission in Fluorescent Solids. I.
Theoretical Considerations", Phys. Rev.
123, 1145–1150 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1145_1
[4] T. H. Maiman, R. H. Hoskins, I. J.
D'Haenens, C. K. Asawa, and V. Evtuhov,
"Stimulated Optical Emission in
Fluorescent Solids. II. Spectroscopy
and Stimulated Emission in Ruby", Phys.
Rev. 123, 1151–1157 (1961)
http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v123/
i4/p1151_1
[5] "List of laser types". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_las
er_types
(Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu,
California8  
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
40 YBN
[04/??/1960 AD] 4 		5073) A logical contradiction in the
theory of space and time dilation is
identified in that time appears
different depending on which of two
clocks is viewed as stationary, and the
first recognition that spectral line
position changes as a result of a
change in light source distance.1 2
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
2. ^ H. Dingle "Special Theory of
Relativity", Nature 195, 985 - 986 (08
September
1962) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v195/n4845/abs/195985a0.html {Dingl
e_Herbert_19620908.pdf}
3. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
4. ^ H. Dingle, "Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal", Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 Di
ngle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} {04/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] H Dingle, "Science at the
Crossroads", 1972
[2] Bok, B. J., "Education
in and History of Modern Astronomy",
Journal for the History of Astronomy,
Vol. 4,
p.208. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/JHA../0004//0000208.000.htm
l
[3] "Herbert Dingle". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Din
gle
(University of London) London, England3
 
[1] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}

[2] H. Dingle, ''Relativity and
Electromagnetism: An Epistemological
Appraisal'', Philosophy of Science, 27,
p233-253 (1960).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/185967 [D
ingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859
67 [Dingle_Herbert_196004xx.pdf}
40 YBN
[08/12/1960 AD] 6 		5485) The first passive communication
satellite.1 Stations on the surface of
Earth send and receive data from the
satellite, a mylar polyester balloon.2
3 4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p533.
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
3. ^ "John Robinson
Pierce." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 13
Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/459821/John-Robinson-Pierce>.
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegall
ery/image_feature_1738.html
5. ^
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ch6.htm
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p833-834.
{08/12/1960}

MORE INFO
[1] Russell H. Varian and Sigurd
F. Varian, "A High Frequency Oscillator
and Amplifier", J. Appl. Phys. 10, 321
(1939); doi:10.1063/1.1707311
http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v
10/i5/p321_s1
[2] Video news reel of Echo
1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NO2Lkm
BDle4
(Launchpad 17) Cape Canaveral, Florida,
USA5  
[1] The Echo I satellite. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Echo/DI55G1.jpg

[2] Description John Robinson
Pierce.jpg English: John Robinson
Pierce, the former director of research
at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1910,
Pierce was the first to evaluate the
various technical options in satellite
communications and assess the financial
prospects. In 1952, he published an
article in Astounding Science Fiction
in which he discussed the potential
benefits of satellite communications.
Coined the term ''transistor'',
instrumental in the development of
Telstar 1, and wrote science fiction
under the nom de plume J.J. Coupling. A
few years later, Pierce greatly
assisted in the creation of the first
artificial communication satellite,
ECHO. Pierce died from pneumonia
complications on April 2, 2002 at the
age of 92. Date Unknown Source
Great Images in NASA
Description Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ed/John_Robinson_Pierce.
jpg
40 YBN
[08/30/1960 AD] 3 		5737) The principle of "Computerized
axial tomography" (CAT) is described: a
thin line of x-rays is used to
determine the density of the inside of
objects by measuring the difference in
x-ray absorption from many angles
around an object.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated
Flying Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
2. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
3. ^ Oldendorf, W. H., "Isolated Flying
Spot Detection of Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object", Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
 {Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
{08/30/1960}
(University of California Medical
Center) Los Angeles, California, USA2
 
[1] Figure 2 from: Oldendorf, W. H.,
''Isolated Flying Spot Detection of
Radiodensity
Dis-Continuities-Displaying the
Internal Structural Pattern of a
Complex Object'', Bio-Medical
Electronics, IRE Transactions on,
vol.8, no.1, pp.68-72, Jan. 1961 doi:
10.1109/TBMEL.1961.4322854 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838
{Oldendorf_William_H_19600830.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4322854&isnumber=4322838


[2] William Henry Oldendorf, MD., 1925
- 1992 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.catscanman.net/blog/w
p-content/uploads/oldendorf.jpg
40 YBN
[12/28/1960 AD] 10 		5705) Messenger RNA and the system that
regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes called "operons") are
identified.5 6 7 8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
2. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
3. ^ "François Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
4. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429974/operon>.
5. ^ Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz,
C. & Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de
gènes à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
6. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
7. ^ "François Jacob." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 18 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/298935/Francois-Jacob>.
8. ^ "operon." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.,
2012. Web. 11 Jan. 2012.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/429974/operon>.
9. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf}
10. ^ Jacob, F. & Monod, J. Genetic
regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis
of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3, 318–356
(1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} {12/28/1960
(verify - could be earlier in French
paper}
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France9
 
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg

[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
40 YBN
[12/30/1960 AD] 4 		5769) The first gas laser (using a
mixture of helium and neon).1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
2. ^ William R. Bennett jr, Ali
Javan, "GAS OPTICAL MASER", Patent
number: 3149290, Filing date: Dec 28,
1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
3. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett, Jr., and
D. R. Herriott, "Population Inversion
and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
4. ^ A. Javan, W. R. Bennett,
Jr., and D. R. Herriott, "Population
Inversion and Continuous Optical Maser
Oscillation in a Gas Discharge
Containing a He-Ne Mixture", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 6, 106–110 (1961)
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v6/i3/
p106_1 {Herriott_D_R_19601230.pdf}
{12/30/1960}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/07/scienc
e/07bennett.html
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] Figure 1 from: William R. Bennett
jr, Ali Javan, ''GAS OPTICAL MASER'',
Patent number: 3149290, Filing date:
Dec 28, 1960, Issue date: Sep 15,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=r
2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=r2pmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false

[2] William R. Bennett jr
(verify) UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_IoU3bE
FUwWc/SHH6tjvzGpI/AAAAAAAACWs/MjwSujRgKG
w/s400/William%2BR.%2BBennett.jpeg
40 YBN
[12/??/1960 AD] 4 5 6 		5412) The "seafloor spreading
hypothesis": that continents are
carried passively on top of the
spreading seafloor.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ H.N. Hess, History of ocean
basins, Petrologic Studies: A Volume to
Honor A. F. Buddington, Geol. Soc.
Amer.
(1962). http://en.scientificcommons.org
/34150114
2. ^ "Hess, Harry Hammond." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 415-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905159&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
3. ^
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/ent
ries/bohess.html
4. ^ "Hess, Harry Hammond." Complete
Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 17. Detroit: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 2008. 415-420. Gale Virtual
Reference Library. Web. 27 Feb.
2011. Document
URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id
=GALE%7CCX2830905159&v=2.1&u=univca20&it
=r&p=GVRL&sw=w {12/1960}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p812-813. {1962}
6. ^
H.N. Hess, History of ocean basins,
Petrologic Studies: A Volume to Honor
A. F. Buddington, Geol. Soc. Amer.
(1962). http://en.scientificcommons.org
/34150114

MORE INFO
[1] Harry Hammond Hess, "Drowned
ancient islands of the Pacific Basin",
American Journal of Science, Vol. 244,
November 1946, P.772-791;
doi:10.2475/ajs.244.11.772. http://www.
ajsonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/244/1
1/772
(Princeton University) Princeton, New
Jersey, USA3  
[1] Princeton University
Archives Harry Hammond Hess
*32 UNKNOWN
source: http://paw.princeton.edu/issues/
2010/02/03/pages/6388/Hess.jpg
39 YBN
[04/12/1961 AD] 7 		5601) The first human to orbit the
Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A
6. ^ "Google Maps - Vostok 1 Landing
Site - Monument".
http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s
_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=51.270682+N,+45.9972
7+E&sll=51.270689,45.997599&sspn=0.00329
6,0.00868&ie=UTF8&ll=51.270716,45.997385
&spn=0.003296,0.00868&t=k&z=17.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1961-012A {04/12/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] "Yury Alekseyevich Gagarin."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/223437/Yury-Alekseyevich-Gagarin>
[2] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p895-896
Saratovskaya oblast, U.S.S.R.6  
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg


[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
39 YBN
[08/03/1961 AD] 8 		5765) The first nucleic acid nucleotide
is found to code for a specific amino
acid; a synthetic RNA molecule made of
a single repeating nucleotide (uridylic
acid) {YR-e-Dil-iK1 } makes a protein
containing only one amino acid
(phenylalanine) {FeNL-aL-u-nEN2 }.3 4 5
6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "uridylic acid." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 21 May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/uridylic-ac
id
2. ^ "phenylalanine." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 21 May.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/p
henylalanine>.
3. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf}
4. ^ Samuel H. Barondes and Marshal W.
Nirenberg, "Fate of a Synthetic
Polynucleotide Directing Cell-Free
Protein Synthesis I. Characteristics of
Degradation", Science, New Series, Vol.
138, No. 3542 (Nov. 16, 1962), pp.
810-813. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
09375 {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_19621116.pd
f}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.885.
6. ^ "Marshall Warren
Nirenberg." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 07
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/415902/Marshall-Warren-Nirenberg>.
7. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf}
8. ^ Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, "The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides", Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} {08/03/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Matthaei, J. H., and M. W.
Nirenberg, "The dependence of cell-free
protein synthesis in image upon RNA
prepared from ribosomes", Biochemical
and Biophysical Research
Communications, 4, 404 (1961).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/B6WBK-4DXKBG4-BY/2/d38f90b32dc95a
88bda87758f55e7cdf
[2] Matthaei, J. H., and M. WV.
Nirenberg, Fed. Proc., 20, 391 (1961)
(National Institutes of Health)
Bethesda, Maryland, USA7  
[1] Marshall W. Nirenberg and J.
Heinrich Matthaei, ''The Dependence of
Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. Coli
upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic
Polyribonucleotides'', Proc Natl Acad
Sci U S A. 1961 October; 47(10):
1588–1602.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC223178/ {Nirenberg_Marshall_W_196
10803.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC223178/

[2] Marshall Warren Nirenberg Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/nirenberg.jpg

39 YBN
[12/30/1961 AD] 4 		5663) That three DNA nucleotides code
for one amino acid in a protein is
understood.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT,
S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN,
"General Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
2. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
3. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf}
4. ^ F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S.
BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, "General
Nature of the Genetic Code for
Proteins", Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30
December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} {12/30/1961}

MORE INFO
[1] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982),
p859-861,863,874,886-887
(Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge)
Cambridge, England3  
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html

[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
39 YBN
[1961 AD] 4 5 		5706) The Bacteria Escherichia Coli is
shown to have a single chromosome,
which is in the shape of a circle.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true
{Wollman_Elie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}
2. ^ François Jacob, Nadine Peyrieras,
Michel Morange, "Travaux scientifiques
de François Jacob", Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e
3. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true
{Wollman_Elie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}
4. ^ François Jacob, Nadine Peyrieras,
Michel Morange, "Travaux scientifiques
de François Jacob", Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e {1961}
5. ^ JACOB, F.; WOLLMAN, E. L.,
"Sexuality and the genetics of
bacteria.", 1961 pp. xv + 374 pp.
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/196
21605699.html?freeview=true {Wollman_El
ie_L_1961xxxx.pdf}

MORE INFO
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Physiology or Medicine 1965".
Nobelprize.org. 18 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1965/
[2] Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchéz, C.
& Monod, J. L'opéron: groupe de gènes
à expression coordonnée par un
opérateur. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 250,
1727–1729 (1960)
[3] Jacob, F. & Monod, J.
Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
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4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a
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tml
[5] Molecular Cell Biology. 4th
edition. Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky
SL, et al. New York: W. H. Freeman;
2000. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books
/NBK21683/
(Pasteur Institute) Paris, France3
 
[1] Figure 1 from: François Jacob,
Nadine Peyrieras, Michel Morange,
''Travaux scientifiques de François
Jacob'', Odile Jacob, 2002,
p573. http://books.google.com/books?id=
0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=0bTvkp5QvwsC&pg=PA537#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se

[2] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
38 YBN
[06/16/1962 AD] 5 		5662) That RNA has a helical structure
is recognized.1 2 RNA is usually
single-stranded but can fold back on
itself to form a double helix as is the
case for tRNA and rRNA.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
2. ^ "Maurice Wilkins - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 11 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1962/wilkins-lecture.html
 {Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_1962121
1.pdf}
3. ^ Batmanian, L., W.W. Batmanian, S.
Worrall, and J. Ridge 2011Biochemistry
for Health Professionals. Elsevier
Australia.
p102. http://books.google.com/books?id=
IihR3DkZ_fkC&pg=PA102
4. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf}
5. ^ M. SPENCER, W. FULLER, M. H. F.
WILKINS & G. L. BROWN, "Determination
of the Helical Configuration of
Ribonucleic Acid Molecules by X-Ray
Diffraction Study of Crystalline
Amino-Acid–transfer Ribonucleic
Acid", Nature 194, 1014 - 1020 (16 June
1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} {06/16/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "Maurice Wilkins." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
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kins
[2] "Balantidium." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[3] "Balantidium." The American
Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/balantidium

[4] M. H. F. WILKINS, A. R. STOKES & H.
R. WILSON , "Molecular Structure of
Nucleic Acids: Molecular Structure of
Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids", Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
738. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171738a0.pdf
[Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_195304
02.pdf}
[5] ROSALIND E. FRANKLIN & R. G.
GOSLING, "Molecular Configuration in
Sodium Thymonucleate", Nature, (1953)
volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
740. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/pdf/171740a0.pdf
[6] Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B.,
Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S.
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[7] Furberg,
S., Acta Chem. Scand., 3, 634 (1952)
[8]
Chargaff, E., for references see
Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and
Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys.
Acta, 9,402 (1952)
[9] 4. Wyatt, G. R.,J. Gen.
Physiol, 36, 201 (1952)
[10] Astbury, W. T., Symp.
Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66
(Camb. Univ. Press, 1947)
[11] Wilkins, M. H. F.,
and Randall, J. T, Biochim. et
Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953)
[12] "James
Dewey Watson." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 10 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/637603/James-Dewey-Watson>
[13]
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/19/scienc
e/19watson.html
(King's College) London, England4
 
[1] figure 7 from: M. SPENCER, W.
FULLER, M. H. F. WILKINS & G. L. BROWN,
''Determination of the Helical
Configuration of Ribonucleic Acid
Molecules by X-Ray Diffraction Study of
Crystalline Amino-Acid–transfer
Ribonucleic Acid'', Nature 194, 1014 -
1020 (16 June 1962);
doi:10.1038/1941014a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v194/n4833/abs/19410
14a0.html
{Wilkins_Maurice_Hugh_Frederick_196206
16.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v194/n4833/abs/1941014a0.html

[2] Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/wilkin
s_postcard.jpg
38 YBN
[09/24/1962 AD] 7 		5656) The semiconductor
{SeME-KeN-DuK-TR1 } LASER.2 3 4 A
forward biased Gallium-Arsenide p-n
junction emits a monochromatic
microwave light.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "semiconductor." The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 30
Jun. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/semiconduct
or
2. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
3. ^ "Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
4. ^ Dupuis, R.; , "An introduction to
the development of the semiconductor
laser," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.23, no.6, pp. 651-
657, Jun 1987 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1987.1073450 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1073450&isnumber=23107
{Dupuis_Russell_198706xx.pdf}
5. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
6. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
7. ^ Hall, Fenner, Kingsley, Soltys and
Carlson, "Coherent Light Emission From
GaAs Junctions", Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
{09/24/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] J. I. Pankove and M.
Massoulie. "Recombination Radiation in
a Gallium Arsenide P-N Junction," The
Electrochem. Soc., Electronics Div.
(Abstracts), vol. 11, pp. 71-75, Spring
Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif.; May 6-10,
1962
[2] J. R. Haynes and H. B. Briggs,
"Radiation produced in Germanium and
Silicon by Electron-Hole
Recombination.", Physical Review, vol
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http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v86/i
4/p637_1
[3] William E. Bradley, "Electronic
Cooling Device and Method For the
Fabrication Thereof", Patent number:
2898743, Filing date: Jul 23, 1956,
Issue date: Aug 11,
1959. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
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urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] Keyes, R.J.; Quist, T.M.,
"Radiation emitted by gallium arsenide
diodes", Electron Devices, IRE
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6,
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eryText%3Dkeyes+quist%26openedRefinement
s%3D*%26sortType%3Dasc_Publication+Year%
26searchField%3DSearch+All
(General Electric Research Laboratory)
Schenectady, New York, USA6  
[1] Figure 2 from: Hall, Fenner,
Kingsley, Soltys and Carlson,
''Coherent Light Emission From GaAs
Junctions'', Phys. Rev. Letters, 9
(1962) 366.
http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v9/i9/
p366_1 {Carlson_R_O_19620924.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i9/p366_1

[2] Note that this image is from the
Nobel prize lecture of Charles Hard
Townes and is not in the original paper
of Hall, et al.[t] Figure 5
from: ''Charles H. Townes - Nobel
Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 4 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1964/townes-lecture.html {
Townes_Charles_Hard_19641211.pdf}
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes-lecture
.html
38 YBN
[10/12/1962 AD] 3 		5376) X-ray sources from outside the
solar system are observed.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo
Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, and Frank R.
Paolini, "Evidence for x Rays From
Sources Outside the Solar System",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
2. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi,
Herbert Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini,
"Evidence for x Rays From Sources
Outside the Solar System", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f}
3. ^ Bruno B. Rossi, Riccardo Giacconi,
Herbert Gursky, and Frank R. Paolini,
"Evidence for x Rays From Sources
Outside the Solar System", Phys. Rev.
Lett. 9, 439–443
(1962). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v9/i11/p439_1 {Rossi_Bruno_19621012.pd
f} {10/12/1962}

MORE INFO
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36, 606
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R/v36/i3/p606_1
[2] Bruno Rossi, "Directional
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the Geomagnetic Equator", Phys. Rev.
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(1934). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v45/i3/p212_1
[3] Bruno Rossi, "Absorptionsmessungen
der durchdringenden
Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter
Blei", Naturwissenschaften, Volume 20,
Number 4, 65, DOI:
10.1007/BF01503771. http://www.springer
link.com/content/qww043l2h7811222/ "Abs
orption measurements of particle
radiation penetrating in a meter of
lead."
[4] Clark, George W. "Rossi, Bruno
Benedetto." Complete Dictionary of
Scientific Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. 280-285.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 22
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[5] G. Shearer, "The X-ray Microscope",
British Journal of Radiology, (1936),
9,
p30-37. http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/9/97/30
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA2  
[1] Figure 1 from: RICCARDO GIACCONI
and BRUNO ROSSI, ''A 'Telescope' for
Soft X-Ray Astronomy'', Journal of
Geophysical Research, V65, N2, Feb
1960,
http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1960/
JZ065i002p00773.shtml {Rossi_Bruno_1959
1207.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref
/1960/JZ065i002p00773.shtml

[2] Bruno Benedetto Rossi April 13,
1905 — November 21, 1993 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/brossi.JPG
38 YBN
[10/26/1962 AD] 6 		6201) Laser writing and reading of
data. Data is written to and read from
plastic film.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
2. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
3. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
4. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
5. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
6. ^ Wayne R. Johnson, "High Speed,
High Density, Optical Recording
System", Patent number: 3154370 Filing
date: Oct 26, 1962, Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ {10/26/1962}

MORE INFO
[1] Carl H. Becker, "LASER
RECORDER WITH VAPORIZABLE FILM", Patent
number: 3314073, Filing date: Oct 20,
1964, Issue date: Apr 11,
1967. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT3314073
[2] Joseph T. Mcnaney, "SYSTEM FOR
EFFECTING TRANSFER OF CATHODE RAY TUBE
DISPLAYS ONTO A RECORD MEDIUM", Patent
number: 2898176, Filing date: Aug 26,
1957, Issue date: Aug 4,
1959 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
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[3] David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
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[4] Jan van der Veen et al, "Optical
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optically recording information
thereon", Patent number: 4298975,
Filing date: Mar 19, 1979, Issue date:
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1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
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i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
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%20philips&f=false
[5] Charles M. Goldstein, "Optical Disk
Technology and Information",
Science, New Series, Vol. 215, No.
4534 (Feb. 12, 1982), pp.
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Science Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1687481
(Winston Research Corporation) Los
Angeles, California, USA5  
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 4 		5490) An undersea station where humans
live for prolonged periods of time.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf
2. ^ "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/140955/Jacques-Yves-Cousteau>.
3. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf
4. ^
http://www.cousteau.org/technology/consh
elf {1962}

MORE INFO
[1] "aqualung." McGraw-Hill
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical
Terms. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
2003. Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/aqualung-en
gineering
[2] Emile Gagnon, Jacques Yves
Cousteau, "Compressed Gas Container
With Reducing Valve and Auxillary
Opening Means Therefor", Patent number:
2598248, Filing date: Dec 11, 1946,
Issue date: May 27, 1952. Filing Date
in France
12/15/1945. http://www.google.com/paten
ts?id=L9RnAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoo
m=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepag
e&q&f=false
[3] "SELF-PROPELLED SUBMERSIBLE
VESSEL", Patent number: 3103195, Filing
date: Jul 12, 1960, Issue date: Sep 10,
1963. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PWdQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false
[4] "Jacques-Yves Cousteau."
Biographies. Answers Corporation, 2006.
Answers.com 14 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/jacques-yve
s-cousteau
[5] "Continental Shelf Station Two".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental
_Shelf_Station_Two
(off coast of) Marseilles, France3
 
[1] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://blog.sellsiusrealestate.c
om/wp-content/conshelf2.jpg

[2] ConShelf 2 UNKNOWN
source: http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3
556/3470838604_a4cfb0e0eb.jpg
38 YBN
[1962 AD] 3 		6628) That charged particles are
emitted by the Sun in all directions
following the lines of force of the
Sun's magnetic field is confirmed.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Parker, E. (1959), Extension of
the Solar Corona into Interplanetary
Space, J. Geophys. Res., 64(11),
1675–1681,
doi:10.1029/JZ064i011p01675.
http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1959/J
Z064i011p01675.shtml Parker_Eugene_1959
11xx.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.886.
3. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.886.
 
[1] Description English: Mariner 2
was the world's first successful
interplanetary spacecraft. Launched
August 27, 1962, on an Atlas-Agena
rocket, Mariner 2 passed within about
34,000 kilometers (21,000 miles) of
Venus, sending back valuable new
information about interplanetary space
and the Venusian atmosphere. Mariner 2
recorded the temperature at Venus for
the first time, revealing the planet's
very hot atmosphere of about 500
degrees Celsius (900 degrees
Fahrenheit). The spacecraft's solar
wind experiment measured for the first
time the density, velocity, composition
and variation over time of the solar
wind. Date - Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalo
g/PIA04594 Author NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (NASA-JPL) Image ID :
PIA04594 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Mariner_2_in_sp
ace.jpg/1274px-Mariner_2_in_space.jpg
37 YBN
[03/04/1963 AD] 5 		5750) Quasars (quasi-stellar radio
sources) are identified;1 2
extragalactic objects, starlike in
appearance and having spectra with
characteristically large redshifts,
that are thought to be the most distant
and most luminous objects in the
universe.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf}
2. ^ "Allan Rex Sandage." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/522020/Allan-Rex-Sandage>.
3. ^ "quasar." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 02 May.
2011.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/q
uasar>.
4. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf}
5. ^ Matthews, T. A. & Sandage, A. R.,
"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c
196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} {03/04/1963}

MORE INFO
[1] "Allan Rex Sandage." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 15 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/allan-rex-s
andage
(Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
Carnegie institute of Washington and
California Institute of Technology)
Pasadena, California, USA4  
[1] Figure 2 from: Matthews, T. A. &
Sandage, A. R., ''Optical
Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c
286 with Stellar Objects.'',
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 138, p.30,
1963ApJ...138...30M http://adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1963ApJ...138...30M {Sandag
e_Allan_Rex_19630304.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1
963ApJ...138...30M

[2] Allan Rex Sandage UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/brucemedalists/sandage/sandage.jpg
37 YBN
[06/16/1963 AD] 3 		5602) The first woman to orbit the
Earth.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Article?anchor=toc9071753".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/587896/Valentina-Tereshkova/587896main
/Article?anchor=toc9071753
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1963-023A
3. ^ "Article?anchor=toc9071753".
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/587896/Valentina-Tereshkova/587896main
/Article?anchor=toc9071753 {06/16/1963}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan (U.S.S.R.)2  
[1] English: 1963 Soviet Union 10
kopeks stamp. Valentina
Tereshkova. Русский:
Марка, Советский
Союз, 10 копеек, 1963.
Валентина
Терешкова. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Soviet_Union-1963-Sta
mp-0.10._Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg
36 YBN
[07/15/1964 AD] 4 		5770) A carbon dioxide laser is
invented1 ; the most powerful
commercial gas laser2 .
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1
2. ^ "laser." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/330874/laser>.
3. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1
4. ^ Patel, C. K. N. (1964).
"Continuous-Wave Laser Action on
Vibrational-Rotational Transitions of
CO2". Physical Review 136 (5A):
A1187–A1193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1187. http://p
rola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v136/i5A/pA1187
_1 {07/15/1964}

MORE INFO
[1] C. K. N. Patel, W. R.
Bennett, Jr., W. L. Faust, and R. A.
McFarlane, "Infrared Spectroscopy Using
Stimulated Emission Techniques", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 9, 102
(1962) http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v9/i3/p102_1
[2] W. L. Faust, R. A. McFarlane, C. K.
N. Patel, and C. G. B. Garrett, "Noble
Gas Optical Maser Lines at Wavelengths
between 2 and 35 μ", Phys. Rev. 133,
A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA3  
[1] Fig 1 from: W. L. Faust, R. A.
McFarlane, C. K. N. Patel, and C. G. B.
Garrett, ''Noble Gas Optical Maser
Lines at Wavelengths between 2 and 35
μ'', Phys. Rev. 133, A1476
(1964) http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1 {Patel_C_Kumar_N_196
30820.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v133/i6A/pA1476_1

[2] C Kumar N Patel UNKNOWN
source: http://www.research.ucla.edu/web
icons/patel.gif
36 YBN
[12/17/1964 AD] 6 		5585) That a virus inserts its DNA into
the DNA of the host cell which makes
the cell a cancer cell that produces
more cancer cells is shown.1 2 3 4
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
2. ^ Lionel Crawford, Renato Dulbecco,
Mike Fried, Luc Montagnier, and Michael
Stoker, "CELL TRANSFORMATION BY
DIFFERENT FORMS OF POLYOMA VIRUS DNA",
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1964 July;
52(1): 148–152.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC300587/ {Dulbecco_Renato_19640511
.pdf}
3. ^ "Renato Dulbecco." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 28 Mar. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/renato-dulb
ecco
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p849.
5. ^ R. Dulbecco, L.
H. Hartwell, and M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF
CELLULAR DNA SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA
VIRUS", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1965
February; 53(2): 403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
6. ^ R. Dulbecco, L. H. Hartwell, and
M. Vogt, "INDUCTION OF CELLULAR DNA
SYNTHESIS BY POLYOMA VIRUS", Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 1965 February; 53(2):
403–410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC219527/
{Dulbecco_Renato_19641217.pdf}
{12/17/1964}
(The Salk Institute For Biological
Studies) San Diego, California, USA5
 
[1] Renato Dulbecco Nobel prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1975/dulbecco.jpg
36 YBN
[1964 AD] 6 		3980) The liquid crystal display
(LCD),2 which uses less electricity,
weighs less, and is thinner than a
Cathode Ray Tube display.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
2. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
3. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
4. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
5. ^
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/RC
A_Laboratories_at_Princeton,_New_Jersey
6. ^ George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid
crystal displays: An experiment in
interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf} {1964}
RCA Labs4 , Princeton, New Jersey, USA5
 
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460. and George H.
Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An
experiment in interdisciplinary
research that worked", vol 23, Num 7,
July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383

[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
35 YBN
[01/08/1965 AD] 4 		5719) The first sequence of nucleotides
in a nucleic acid are determined.1 2
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
2. ^ "Robert William Holley."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/269391/Robert-William-Holley>.
3. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
4. ^ Robert W. Holley, Jean Apgar,
George A. Everett, James T. Madison,
Mark Marquisee, Susan H. Merrill, John
Robert Penswick and Ada Zamir,
"Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid",
Science, New Series, Vol. 147, No. 3664
(Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
{01/08/1965}

MORE INFO
[1] Jean Apgar, Robert W. Holley,
and Susan H. Merrill, "Purification of
the Alanine-, Valine-, Histidine-, and
Tyrosine-acceptor Ribonucleic Acids
from Yeast", March 1, 1962 The Journal
of Biological Chemistry, 237,
796-802.
http://www.jbc.org/content/237/3/796.f
ull.pdf+html
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "Robert W. Holley." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 24 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/holley-robe
rt-william
(Cornell University) Ithaca, New York,
USA3  
[1] Figure 2 from: Robert W. Holley,
Jean Apgar, George A. Everett, James T.
Madison, Mark Marquisee, Susan H.
Merrill, John Robert Penswick and Ada
Zamir, ''Structure of a Ribonucleic
Acid'', Science, New Series, Vol. 147,
No. 3664 (Mar. 19, 1965), pp.
1462-1465. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1715055
{Holley_Robert_William_19650108.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1715
055

[2] ARS scientist Robert Holley won
the Nobel Prize in 1968 for leading the
team that determined the molecular
structure of transfer RNA from
concentrated yeast cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/20
08/holley080512.jpg
35 YBN
[05/13/1965 AD] 5 		5797) The finding of "background
radiation" and the claim that this
supports the "Big Bang" expanding
universe theory.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W.,
"A Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf}
2. ^ Dicke, R. H., Peebles, P. J. E.,
Roll, P. G., & Wilkinson, D. T.,
"Cosmic Black-Body Radiation.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.895, 897.
4. ^ Penzias,
A. A. & Wilson, R. W., "A Measurement
of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080
Mc/s.", Astrophysical Journal, vol.
142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf}
5. ^ Penzias, A. A. & Wilson, R. W., "A
Measurement of Excess Antenna
Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.",
Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
p.419-421. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..419P {Penzia
s_Arno_19650513.pdf} {05/13/1965}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.)
Crawford Hill, Holmdel, New Jersey,
USA4  
[1] [t Note that this is from the
Dicke, et al, paper and not from the
Penzias and Wilson paper which contains
no figures.] Figure 1 from: Dicke, R.
H., Peebles, P. J. E., Roll, P. G., &
Wilkinson, D. T., ''Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation.'', Astrophysical Journal,
vol. 142,
p.414-419. http://articles.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/full/1965ApJ...142..414D {Dicke_
Robert_H_19650507.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newgenevacenter.org/0
9_Biography/penzias-wilson.jpg

[2] Arno Penzias 1933- /Robert Wilson
1936- UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/
photo/rdicke.JPG
35 YBN
[06/05/1965 AD] 5 6 		5714) Two "termination" codons
(nucleotide triplets1 ) (UAG and UAA)
are identified as signals in messenger
RNA for terminating a polypeptide
chain.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "codon." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/codon
2. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
3. ^ Spirin, A.S. Ribosomes. Springer,
1999. Cellular Organelles,
p261. http://books.google.com/books?id=
Rpu4L98Yd7MC&pg=PA261
4. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf}
5. ^ MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Garen_Alan_1
9650605.pdf} {06/05/1965}
6. ^ S. BRENNER, A. O. W.
STRETTON & S. KAPLAN, "Genetic Code:
The 'Nonsense' Triplets for Chain
Termination and their Suppression",
Nature, 5 June 1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf} {06/05/1965}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=UzYiLVv
aNwYC&pg=PA298&lpg=PA298&dq=sydney+brenn
er+kaplan+dna&source=bl&ots=79OjKisgG8&s
ig=44I6pHU-WqY7dyJKuMfTMpAPu8g&hl=en&ei=
M9SzTei3KI66sQPa1M3wCw&sa=X&oi=book_resu
lt&ct=result&resnum=6&sqi=2&ved=0CEkQ6AE
wBQ
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, ''Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression'', Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html {Kaplan_Samue
l_19650605.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v206/n4988/index.html
35 YBN
[07/14/1965 AD] 6 		5615) The first ship to reach Mars and
to return images of the surface;3 the
first images of another planet ever
returned from deep space.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1964-077A {07/14/1965}
Planet Mars5  
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
35 YBN
[1965 AD] 2 		6276) A head-mounted computer display
(for virtual reality).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html
2. ^
http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS99/Notes/
Class6/Class6.html {1965}
 
[1] Sutherland's head-mounted display
earned the nickname the sword of
Damocles due to the mass of hardware
that was supported from the ceiling
above the user's head. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.zakros.com/ucb/histS9
9/Notes/Class6/SutherlandHMD2.jpeg

[2] Description Ivan Sutherland,
at the celebration of his 70th birthday
at the Computer History Museum Date
22 May 2008 Source personal
camera Author Dick
Lyon Permission (Reusing this file)
sa-by-sa-3.0 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Ivan_Sutherland_at_CH
M.jpg
34 YBN
[02/03/1966 AD] 3 		5616) The first ship from Earth to make
a soft landing on another world (the
Moon), and the first ship to return
images from the surface of another
world.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1966-006A {02/03/1966}
Moon of Earth2  
[1] Apparently panorama from Luna 9 PD

source: http://www.zarya.info/images/Lun
a9pan.jpg

[2] Luna 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna-9.jpg
34 YBN
[03/01/1966 AD] 6 		5613) The first ship to impact a
different planet; planet Venus.4
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1965-092A {03/01/1966}
Planet Venus5  
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
34 YBN
[04/04/1966 AD] 5 		5599) The first ship to orbit a body
beyond the Earth; the Moon.2 The ship
turns around 8000 km (or 5000 miles)
from the Moon, fires its rockets to
slow down, and enters lunar orbit.3
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A {04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.4  
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
33 YBN
[04/03/1967 AD] 3 		6202) Laser writing to a disk.1
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
2. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ
3. ^ David Paul Gregg, "TRANSPARENT
RECORDING DISC", Patent number:
3430966, Filing date: Apr 3, 1967,
Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ {04/03/1967}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://inventors.about.com/od/ofamousinv
entions/a/Optical_Disk.htm
[2] Bricot, C.; Lehureau, J.C.; Puech,
C.; Le Carvennec, F.; , "Optical
Readout of Videodisc," Consumer
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.CE-22, no.4, pp.304-308, Nov.
1976 doi:
10.1109/TCE.1976.266827 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=4042892&isnumber=4042879

[3] Lou, D.; Zernike, F.; Kenney, G.;
Chan, A.; Janssen, P.; McFarlane, R.;
Wagner, J.; , "A prototype optical disk
recorder," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.13, no.9, pp. 827, Sep
1977 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1977.1069481 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1069481&isnumber=22976
[4] W Barrett, "Developments in optical
disc technology and the implications
for information storage and retrieval",
The British Library Research &
Development Reports #5623,
1981 {Barrett_198106xx.pdf}
(Gauss Electrophysics, Inc), Santa
Monica, California, USA2  
[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
33 YBN
[12/03/1967 AD] 3 4 		5725) The first successful heart
transplant.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf}
2. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf}
3. ^ Barnard, "A human cardiac
transplant: an interim report of a
successful operation performed at
Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town",
SAMJ. South African medical journal,
(1967) volume: 41 page:
1271 http://archive.samj.org.za/index.p
hp?path=/1967%20VOL%20XLI%20Jul-Dec/Arti
cles/12%20December {Barnard_Christiaan_
Neethling.pdf} {12/03/1967}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov,
"Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of
science and technology", (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1982), p.877-878.
{12/03/1967}
(University of Cape Town and Groote
Schuur Hospital) Cape Town, South
Africa2  
[1] Description: Image of
Christiaan Barnard . Source:
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=295
13&rendTypeId=4 Rationale for use on
wikipedia: 1.No free equivalent
exists that would effectively identify
the article's subject - no free images
have been allocated for this
person. 2.The image does not in any
way limit the ability of the copyright
owners to market or sell their
product. 3.The image is only used once
and is rendered in low resolution to
avoid piracy. 4.The image has been
published outside Wikipedia; see source
above. 5.The image meets general
Wikipedia content requirements and is
encyclopedic. 6.The image meets
Wikipedia's media-specific
policy. 7.The image is used in the
article wiki-linked in the section
title. 8.No free images have been
allocated for this person 9.The image
is needed to identify the person for
educational purposes in an encyclopedia
entry and significantly improves the
quality of the article. 10.The image
has a brief description that identifies
the image, notes the source, and
provides attribution to the copyright
holder. 11.A replaceable free image
for this person is impossible as he/she
is deceased COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1d/Christiaan_Barnard.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 3 		5341) Tissue compatibility is found to
be determined by specific genes.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p557.
2. ^ Snell, "Histocompatibility genes
of mice VII. H-13, a new
histocompatibility locus in the fifth
linkage group", Transplantation,
(1967), volume: 5 issue: 3 page:
492. http://journals.lww.com/transplant
journal/abstract/1967/05000/histocompati
bility_genes_of_mice_vii__h_13,_a_new.11
.aspx {Snell_George_D_19661114.pdf}
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p557. {1967}

MORE INFO
[1] Snell, "The H-2 locus of the
mouse: observations and speculations
concerning its comparative genetics and
its polymorphism.", Folia biologica,
(1968) volume: 14 issue: 5 page: 335
-58
(Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, USA2  
[1] George Davis Snell COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1980/snell.jpg
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 3 4 		5845) The first handheld calculator.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://education.ti.com/educationportal/
sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_re
lease_news37.html
2. ^ "Texas Instruments." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/texas-instr
uments
3. ^
http://education.ti.com/educationportal/
sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_re
lease_news37.html {1967}
4. ^ "Texas
Instruments." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/texas-instr
uments {1967}

MORE INFO
[1] Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567
(Texas Instruments) Dallas, Texas, USA2
 
[1] TI-2500 ''Datamath'', 1st.
version. The first version of the
Datamath can be distinguished by the
combined CE/D key, which is used to
Clear the last Entry and to refresh the
Display, which extinguishes, except for
the first digit, after the calculator
has not been used for about 15
seconds. This version is also the
only one which has 6 AA rechargeable
cells, see photograph below. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.vintagecalculators.co
m/assets/images/TI25001_1.JPG
33 YBN
[1967 AD] 2 		6344) The theory that a chip inside the
body could enable radio communication
of sound to and from thought.1
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Theodore Flicker, "The
President's Analyst", Paramount
Pictures,
1967. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU
a3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
2. ^ Theodore Flicker, "The President's
Analyst", Paramount Pictures,
1967. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU
a3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
 
[1] ''The Cerebrum Communicator''
from:
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u
Ua3np4CKC4&feature=player_embedded#!
32 YBN
[01/29/1968 AD] 3 		6501) Direct neuron writing to the eye
screen using an implanted electronic
device.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968).
"The sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
2. ^ G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). "The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
3. ^ G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). "The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
(Physiological Laboratory, University
of Cambridge and the Department of
Neurological Surgery and
Neurology, United Cambridge Hospitals)
Cambridge, England2  
[1] G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968). ''The
sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex''.
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf UNKNOWN
source: G. Brindley, W. Lewin (1968).
"The sensation produced by electrical
stimulation of the visual cortex".
Journal of Physiology 196:
479–93. http://jp.physoc.org/content/
196/2/479.full.pdf
32 YBN
[02/09/1968 AD] 8 		5739) Pulsars, stars that emit
regularly timed bursts of radio light
with a small interval, are identified.4
5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880-881.
3. ^ "Antony Hewish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264514/Antony-Hewish>.
4. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
5. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.880-881.
6. ^ "Antony Hewish."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/264514/Antony-Hewish>.
7. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
8. ^ A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H.
PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS,
"Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating
Radio Source", Nature 217, 709-713 (24
February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
{02/09/1968}

MORE INFO
[1] "Pulsar". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar
(Cavendish Laboratory, University of
Cambridge) Cambridge, England7  
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html

[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
32 YBN
[02/27/1968 AD] 4 		5759) A multi-wire solid-state particle
detector increases the speed of
particle detection.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
2. ^ "Georges Charpak." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 06 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/107627/Georges-Charpak>.
3. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
4. ^ G. Charpak, R. Bouclier, T.
Bressani, J. Favier, C. Zupancic, "The
use of multiwire proportional counters
to select and localize charged
particles", Nuclear Instruments and
Methods, Volume 62, Issue 3, 1 July
1968, Pages 262-268, ISSN 0029-554X,
DOI:
10.1016/0029-554X(68)90371-6. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B73D
N-471XD1F-CJ/2/71c9ab633c73f6dbb74ef64e5
72ad93f {Charpak_Georges_19680227.pdf}
{02/27/1968}
(CERN) Geneva, Switzerland3  
[1] Georges Charpak Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1992/charpak
_postcard.jpg
32 YBN
[12/24/1968 AD] 3 		5604) The first humans to orbit the
moon.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1968-118A {12/24/1968}
Moon of Earth2  
[1] Description English: The S-IC
first stage of the Apollo 8 Saturn V
being erected in the Vertical Assembly
Building on February 1, 1968. Date 1
February 1968 Source
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/Histo
ry/alsj/a410/ap8-68-HC-70HR.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Apollo_8_first_
stage_in_the_Vehicle_Assembly_Building.j
pg/798px-Apollo_8_first_stage_in_the_Veh
icle_Assembly_Building.jpg

[2] Description Rollout to the
launch pad of the Apollo 8 Saturn V on
October 9,
1968. Source http://www.hq.nasa.gov/
office/pao/History/alsj/a410/ap8-KSC-68P
C-147.jpg http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office
/pao/History/alsj/a410/ap8-KSC-68PC-147H
R.jpg (higher resolution 477 KB) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ap8-KSC-68PC-14
7.jpg/1280px-Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg
31 YBN
[03/21/1969 AD] 6 		5776) The first known structure of an
antibody is determined; a protein
molecule containing 1330 amino acids.1
2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.889.
3. ^ "Gerald Maurice
Edelman." Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 09
May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178959/Gerald-Maurice-Edelman>.
4. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf}
5. ^ "Gerald Maurice Edelman."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/178959/Gerald-Maurice-Edelman>.
6. ^ Gerald M. Edelman, Bruce A.
Cunningham, W. Einar Gall, Paul D.
Gottlieb, Urs Rutishauser, and Myron J.
Waxdal, "THE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN
ENTIRE γG IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE",
PNAS May 1, 1969 vol. 63 no. 1
78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} {03/21/1969}
(The Rockefeller University) New York
City, New York, USA4 5  
[1] Figure 1 from: [4] Gerald M.
Edelman, Bruce A. Cunningham, W. Einar
Gall, Paul D. Gottlieb, Urs
Rutishauser, and Myron J. Waxdal, ''THE
COVALENT STRUCTURE OF AN ENTIRE γG
IMMUNOGLOBULIN MOLECULE'', PNAS May 1,
1969 vol. 63 no. 1 78-85
http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1/78.sh
ort {Edelman_Gerald
Maurice_19690321.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/63/1
/78.short

[2] Gerald Maurice Edelman Nobel
Prize photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1972/edelman.jpg
31 YBN
[07/21/1969 AD] 8 		655) Humans land and walk on the
surface of the moon of Earth.5
The
first crewed vehicle to land on the
Moon. Two humans spend about 21 hours
on the moon and return 8 days after
lift off.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
6. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.892.
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C
8. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1969-059C {07/21/1969}
{Armstrong walks on Moon on:)
07/21/1969}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7Mm
T4
Moon of Earth7  
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg

[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
31 YBN
[09/15/1969 AD] 12 		5753) A DNA molecule is broken with an
enzyme; ("restriction enzymes").6 7 8 9
10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Smith, H. 0. & Wilcox, K. W.
(1969). Fed.Proc. 28, 465.
2. ^ Hamilton O.
Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction
enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae : I.
Purification and general properties,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
3. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O.
Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base
sequence of the recognition site,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
393-409, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c
581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
4. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
5. ^ "Hamilton
Othanel Smith." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/549744/Hamilton-Othanel-Smith>.
6. ^ Smith, H. 0. & Wilcox, K. W.
(1969). Fed.Proc. 28, 465.
7. ^ Hamilton O.
Smith, K. W. Welcox, A Restriction
enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae : I.
Purification and general properties,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
379-391, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
8. ^ Thomas J. Kelly Jr., Hamilton O.
Smith, A restriction enzyme from
Hemophilus influenzae : II. Base
sequence of the recognition site,
Journal of Molecular Biology, Volume
51, Issue 2, 28 July 1970, Pages
393-409, ISSN 0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90150-6. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4C/2/e72b69d6b9adac3ce561df0c
581747e3) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19700218.pd
f}
9. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.887,893.
10. ^ "Hamilton
Othanel Smith." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 05 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/549744/Hamilton-Othanel-Smith>.
11. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox,
A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f}
12. ^ Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox,
A Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} {09/15/1969}

MORE INFO
[1] W Arber, and S Linn, "DNA
Modification and Restriction", Annual
Review of Biochemistry, Vol. 38:
467-500 (Volume publication date July
1969), DOI:
10.1146/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343 htt
p://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.114
6/annurev.bi.38.070169.002343
[2] Werner Arber, "Host-controlled
modification of bacteriophage", Annual
review of microbiology, (1965) volume:
19 issue: 1 page:
365. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/a
bs/10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.002053
[3] Matthew Meselson and Robert Yuan,
"DNA restriction enzyme from E. coli",
Nature, (1968) volume: 217 issue:
5134 page:
1110. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v217/n5134/abs/2171110a0.html
(Johns Hopkins University, School of
Medicine) Baltimore, Maryland, USA11
 
[1] Hamilton O. Smith, K. W. Welcox, A
Restriction enzyme from Hemophilus
influenzae : I. Purification and
general properties, Journal of
Molecular Biology, Volume 51, Issue 2,
28 July 1970, Pages 379-391, ISSN
0022-2836, DOI:
10.1016/0022-2836(70)90149-X. (http://w
ww.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W
K7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74ce9394a10f0307ba6
aac6f0d1) {Smith_Hamilton_O_19690915.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: (http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/B6WK7-4DM0XG8-4B/2/8311e74
ce9394a10f0307ba6aac6f0d1)

[2] Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/medicine/laureates/1978/smith_
postcard.jpg
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 3 		5840) A walking robot that uses
pneumatic (air-filled) rubber
artificial muscles.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_4.html
2. ^
http://www.waseda.jp/eng/campus/map.html

3. ^
http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp/booklet
/kato_4.html {1969}
(Waseda Univerity) Tokyo, Japan2  
[1] Introduction of Artificial Muscle
Made of Rubber: WAP-1 (1969) The
anthropomorphic pneumatically-activated
pedipulator WAP-1 was developed. In it,
artificial muscles made of rubber were
attached as actuators. Planar biped
locomotion was realized by
teaching-playback control of its
artificial muscles. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.humanoid.waseda.ac.jp
/booklet/photo/WAP-1-1969.jpg
31 YBN
[1969 AD] 8 		5851) The Internet (people use
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
4. ^ Ted Huntington.
5. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer
Desktop Encyclopedia. Computer Language
Company Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ "Internet." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
8. ^ "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
{1969}
(University of California at Los
Angeles) Los Angeles, California,
USA|(Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA|(University
of California Santa Barbara) Santa
Barbara, California, USA|(University of
Utah) Salt Lake City, Utah, USA7  
[1] Map of ARPANET nodes (1970).
UNKNOWN
source: http://cla.calpoly.edu/~lcall/20
4/8-10/ARPANET-map.jpg

[2] Diagram of the first 2 nodes on
the ARPANET
source: http://www.computerhistory.org/i
nternet_history/full_size_images/1969_2-
node_map.gif
30 YBN
[01/29/1970 AD] 12 		5836) The digital electronic camera.7 8
9

The Charged Coupled Device (or CCD); an
electronic memory that can be charged
by light.10
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
2. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
3. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
4. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
5. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
6. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
7. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith (April
1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor
Devices". Bell System Technical Journal
49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
8. ^ G. F. Amelio, M. F. Tompsett, and
G. E. Smith, "Experimental Verification
of the Charge Coupled Device Concept",
Bell Sys. Tech. J., 49, 593,
(1970). http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/b
stj/vol49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-593.pdf
} {Smith_George_E_19700205.pdf}
9. ^
http://inventors.about.com/library/inven
tors/bldigitalcamera.htm
10. ^
http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinve
ntions/a/CCD.htm
11. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf}
12. ^ W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
(April 1970). "Charge Coupled
Semiconductor Devices". Bell System
Technical Journal 49 (4): 587–593.
http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol
49-1970/articles/bstj49-4-587.pdf {Smit
h_George_E_19700129.pdf} {01/29/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Willard S. Boyle - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 29 May 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/boyle-lecture.html
{Boyle_Willard_S_20091208.pdf
[2] Jeffrey, Davene. "Willard Boyle,
Nova Scotian Nobel Prize winner, dies
at 86". The Chronicle Herald.ca.
http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/12424
28.html. Retrieved 9 May 2011
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA11  
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html

[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
30 YBN
[06/16/1970 AD] 11 		5716) Two DNA molecules are combined
using an enzyme (ligase {lI-GAS6 }).7
Using this enzyme, the first artificial
gene is synthesized from DNA segments;
the gene for a tRNA molecule.8 9
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
2. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
3. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande,
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

4. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
5. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
6. ^ "ligase." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/ligase
7. ^ V. Sgaramella, J. H. van de Sande,
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides, C. A Novel Joining
Reaction Catalyzed by the
T4-Polynucleotide Ligase", PNAS
November 1, 1970 vol. 67 no. 3
1468-1475
http://www.pnas.org/content/67/3/1468.
short {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700831.pdf}

8. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
9. ^ "Har Gobind Khorana."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/316846/Har-Gobind-Khorana>.
10. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f}
11. ^ K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÜCHI, M. H.
CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K.
KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L.
RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V.
SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA ,
"Total synthesis of the gene for an
alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from
yeast", Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July
1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} {06/16/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] "Har Gobind Khorana." A
Dictionary of Scientists. Oxford
University Press, 1993, 1999, 2003.
Answers.com 24 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/har-gobind-
khorana
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine 1968". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/
[3] "H. Gobind Khorana - Nobel
Lecture". Nobelprize.org. 24 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medic
ine/laureates/1968/khorana-lecture.html
[4] R. Lohrmann, D. Söll, H. Hayatsu,
E. Ohtsuka, H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
Polynucleotides. LI. Syntheses of the
64 Possible Ribotrinucleotides Derived
from the Four Major
Ribomononucleotides", Khorand, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 88, 819
(1966) http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja00956a039
[5] H.G.Khorana, H.Büchi, T.M. Jacob,
H.Kössel, S.A.Narang and E.Ohtsuka,
"Studies on Polynucleotides. LXI.'
Polynucleotide Synthesis in Relation to
the Genetic Code. General Introduction"
J. Am.Chem.Soc., 89 (1967)
2154. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.10
21/ja00985a031
[6] H. G. Khorana, Federation Proc.,
24, 1473 (1965)
[7] H. Kössel, A. R. Morgan
and H. G. Khorana, "Studies on
polynucleotides: LXXIII. Synthesis in
vitro of polypeptides containing
repeating tetrapeptide sequences
dependent upon DNA-like polymers
containing repeating tetranucleotide
sequences: Direction of reading of
messenger RNA", Journal of Molecular
Biology, Volume 26, Issue 3, 28 June
1967, Pages
449-475. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4DM1GS1
-13&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F28%2F1967
&_alid=1728726947&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_ori
g=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_
item&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor
=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000059600&_version
=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=4856df
9c96658f9c5733d2b24ae007f7&searchtype=a
[8] S. BRENNER, A. O. W. STRETTON & S.
KAPLAN, "Genetic Code: The 'Nonsense'
Triplets for Chain Termination and
their Suppression", Nature, 5 June 1965
Vol 206 No 4988
p994. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[9] MARTIN G. WEIGERT & ALAN GAREN,
"Base Composition of Nonsense Condons
in E. coli: Evidence from Amino-Acid
Substitutions at a Tryptophan Site in
Alkaline Phosphatase", Nature, 5 June
1965 Vol 206 No 4988
p992. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v206/n4988/index.html
[10] "kinase." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 30 Jun.
2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kinase
(University of Wisconsin) Madison,
Wisconsin, USA10  
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html

[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
30 YBN
[09/08/1970 AD] 5 		5574) A protein with the same amino
acid sequence as the human growth
hormone is synthesized and displays
growth-promoting activity.1 2 3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald Yamashiro,
"Synthesis of a protein possessing
growth-promoting and lactogenic
activities", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1970,
92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf}
2. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p846-847.
3. ^
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
4. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald Yamashiro,
"Synthesis of a protein possessing
growth-promoting and lactogenic
activities", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1970,
92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf}
5. ^ Choh Hao Li, Donald Yamashiro,
"Synthesis of a protein possessing
growth-promoting and lactogenic
activities", J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1970,
92 (26), pp
7608–7609. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ab
s/10.1021/ja00729a028 {Li_Choh_Hao_1970
0908.pdf} {09/08/1970}

MORE INFO
[1] Choh Hao Li, "PREPARATION AND
PROPERTIES OF A HIGHLY ACTIVE
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
PREPARATION", Journal of the American
Chemical Society 1952 74 (8),
2124-2125. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01128a526
[2] Anthony L. Levy, Irving I.
Geschwind, and Choh Hao Li,
"CORTICOTROPINS (ACTH): II. AMINO ACID
COMPOSITION OF α-CORTICOTROPIN", J.
Biol. Chem. 1955 213: 187-196.
http://www.jbc.org/content/213/1/187.f
ull.pdf+html
[3] Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p868
[4] Irving I.
Geschwind, Choh Hao Li, Livio Barnafi,
"ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE OF
MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE FROM
PORCINE PITUITARY GLANDS", Journal of
the American Chemical Society 1956 78
(17),
4494-4495. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/ja01598a085
[5] Timeline:
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=
biomems&page=cli.html
[6] CHOH HAO LI and HAROLD PAPKOFF,
"Preparation and Properties of Growth
Hormone from Human and Monkey Pituitary
Glands", Science, 28 December 1956:
1293-1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1752401
[7] Donald. Yamashiro, Choh Hao. Li,
"Adrenocorticotropins. 44. Total
synthesis of the human hormone by the
solid-phase method.", J. Am. Chem. Soc.
95: 1310-15.
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja
00785a049
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA4  
[1] Choh Hao Li This image is now in
the public domain because its term of
copyright has expired in China.
According to copyright laws of the
People's Republic of China (with legal
jurisdiction in the mainland only,
excluding Hong Kong and Macao) and the
Republic of China (currently with
jurisdiction in Taiwan, the Pescadores,
Quemoy, Matsu, etc.), all photographs
enter the public domain 50 years after
they were first published, or if
unpublished 50 years from creation, and
all non-photographic works enter the
public domain fifty years after the
death of the creator. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b0/Choh.jpg
30 YBN
[09/24/1970 AD] 3 		5600) A robotic ship from Earth returns
samples from another body (the moon of
Earth).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-072A {04/04/1966}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-012A
[2]
http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries
/news/2008/10/dayintech_1007#
[3]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lun
ar/lunarussr.html
[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1959-014A
[5]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1959-008A
[6]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1966-027A
Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.2
 
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg

[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
30 YBN
[12/15/1970 AD] 3 		5617) The first ship to soft land on
another planet (Venus) and the first to
transmit data after landing.1
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1970-060A {12/15/1970}
Planet Venus2  
[1] Venera 7, Interplanetary Explorer,
December 1970 Vladimir I U L via Flickr
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/Vene
ra.jpeg

[2] Venera 7, Interplanetary Explorer,
December 1970 Vladimir I U L via Flickr
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/Vene
ra.jpeg
29 YBN
[04/19/1971 AD] 3 		5667) The first orbiting ("space")
station.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Salyut program." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 11 Apr. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/salyut-2
2. ^
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/spacestati
on/salyut1.html
3. ^ "space station." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 11 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/557473/space-station>. {04/19/1971}
(Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam,
Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.2 (verify) 
[1] Description An extremely rare
view of the world's first space
station, the Soviet Salyut 1, as seen
from the departing Soyuz 11. Source
http://www.astronautix.com/graphics
/s/sal1foto.jpg Date 30 June
1971 Author Viktor
Patsayev COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cc/Salyut_1.jpg

[2] Description A view of the
Soviet space station Salyut 1, shown
with a docked Soyuz 7KT-OK
spacecraft. Source
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/saly
ut1.jpg (http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro
/Part2_26g.html) Date 19 April
1971 Author TsKBEM PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/d/d5/Salyut1_with_docked_Soyuz_
spacecraft.jpg
29 YBN
[11/14/1971 AD] 7 		5618) The first ship to orbit another
planet (Mars).4 The first global
mapping of the surface of Mars and
detailed views of the Mars moons.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-051A {11/14/1971}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.astronomy.csdb.cn/ceps/rpif/m
ariner9/mariner9_archive.htm
Planet Mars6  
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg

[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
29 YBN
[11/27/1971 AD] 6 		5619) A ship impacts Mars.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-045D {11/27/1971}
Planet Mars5  
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg

[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
29 YBN
[11/??/1971 AD] 5 6 		5844) The first microprocessor and
central processing unit (CPU);1 an
integrated circuit which contains 2,300
transistors with a clock rate of 740
kHz, has 46 instructions, and uses
external RAM and ROM.2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p567.
2. ^
http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/h
istory/museum-story-of-intel-4004.html
3. ^
http://www.intel.com/Assets/PDF/DataShee
t/4004_datasheet.pdf
4. ^ Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian
E., Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima,
Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History
of the 4004". IEEE Micro 16 (6):
10–20.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_a
ll.jsp?arnumber=546561.
5. ^ Faggin, Federico; Hoff, Marcian
E., Jr.; Mazor, Stanley; Shima,
Masatoshi (December 1996). "The History
of the 4004". IEEE Micro 16 (6):
10–20.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_a
ll.jsp?arnumber=546561. {11/1971}
6. ^ Alexander
Hellemans, Bryan Bunch, "The Timetables
of Science", Second edition, Simon and
Schuster, 1991, p567. {1971}
(Intel Corporation) Santa Clara,
California, USA4  
[1] Description Intel
4004.jpg Italiano: Primo
microprocessore Intel, l'it:Intel
4004. Date 2005-12-07 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was LucaDetomi at
it.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Intel_4004.jpg

[2] Description
C4004.JPG.jpg Intel 4004 Date
11/06/2006 (upload
commons) Source
en.wikipedia.org Author
Photo by John Pilge. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/C4004.JPG.jpg
29 YBN
[12/02/1971 AD] 7 		5620) The first ship to soft land on
planet Mars and return data.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1971-049F {12/02/1971}
Planet Mars6  
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN

source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg

[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
29 YBN
[12/03/1971 AD] 7 		5838) Light particle communication
using liquid filled glass fiber (fiber
optic communication).1 2 3 4 5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical
transmission loss in liquid-core hollow
fibers," Quantum Electronics, IEEE
Journal of , vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388,
Mar 1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
{Stone_19711203.pdf}
2. ^ J. Stone, "Optical transmission in
liquid-core quartz fibers", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 20, 239-240 (1972).
http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB/20/23
9/1 {Stone_J_19711213.pdf}
3. ^ W. A. Gambling, D. N. Payne, and
H. Matsumura, "Gigahertz bandwidths in
multimode, liquid-core, optical fibre
waveguide", Opt. Commun. 6, 317–322
(1972).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0030401872901459
4. ^ G. J. Ogilvie, R. J. Esdaile, and
G. P. Kidd, "Transmission loss of
tetrachloroethylene-filled
liquid-core-fibre light guide",
Electron. Lett. 8, 533–534 (1972).
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_al
l.jsp?arnumber=4235852&tag=1
5. ^ R. Altkorn, I. Koev, R. P. Van
Duyne, and M. Litorja, "Low-loss
liquid-core optical fiber for
low-refractive-index liquids:
fabrication, characterization, and
application in Raman spectroscopy",
Applied Optics, Vol. 36, Issue 34, pp.
8992-8998 (1997)
doi:10.1364/AO.36.008992 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?&id=67764
6. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical transmission
loss in liquid-core hollow fibers,"
Quantum Electronics, IEEE Journal of ,
vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388, Mar
1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
{Stone_19711203.pdf}
7. ^ Stone, J.; , "Optical transmission
loss in liquid-core hollow fibers,"
Quantum Electronics, IEEE Journal of ,
vol.8, no.3, pp. 386- 388, Mar
1972 doi:
10.1109/JQE.1972.1076966 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=1076966&isnumber=23229
{Stone_19711203.pdf}
(Bell Telephone Laboratories) Holmdel,
New Jersey, USA6  
[1] J. Stone, ''Optical transmission in
liquid-core quartz fibers'', Appl.
Phys. Lett. 20, 239-240 (1972).
http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB/20/23
9/1 {Stone_J_19711213.pdf} COPYRIGHTED

source: http://link.aip.org/link/?APPLAB
/20/239/1
29 YBN
[1971 AD] 4 5 		5852) The first e-mail (electronic
mail) program.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ Eberhart, G.M. The Whole Library
Handbook 4. American Library Assoc.,
2006. Whole Library Handbook,
p419. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6jIjcUMP4CcC&pg=PA419
3. ^ Eberhart, G.M. The Whole Library
Handbook 4. American Library Assoc.,
2006. Whole Library Handbook,
p419. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6jIjcUMP4CcC&pg=PA419
4. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1971}
5. ^ Eberhart, G.M. The Whole Library
Handbook 4. American Library Assoc.,
2006. Whole Library Handbook,
p419. http://books.google.com/books?id=
6jIjcUMP4CcC&pg=PA419

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
(Bolt, Beranek, and Newman engineering)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA3  
[1] Description English: Vector
version of 100px Español: Vectorial
versión de 100px Simple English:
Version of 100px made with vector
graphics Date 2007-05-21 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Transfer was stated to be made by
User:EdmundEzekielMahmudIsa. Author
Original uploader was Yzmo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Licensed under the GFDL by
the author; GFDL-SELF-NO-DISCLAIMERS;
Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Email.svg/1000p
x-Email.svg.png

[2] Fue creado por Ray Tomlinson en
1971, aunque no lo consideró un
invento importante. Su gran difusión
promueve servicios para chequear una
cuenta POP desde cualquier
navegador. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs_es
tudiantes/jazminmercadeo/files/2012/01/D
ibujo1.png
28 YBN
[07/15/1972 AD] 3 		5621) A ship passes the meteor belt
between Mars and Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {07/15/1972}
Planet Mars2  
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
28 YBN
[07/31/1972 AD] 10 		5751) Proteins are synthesized by using
a virus to add DNA into bacteria.5 6

This is the beginning of genetic
engineering.7

One result of this "recombinant"
technology are bacteria that contain
the gene for producing the mammalian
hormone insulin.8
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
2. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
3. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
4. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
5. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
6. ^ "Paul Berg." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ "Paul Berg."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 02 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/61698/Paul-Berg>.
9. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
10. ^ David A. Jackson, Robert H.
Symons, and Paul Berg, "Biochemical
Method for Inserting New Genetic
Information into DNA of Simian Virus
40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli",
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
{07/31/1972}
(Stanford University Medical Center)
Stanford, California, USA9  
[1] Figure 1 from: David A. Jackson,
Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg,
''Biochemical Method for Inserting New
Genetic Information into DNA of Simian
Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules
Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the
Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli'',
PNAS October 1, 1972 vol. 69 no. 10
2904-2909
http://www.pnas.org/content/69/10/2904
.short {Berg_Paul_19720731.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/69/1
0/2904.short

[2] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg

28 YBN
[1972 AD] 4 		5790) Two streams of high-velocity
electrons are collided head on, and
electrons are collided with positrons.1
2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/gen/grad/Gr
adHandbook/slac.html
2. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
3. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865
4. ^
http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/
28865 {1972}

MORE INFO
[1] "Burton Richter."
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2011. Web. 16 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/502853/Burton-Richter>
[2]
http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/AboutSLAC.
aspx
(Stanford University Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center {SLAC}) Stanford,
California, USA3  
[1] SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory is home to a two-mile linear
accelerator—the longest in the world.
Originally a particle physics research
center, SLAC is now a multipurpose
laboratory for astrophysics, photon
science, accelerator and particle
physics research. Six scientists have
been awarded the Nobel Prize for work
carried out at SLAC and the future of
the laboratory promises to be just as
extraordinary. UNKNOWN
source: http://www6.slac.stanford.edu/we
bimages/slac-aerial.jpg

[2] Burton Richter Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/richter
_postcard.jpg
27 YBN
[12/03/1973 AD] 8 		5622) A ship reaches Jupiter and sends
the first close-up images.5
The giant
planet's radiation belts and magnetic
field are also mapped.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
6. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
8. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/re
leases/2003/03_25HQ.html {12/03/1973}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
Planet Jupiter7  
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
26 YBN
[03/29/1974 AD] 3 		5614) The first ship to reach Mercury,
to return closeup images, and to use
the gravitational pull of one planet
(Venus) to reach another planet
(Mercury).1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1973-085A {03/29/1974}
Planet Mercury2  
[1] This mosaic of Mercury was taken by
the Mariner 10 spacecraft during its
approach on 29 March 1974. The mosaic
consists of 18 images taken at 42 s
intervals during a 13 minute period
when the spacecraft was 200,000 km
(about 6 hours prior to closest
approach) from the planet. source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-mercury.html,
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/mercury/mercuryglobe1.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Mercuryglobe1.jpg

[2] Artist impression of the Mariner
10 mission. Gravitational slingshot -
Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to
make use of a ''gravitational
slingshot'' maneuver, using Venus to
bend its flight path and bring its
perihelion down to the level of
Mercury's orbit. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/16/Mariner_10_gravitational_s
lingshot.jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 9 10 		5846) The personal computer.5 6
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577.
2. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
4. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
5. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p577.
6. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
7. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
8. ^ "Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Instr
umentation_and_Telemetry_Systems
9. ^ "Altair." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/altair
{1974}
10. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan
Bunch, "The Timetables of Science",
Second edition, Simon and Schuster,
1991, p577. {1975}
(Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA7
8 (verify) 
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
26 YBN
[1974 AD] 3 		5896) A multi-window computer program
with moveable windows.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3
2. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3
3. ^
http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/
05/gui.ars/3 {1974}
(Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) Palo
Alto, California, USA2  
[1] SmallTalk software UNKNOWN
source: http://media.arstechnica.com/ima
ges/gui/7-AltoST.jpg
25 YBN
[10/20/1975 AD] 11 		5623) The first ship to orbit and land
on Venus, and to transmit the first
image from the surface of another
planet.7 8

The temperature at the surface is
460°C (or 860°F); atmospheric
pressure is 90 times that at the
surface of Earth.9
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
6. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
9. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Venera_09
10. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A
11. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-050A {10/20/1975}
Planet Venus10  
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif

[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
25 YBN
[1975 AD] 4 		6371) An external object is moved by
thought (electricity in the brain).3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ "The Incredible Human Machine",
National Geographic (1975)
2. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)
3. ^ "The Incredible Human
Machine", National Geographic (1975)
4. ^ "The
Incredible Human Machine", National
Geographic (1975)

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/paralyzed-woman-us
es-her-mind-control-robot-arm-181141007-
-finance.html
[2]
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/439638
7.stm
 
[1] todo: change to video from National
Geographic ''The Incredible Human
Machine'' video Adapted from picture
of EEG electrodes and toy train View
of EEG electrodes on a model phrenology
head M400/0123 Rights
Managed Credit: JAMES
KING-HOLMES/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/271056/large/M4000123-View_of_EEG_elec
trodes_on_a_model_phrenology_head-SPL.jp
ghttp://howtobuildamodeltrain.com/wp-con
tent/uploads/2011/12/howtobuildamodeltra
in1.jpg

[2] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
24 YBN
[07/20/1976 AD] 4 		5624) The first images and soil samples
from the surface of Mars.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1975-075C {07/20/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] Video of Mars rotating:
http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/d
etail/NSVS~3~3~9446~109446:Mars-Rotate--
True-Color-
Planet Mars3  
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg

[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
24 YBN
[11/30/1976 AD] 5 		5695) The complete DNA sequence of a
virus is determined;2 a small virus
with 5,375 nucleotide pairs which codes
for nine different proteins.3
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
2. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
3. ^ Isaac Asimov, "Asimov's
biographical encyclopedia of science
and technology", (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1982), p.868.
4. ^ Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
5. ^ Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell,
B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R.,
Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A.,
Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977.
Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
{11/30/1976}

MORE INFO
[1] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1958". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1958/
[2] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1980". Nobelprize.org. 17 Apr 2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemi
stry/laureates/1980/
[3] F. Sanger, "The free amino groups
of insulin", Biochem J. 1945; 39(5):
507–515.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1258275/
[4] "Frederick Sanger." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frederick-s
anger
[5] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 1. The identification
of lower peptides from partial
hydrolysates", Biochem J. 1953
February; 53(3): 353–366.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198157/
[6] F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson,
"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl
chain of insulin. 2. The investigation
of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
Biochem J. 1953 February; 53(3):
366–374.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1198158/
[7] "insulin." The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004. Answers.com 17 Apr.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/insulin
(Cambridge University) Cambridge,
England4  
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html

[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
23 YBN
[05/19/1977 AD] 5 		5771) The first x-ray LASER.1 2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov, G.
V., Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1, and
Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
2. ^ Hagelstein, P.L., "Review of short
wavelength lasers", Conference: 9.
international conference on atomic
physics, Seattle, WA, USA, 23 Jul
1984 http://www.osti.gov/energycitation
s/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5780959 {H
agelstein_Peter_L_198407xx.pdf}
3. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov, G. V.,
Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1, and
Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf}
4. ^ http://www.lebedev.ru/en/
5. ^ Ilyukhin, A. A., Peregudov,
G. V., Ragozin, E. N., Sobslman, 1.1,
and Chirkov, V. A., "Concerning the
problem of lasers for the far
ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A", 1977,
Journal of Experimental and Theoretical
Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} {05/19/1977}
(P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, USSR
Academy of Sciences) Moscow, U.S.S.R.3
4  
[1] Figure 4 from: Ilyukhin, A. A.,
Peregudov, G. V., Ragozin, E. N.,
Sobslman, 1.1, and Chirkov, V. A.,
''Concerning the problem of lasers for
the far ultraviolet λ ~500-700 A'',
1977, Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics Letters, 95,
536. http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/14
16/article_21489.shtml {Ilyukhin_A_A_19
770519.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/
1416/article_21489.shtml
23 YBN
[1977 AD] 13 		6312) A self-driving car.7 8 9 10 11 12

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
2. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
3. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
4. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
5. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
6. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
7. ^ S. Tsugawa. “Vision-based
Vehicles in Japan: The Machine Vision
Systems and Driving Control Systems.”
Industrial Electronics, 1993.
Conference Proceedings, ISIE’93 -
Budapest., IEEE International Symposium
On. 1993.
278–285. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/x
pl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=26879
5
8. ^ Tsugawa, S.; , "Vision-based
vehicles in Japan: machine vision
systems and driving control systems,"
Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.41, no.4,
pp.398-405, Aug 1994 doi:
10.1109/41.303790 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=303790&isnumber=7476
9. ^
http://www.markelic.de/professional/mile
stonesDrivingTable.html
10. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology 4Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
11. ^ S. Tsugawa, et al.: An Automobile
with Artificial
Intelligence, Proceedings of the 6th
International Joint Conference on
Artificial Intelligence, pp.893-895
(1979).
12. ^ Sadayuki Tsugawa, "A History of
Automated Highway Systems in Japan
and Future Issues", Proceedings of the
2008 IEEE International Conference
on Vehicular Electronics and
Safety Columbus, OH, USA. September
22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
13. ^ Todd Lassa, "Autonomous Car
Technology Lurches Forward", Motor
Trend, June
2011. http://www.motortrend.com/feature
s/auto_news/2011/1106_autonomous_car_tec
hnology_lurches_forward/viewall.html
(Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab)
Japan 
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
22 YBN
[07/25/1978 AD] 3 		5810) The successful birth of a human
baby after in vitro fertilization.1
FOO
TNOTES
1. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf}
2. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf}
3. ^ P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
"BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO", The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} {07/25/1978}
(General Hostpial) Oldham, UK2  
[1] P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
''BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO'', The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0140673678929574

[2] P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards,
''BIRTH AFTER THE REIMPLANTATION OF A
HUMAN EMBRYO'', The Lancet Volume 312,
Issue 8085, 12 August 1978, Page 366
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0140673678929574 {Edwards_R
obert_G_19780812.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source:
21 YBN
[03/05/1979 AD] 3 		5630) The first close-up images of the
moons of Jupiter.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {03/05/1979}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
[2]
http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/S
iomoons.htm
Planet Jupiter2  
[1] Original Caption Released with
Image: VOLCANIC EXPLOSION ON IO:
Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on
March 4 at 5:30 p.m. (PST) about 11
hours before closest approach to the
Jupiter moon. The distance to Io was
about 490,000 kilometers (304,000
miles). An enormous volcanic explosion
can be seen silhouetted against dark
space over Io's bright limb. The
brightness of the plume has been
increased by the computer as it is
normally extremely faint, whereas the
relative color of the plume (greenish
white) has been preserved. At this time
solid material had been thrown up to an
altitude of about 100 miles. This
requires an ejection velocity from the
volcanic vent of about 1200 miles per
hour, material reaching the crest of
the fountain in several minutes. The
vent area is a complex circular
structure consisting of a bright ring
about 300 kilometers in diameter and a
central region of irregular dark and
light patterns. Volcanic explosions
similar to this occur on the Earth when
magmatic gases expand explosively as
material is vented. On Earth water is
the major gas driving the explosion.
Because Io is thought to be extremely
dry, scientists are searching for other
gases to explain the explosion. JPL
manages and controls the Voyager
Project for NASA's Office of Space
Science. source:http://photojournal.j
pl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA01971
TIFF
verion:http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/
tiff/PIA01971.tif PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e3/Vulcanic_Explosion_on
_Io.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
21 YBN
[09/01/1979 AD] 7 		388) A ship reaches Saturn and sends
the first close-up images.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
3. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
4. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
5. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
6. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html
7. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/mission
s/archive/pioneer.html {09/01/1979}
Planet Saturn6  
[1] Pioneer 11 Image of Saturn and Its
Moon Titan {ULSF: Titan is at the upper
left} The Pioneer 11 spacecraft
launched from Cape Canaveral forty
years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer
11's path through Saturn's outer rings
took it within 21,000 km of the planet,
where it discovered two new moons
(almost smacking into one of them in
September 1979) and a new ''F'' ring.
The spacecraft also discovered and
charted the magnetosphere, magnetic
field and mapped the general structure
of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's
instruments measured the heat radiation
from Saturn's interior and found that
its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too
cold to support life. This image
from Pioneer 11 shows Saturn and its
moon Titan. The irregularities in ring
silhouette and shadow are due to
technical anomalies in the preliminary
data later corrected. At the time this
image was taken, Pioneer was 2,846,000
km (1,768,422 miles) from
Saturn. › NASA Celebrates Four
Decades of Plucky Pioneer 11 Image
credit: NASA Ames PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/739507main_739460main_AC79-9107.3_160
0-1200.jpg

[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
20 YBN
[09/12/1980 AD] 10 		6189) The Scanning Tunneling Microscope
(or STM).5 6 Individual atoms and
molecules of many kinds can be seen.7 8

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
2. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
3. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
4. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
5. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
6. ^ Heinrich Rohrer - Nobel Lecture".
Nobelprize.org. 27 Aug 2011
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/p
hysics/laureates/1986/rohrer-lecture.htm
l
7. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Surface Studies by
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy", Phys.
Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1
8. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
9. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
10. ^ G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 {09/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] Gerd Binnig & Heinrich
Rohrer, "The Scanning Tunneling
Microscope", Scientific American 253,
50 - 56
(1985) doi:10.1038/scientificamerican08
85-50
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory)
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland9
(presumably) 
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, ''Scanning
tunneling microscope'', Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=GzgwAAAAEBAJ

[2] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
20 YBN
[11/12/1980 AD] 4 		5631) The first close-up images of the
moons of Saturn.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?Target=Jupiter&MCode=Voyager_1&
Display=ReadMore
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {11/12/1980}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
Planet Saturn3  
[1] English: Original Caption Released
with Image: Titan's thick haze layer is
shown in this enhanced Voyager 1 image
taken Nov. 12, 1980 at a distance of
435,000 kilometers (270,000 miles).
Voyager images of Saturn's largest moon
show Titan completely enveloped by haze
that merges with a darker ''hood'' or
cloud layer over the north pole. Such a
mantle is not present at the south
pole. At Voyager's closest approach to
Titan on Nov. 11, 1980, spacecraft
instruments found that the moon has a
substantial atmosphere, far denser than
that of Mars and possibly denser than
Earth's. The Voyager Project is managed
for NASA by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Deutsch:
Titans Atmosphäre. Fotografiert aus
einer Entfernung von 435.000 Kilometern
durch Voyager 1, 1980. source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PI
A02238.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c7/Titan%27s_thick_haze_
layer-picture_from_voyager1.jpg

[2] Description Voyager 1 - view of
Saturn's moon Mimas.jpg English:
Original Caption Released with Image:
The cratered surface Saturn's moon
Mimas is seen in this image taken by
Voyager 1 on Nov. 12, 1980 from a range
of 425,000 kilometers (264,000 miles).
Impact craters made by the infall of
cosmic debris are shown; the largest is
more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) in
diameter and displays a prominent
central peak. The smaller craters are
abundant and indicate an ancient age
for Mimas's surface. The Voyager
Project is managed for NASA by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
Calif. Date 12 November
1980(1980-11-12) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01968 Author
NASA/JPL PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Voyager_1_-_view_of_S
aturn%27s_moon_Mimas.jpg
19 YBN
[04/??/1981 AD] 5 		6649) Beams of protons and antiprotons
are collided head on.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Christine Sutton, "CERN pushes
open the door to a new physics", New
Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
2. ^ Christine Sutton, "CERN pushes
open the door to a new physics", New
Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
3. ^ "CERN." The Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press., 2013. Answers.com 22
May. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cern
4. ^ "CERN." Encyclopedia of Espionage,
Intelligence, and Security. The Gale
Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com 22 May.
2013. http://www.answers.com/topic/cern
5. ^ Christine Sutton, "CERN
pushes open the door to a new physics",
New Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
CERN (Conseil Européen pour la
Recherche Nucléaire), Geneva,
Switzerland2 3 4  
[1] Christine Sutton, ''CERN pushes
open the door to a new physics'', New
Scientist,
04/16/1981. http://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139 COPYRIGHTED

source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=41GAXuhHkK8C&pg=PA139
19 YBN
[11/12/1981 AD] 3 		5805) The first reuse of a space
craft.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p588.
2. ^
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasaf
act/pads.htm
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p588. {11/12/1981}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/miss
ions/sts-2/mission-sts-2.html
[2]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDQpSFasz
pY
(Launch Pad 39A) Merritt Island,
Florida, USA2  
[1] NASA Photo ID: S81-39548
File Name: 10060481.jpg Film Type:
70mm Date Taken:
11/15/81 Title: Space Shuttle Columbia
OV (101) launching from pad 39A
begining STS-2 Description: View of
the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia from
across the water lifting off from
Launch Pad 39A to begin STS-2 (39548);
Framed by Florida vegtation, the
Columbia lifts off from its launch pad
(39549). PD
source: http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/
images/images/pao/STS2/10060481.jpg

[2] Description English: Deepcold
dyna final 240, author: Dan Roam,
source: http://www.deepcold.com Date
12 August 2006 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Djroam at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Deepcold_dyna_final_2
40.jpg
18 YBN
[03/01/1982 AD] 4 		5626) The first Venus soil samples and
sound recording of another planet.1 2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ "Timeline of space exploration".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_space_exploration
2. ^
http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Venera1
1.htm
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1981-106D
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCat
alog.do?sc=1981-106D {03/01/1982}
Planet Venus3  
[1] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD AND * Venera 13 /
14 lander * image source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/Mast
erCatalog?sc=1981-106D PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gifhttp://upload.w
ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Vene
ra_13_lander.gif

[2] Venera 13 Lander image of the
surface of Venus at 7.5 S, 303. E, east
of Phoebe Regio. Venera 13 survived on
the surface for 2 hours, 7 minutes,
long enough to obtain 14 images on 1
March, 1982. This color 170 degree
panorama was produced using dark blue,
green and red filters and has a
resolution of 4 to 5 min. Part of the
spacecraft is at the bottom of the
image. Flat rock slabs and soil are
visible. The true color is difficult to
judge because the Venerian atmosphere
filters out blue light. The surface
composition is similar to terrestrial
basalt. On the ground in foreground is
a camera lens cover. (Venera 13 Lander,
VG00261,262) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v13_vg261_262.gif
17 YBN
[06/13/1983 AD] 3 		5627) The first ship from Earth to fly
farther than all known planets of this
star system.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re
3. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pro
file.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_10&Display=ReadMo
re {06/13/1983}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/pioneer10.
html
[2]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1972-012A
[3] "Timeline of space exploration".
Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of
_space_exploration
Planet Neptune2  
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
17 YBN
[10/25/1983 AD] 4 		5811) Humans are shown to be
genetically closer to chimpanzees than
other primates.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p592.
3. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf}
4. ^ Charles G. Sibley and Jon E.
Ahlquist, " The phylogeny of the
hominoid primates, as indicated by
DNA-DNA hybridization", Journal of
Molecular Evolution, Volume 20, Number
1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} {10/25/1983}
(Yale University) New Haven,
Connecticut, USA3  
[1] Figure 6 from: [1] Charles G.
Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist, '' The
phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as
indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization'',
Journal of Molecular Evolution, Volume
20, Number 1, 2-15, DOI:
10.1007/BF02101980 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/g3020651ml536640/ {Ahlq
uist_Jon_E_19831025.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/g3020651ml536640/
16 YBN
[03/10/1984 AD] 10 		5814) A multicellular organism is
"cloned" (genetically identical copies
are made).5 6

The nucleus in an ovum is replaced with
the nucleus from an embryo cell and
reimplanted to produce genetically
identical animals (sheep).7 8
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
4. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
5. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
6. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
7. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
8. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
9. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984}
10. ^ SM Willadsen and RA Godke, "A
simple procedure for the production of
identical sheep twins", Veterinary
Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf} {03/
1984} {03/10/1984}
(AFRC Institute of Animal Physiology)
Cambridge, UK9  
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source:
16 YBN
[06/25/1984 AD] 4 		5815) Copies are made of DNA sequences
from an extinct species.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
2. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
3. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
4. ^ Russell Higuchi, Barbara Bowman,
Mary Freiberger, Oliver A. Ryder &
Allan C. Wilson, "DNA sequences from
the quagga, an extinct member of the
horse family", Nature, 312, 282 - 284
(15 November 1984);
doi:10.1038/312282a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v312/n5991/abs/312282
a0.html {Higuchi_Russell_19840625.pdf}
{06/25/1984}
(University of California) Berkeley,
California, USA3  
[1] Description Quagga (Equus quagga
quagga) is an extinct sub-species of
zebra. Mare, London, Regent's Park
ZOO. Date
1870 http://books.google.dk/books?id=1
5AsyQ8O2qoC&pg=PA148&dq=london+sondaica+
tigris&hl=da&ei=SlmxTsyqMMHa4QSasv3OAQ&s
a=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ve
d=0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=london%20sonda
ica%20tigris&f=false Source
Scan Author F. York
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Quagga_photo.jpg
16 YBN
[08/31/1984 AD] 4 5 		6190) A DNA molecule is imaged at the
atomic scale.1 2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer,
"Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy" in
Janta, J. Trends In Physics, 1984 ::
Proceedings of the 6th General
Conference of the European Physical
Society : 27-31 August 1984, Prague,
Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union of
Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
2. ^ Arscott, P.G., and V.A.
Bloomfield. “Scanning tunnelling
microscopy of nucleic acids and
polynucleotides.” Ultramicroscopy
33.2 (1990) :
127-131. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/030439919090015E
3. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, "Scanning
Tunnelling Microscopy" in Janta, J.
Trends In Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings
of the 6th General Conference of the
European Physical Society : 27-31
August 1984, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Prague: Union of Czechoslovak
Mathematicians and Physicists, 1984,
p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
4. ^ G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, "Scanning
Tunnelling Microscopy" in Janta, J.
Trends In Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings
of the 6th General Conference of the
European Physical Society : 27-31
August 1984, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Prague: Union of Czechoslovak
Mathematicians and Physicists, 1984,
p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home {08/27/1984-08/31/1984}
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
5. ^ Driscoll, Robert J., Michael G.
Youngquist, and John D. Baldeschwieler.
“Atomic-scale imaging of DNA using
scanning tunnelling microscopy.”
Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
{07/19/1990} {other image)07/19/1990}
{other later more detailed
image)07/19/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch.
Gerber, and E. Weibel, "Tunneling
through a controllable vacuum gap",
Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, "Scanning
tunneling microscope", Patent number:
4343993, Filing date: Sep 12, 1980,
Issue date: Aug 10,
1982. http://www.google.com/patents?hl=
en&lr=&vid=USPAT4343993
(IBM Zurich Research Laboratory,
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia3  
[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source:

[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
16 YBN
[11/16/1984 AD] 5 		5813) "Genetic fingerprinting": certain
sequences of DNA unique to each
organism can be used to identify
individual organisms and also to
determine family relationships.1 2 3
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
2. ^ A. J. Jeffreys, V. Wilson & S. L.
Thein, "Individual-specific
'fingerprints' of human DNA", Nature
316, 76 - 79 (04 July 1985);
doi:10.1038/316076a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v316/n6023/abs/316076
a0.html
3. ^ Alexander Hellemans, Bryan Bunch,
"The Timetables of Science", Second
edition, Simon and Schuster, 1991,
p594.
4. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
5. ^ Alec J. Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson
& Swee Lay Thein, "Hypervariable
'minisatellite' regions in human DNA",
Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07 March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}
{11/16/1984}
(University of Leicester) Leicester,
UK4  
[1] Figure 5 from: Alec J. Jeffreys,
Victoria Wilson & Swee Lay Thein,
''Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions
in human DNA'', Nature 314, 67 - 73 (07
March 1985);
doi:10.1038/314067a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v314/n6006/abs/314067
a0.html {Jeffreys_Alec_J_19841116.pdf}

source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v314/n6006/abs/314067a0.html

[2] Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester. UNKNOWN
source: http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments
/emfpu/genetics/explained/images/AlecJef
frey.jpg
15 YBN
[09/20/1985 AD] 15 		5804) Polymerase {PoL-u-mu-rAS7 } chain
reaction (PCR), a simple technique that
allows a specific segment of DNA to be
copied billions of times in a few
hours.8 9 10 11 12
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
2. ^ "Kary B. Mullis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396935/Kary-B-Mullis>.
3. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
4. ^ Mullis, KB et al. "Process for
amplifying, detecting, and/or-cloning
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,195. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683195&id=fCYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract
5. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf}
6. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona,
"Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via
a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction",
Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
7. ^ "Polymerase." Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 26 Jan.
2013.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/P
olymerase>.
8. ^ "Kary B. Mullis." Encyclopædia
Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Web. 22 May. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topi
c/396935/Kary-B-Mullis>.
9. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
10. ^ Mullis, KB et al. "Process for
amplifying, detecting, and/or-cloning
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,195. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683195&id=fCYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract
11. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf}
12. ^ K. B. Mullis and F. A. Faloona,
"Specific synthesis of DNA in vitro via
a polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction",
Methods Enzymol. 155, 335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf}
13. ^ Mullis KB "Process for amplifying
nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent
4,683,202. http://www.google.com/patent
s?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4683202&id=fSYMAAAA
EBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=%22KB+Mullis%22+&printsec
=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false
14. ^ "Kary Mullis." A Dictionary of
Scientists. Oxford University Press,
1993, 1999, 2003. Answers.com 22 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/kary-mullis

15. ^ R. K. Saiki et al., "Enzymatic
Amplification of β-Globin Genomic
Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis
for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia",
Science 230, 1350
(1985). http://www.jstor.org/stable/169
6982?origin=JSTOR-pdf {Mullis_Kary_Bank
s_19850920.pdf} {09/20/1985}

MORE INFO
[1] Randall K. Saiki, David H.
Gelfand, Susanne Stoffel, Stephen J.
Scharf, Russell Higuchi, Glenn T. Horn,
Kary B. Mullis, Henry A. Erlich,
"Primer-Directed Enzymatic
Amplification of DNA with a
Thermostable DNA Polymerase", New
Series, Vol. 239, No. 4839 (Jan. 29,
1988), pp.
487-491 http://www.jstor.org/stable/170
0278
(Cetus Corporation) Emeryville,
California, USA13 14  
[1] Figure 2 from: K. B. Mullis and F.
A. Faloona, ''Specific synthesis of DNA
in vitro via a polymerase-catalyzed
chain reaction'', Methods Enzymol. 155,
335 (1987).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/0076687987550236 {Mullis_Kar
y_Banks_1987xxxx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/0076687987550236

[2] Kary Banks Mullis Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1993/mulli
s_postcard.jpg
14 YBN
[01/24/1986 AD] 12 		5628) A ship reaches Uranus and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons, and its rings.9 10
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
8. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
9. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
10. ^
http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/uran
us.html
11. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
12. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {01/24/1986}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Uranus11  
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
12 YBN
[12/14/1988 AD] 7 		6194) A microscopic electric motor.5
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai;
R.S. Muller; , "IC-processed
electrostatic micro-motors," Electron
Devices Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88.
Technical Digest., International ,
vol., no., pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
2. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
3. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
4. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
5. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
6. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
7. ^ Long-Sheng Fan; Yu-Chong Tai; R.S.
Muller; , "IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors," Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
{12/11/1988-12/14/1988}
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA6  
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415

[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
11 YBN
[08/25/1989 AD] 7 		5629) A ship reaches Neptune and sends
the first close-up images of the
planet, its moons and rings.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A
7. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-076A {08/25/1989}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 2". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
Planet Neptune6  
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg

[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
10 YBN
[01/17/1990 AD] 7 		6191) Individual atoms are moved. An
STM is used at low temperatures to form
the letters "IBM" in xenon atoms.5
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
2. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
3. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
4. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
5. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
6. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html
7. ^ D. M. Eigler & E. K. Schweizer,
"Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope", Nature
344, 524 - 526 (05 April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html {01/17/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. "Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy."� Nature 346.6281 (1990)
:
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[2] G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber,
and E. Weibel, "Tunneling through a
controllable vacuum gap", Appl. Phys.
Lett. 40, 178 (1982);
doi:10.1063/1.92999 http://apl.aip.org/
resource/1/applab/v40/i2/p178_s1
(IBM Research Division, Almaden
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA6  
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html

[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
10 YBN
[01/29/1990 AD] 5 6 		6278) A light particle (or optical)
computer processor.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100
Inventions That Shaped World History",
1993, p107.
2. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html
3. ^
http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1990-
01-30/business/9001080923_1_optical-proc
essor-electrons-copper-wires
4. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html
5. ^ Yenne and Grosser, "100 Inventions
That Shaped World History", 1993, p107.
{01/29/1990}
6. ^
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8100728.
html {01/29/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] Streibl, N.; Brenner, K.-H.;
Huang, A.; Jahns, J.; Jewell, J.;
Lohmann, A.W.; Miller, D.A.B.;
Murdocca, M.; Prise, M.E.; Sizer, T.; ,
"Digital optics," Proceedings of the
IEEE , vol.77, no.12, pp.1954-1969, Dec
1989 doi: 10.1109/5.48834 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=48834&isnumber=1815
(AT&T Bell Labs) Holmdel, New Jersey,
United States4  
[1] Figure 3. An array of surface
emitting microlasers. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00014.jpg

[2] Figure 1. One thousand
twenty-four optical connections
contained within the same area as one
electronic connection. From: Ames,
Karyn R., and Alan Brenner, editors
Frontiers of Supercomputing II: A
National Reassessment. Berkeley:
University of California Press, c1994
1994.
http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0f59n7
3z/
AND http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpress
ebooks/view?docId=ft0f59n73z;chunk.id=d0
e2589;doc.view=print UNKNOWN
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/3z/ft0f59n73z/figur
es/ft0f59n73z_00012.jpg
10 YBN
[02/14/1990 AD] 3 		5632) The first ship to capture an
image of the entire star system (Sun
and all planets) in one picture.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1977-084A {02/14/1990}

MORE INFO
[1] "Voyager 1". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
Outside star system2  
[1] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Family_portrait_%28Vo
yager_1%29.png

[2] Description Family portrait
(Voyager 1).png English: The ''family
portrait'' of the Solar System taken by
Voyager 1. This picture consists of 60
frames taken through the Wide Angle and
Narrow Angle cameras using the Methane,
Violet, Blue, Green, and Clear
Filters. Suggested for English
Wikipedia:alternative text for images:
a set of grey squares trace roughly
left to right. A few are labeled with
single letters associated with a nearby
coloured square. J is near to a square
labeled Jupiter; E to Earth; V to
Venus; S to Saturn; U to Uranus; N to
Neptune. A small spot appears at the
centre of each coloured
square English: Original Caption
Released with Image: The cameras of
Voyager 1 on Feb. 14, 1990, pointed
back toward the sun and took a series
of pictures of the sun and the planets,
making the first ever ''portrait'' of
our solar system as seen from the
outside. In the course of taking this
mosaic consisting of a total of 60
frames, Voyager 1 made several images
of the inner solar system from a
distance of approximately 4 billion
miles and about 32 degrees above the
ecliptic plane. Thirty-nine wide angle
frames link together six of the planets
of our solar system in this mosaic.
Outermost Neptune is 30 times further
from the sun than Earth. Our sun is
seen as the bright object in the center
of the circle of frames. The wide-angle
image of the sun was taken with the
camera's darkest filter (a methane
absorption band) and the shortest
possible exposure (1/125 second) to
avoid saturating the camera's vidicon
tube with scattered sunlight. The sun
is not large as seen from Voyager, only
about one-fortieth of the diameter as
seen from Earth, but is still almost 8
million times brighter than the
brightest star in Earth's sky, Sirius.
The result of this great brightness is
an image with multiple reflections from
the optics in the camera. Wide-angle
images surrounding the sun also show
many artifacts attributable to
scattered light in the optics. These
were taken through the clear filter
with one second exposures. The insets
show the planets magnified many times.
Narrow-angle images of Earth, Venus,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
were acquired as the spacecraft built
the wide-angle mosaic. Jupiter is
larger than a narrow-angle pixel and is
clearly resolved, as is Saturn with its
rings. Uranus and Neptune appear larger
than they really are because of image
smear due to spacecraft motion during
the long (15 second) exposures. From
Voyager's great distance Earth and
Venus are mere points of light, less
than the size of a picture element even
in the narrow-angle camera. Earth was a
crescent only 0.12 pixel in size.
Coincidentally, Earth lies right in the
center of one of the scattered light
rays resulting from taking the image so
close to the sun. Date 14
February 1990(1990-02-14) Source
Visible Earth * source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00451 o TIFF version:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/tiff/PI
A00451.tif Author NASA, Voyager
1 PD
source:
10 YBN
[04/25/1990 AD] 4 		5828) A telescope is placed in Earth
orbit.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ http://hubble.nasa.gov/
2. ^
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttl
e/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-31.html
3. ^
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasaf
act/pads.htm
4. ^ http://hubble.nasa.gov/
{04/25/1990}
Earth Orbit (Launched from Launch Pad
39B) Merritt Island, Florida, USA2 3
 
[1] Description HST-SM4.jpeg English:
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis,
flying STS-125, HST Servicing Mission
4. Date 19 May
2009(2009-05-19) Source
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery
/images/shuttle/sts-119/hires/s125e01184
8.jpg Author Ruffnax (Crew of
STS-125) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
* HST-SM4.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg

[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
9 YBN
[10/29/1991 AD] 8 		5635) The first ship to reach and send
close-up images of an asteroid.4 5 6
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
5. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
6. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
7. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm {10/29/1991}
Asteroid Gaspra7 (Ida encounter must
occur later) 
[1] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
9 YBN
[1991 AD] 2 		5857) The World Wide Web is released to
the public by way of FTP.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1991}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
 
[1] A geographic map of USENET sites
and routes from December 1986. The
map was one of the first produced by
Brian Reid as part of a decade long
USENET monitoring project. For details
see the Map of the Month article
''Flowing from site to site'',
Mappa.Mundi Magazine, May 2001.
UNKNOWN
source: http://personalpages.manchester.
ac.uk/staff/m.dodge/cybergeography//atla
s/world_usenet_1986_large.gif

[2] The NSFNET infrastructure and
topology in 1991. (Source : NSFNET
postscript maps from
ftp://ftp.uu.net/inet/maps/nsfnet/.) ft
p://ftp.uu.net/inet/maps/nsfnet/ UNKNOW
N
source: http://personalpages.manchester.
ac.uk/staff/m.dodge/cybergeography//atla
s/nsfnet_t3topo.gif
8 YBN
[1992 AD] 2 		5859) The first free videophone
program.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Videoconferencing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconfer
encing
2. ^ "Videoconferencing". Wikipedia.
Wikipedia, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconfer
encing {1992}
 
[1] Screen capture showing Global
Schoolhouse classrooms collaborating
via CU-SeeMe (taken by Yvonne Marie
Andres) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/c/cf/CU-Schools.GIF

[2] Original screen capture of Global
Schoolhouse students collaborating via
CU-SeeMe taken by Yvonne Marie
Andres. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/e/e8/CUcollaboration.gif
7 YBN
[08/28/1993 AD] 8 9 		5636) A ship discovers the first known
moon of an asteroid.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
2. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
3. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
4. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
5. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/inde
x.cfm
6. ^ "Galileo End of Mission Press Kit"
(PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
7. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
8. ^
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/jupi
ter-timeline.cfm
9. ^
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/ida.html
Asteroid Ida7  
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg

[2] Description English: Asteroid
en:951 Gaspra. Calvin J. Hamilton's
website View of the Solar System
describes this image as follows:
''This picture Gaspra is a combination
of the highest-resolution images and
color information obtained by the
Galileo spacecraft. The Sun is shining
from the right. The subtle color
variations on Gaspra's surface have
been exaggerated. en:Albedo and color
variations are associated with surface
en:topography. The bluish areas are
regions of slightly higher albedo and
tend to be associated with some of the
crisper craters and with ridges. The
slightly reddish areas, apparently
concentrated in low areas, represent
regions of somewhat lower albedo. In
general, such patterns can be explained
in terms of greater exposure of fresher
rock in the brighter bluish areas and
the accumulation of some en:regolith
materials in the darker reddish areas.
(Courtesy USGS/NASA/JPL)''
[1] Ελληνικά: Ο 951 Gaspra,
ο πρώτος αστεροειδής
που φωτογραφήθηκε
από κοντά. Date 8 June
1992 Source English: Cropped from
TIFF image from
[http://www.solarviews.com/cap/ast/gaspr
a3.htm Solarviews.com Author
English: NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/951_Gaspra.jpg
7 YBN
[1993 AD] 2 		5858) The first Internet browser.1
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
2. ^ "Internet." Britannica Concise
Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc., 1994-2010. Answers.com 30 May.
2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/internet
{1993}

MORE INFO
[1] "ARPAnet." Computer Desktop
Encyclopedia. Computer Language Company
Inc., 2011. Answers.com 30 May. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/arpanet
 
[1] NCSA Mosaic™ 0.6 beta
screenshot source:
http://www.ncsa.illinois.edu/Projects/mo
saic.html Screenshot of NCSA Mosaic
1.0 web browser running on System
7.1 Source UNKNOWN
source: http://gladiator.ncsa.illinois.e
du/Images/press-images/mosaic.6beta.tif

[2] Screenshot taken by
User:Ozguy89 Article Mosaic (web
browser) Portion used Low
resolution? no Purpose of use
To identify and illustrate the
Mosaic web browser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/a5/NCSAMosaic1.0Mac.png
5 YBN
[12/07/1995 AD] 6 7 		396) The first ship to orbit Jupiter.4

FOOTNOTES
1.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
2.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
3.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
4.
^http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecra
ftDisplay.do?id=1989-084B
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B
6. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tOrbit.do?id=1989-084B {12/07/1995}
7. ^
http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN02-09-01
/galileo/timeline_story.htm

MORE INFO
[1] "Galileo End of Mission Press
Kit" (PDF). Retrieved
2011-05-15. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
/missions/docs/galileo-end.pdf
[2]
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/gall
ery/top10science-3.cfm
Jupiter5  
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif

[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg

4 YBN
[11/25/1996 AD] 6 		186) An animal is cloned by replacing
the nucleus of an ovum with the nucleus
from a somatic cell, and then
stimulating the ovum with electrical
pulses to start dividing.3 This proves
that the DNA of the differentiated
somatic cell does not involve an
irreversible modification for the
embryo to develop.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
2. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
3. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html
{Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
4. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
5. ^ I. Wilmut, A. E. Schnieke*, J.
McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K. H. S.
Campbell, "Viable offspring derived
from fetal and adult mammalian cells",
Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27 February
1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
6. ^ Wilmut, I. et al. "Viable
Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult
Mammalian Cells." Nature 385.6619
(1997):
810–813. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html {
Wilmut_19961125.pdf}
(University of Edinburgh, Roslin
Institute), Roslin Midlothian, UK5
 
[1] Figre 2 from: I. Wilmut, A. E.
Schnieke*, J. McWhir, A. J. Kind* & K.
H. S. Campbell, ''Viable offspring
derived from fetal and adult mammalian
cells'', Nature 385, 810 - 813 (27
February 1997);
doi:10.1038/385810a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385810
a0.html {Wilmut_Ian_19961125.pdf}
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385810a0.html

[2] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
1 YBN
[09/15/1999 AD] 		3887) The first images read directly
from neurons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Garrett B. Stanley, Fei F. Li,
and Yang Dan, "Reconstruction of
Natural Scenes from Ensemble Responses
in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus", The
Journal of Neuroscience, September 15,
1999,
19(18):8036-8042. http://www.jneurosci.
org/cgi/content/full/19/18/8036
2. ^ Garrett B. Stanley, Fei F. Li, and
Yang Dan, "Reconstruction of Natural
Scenes from Ensemble Responses in the
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus", The
Journal of Neuroscience, September 15,
1999,
19(18):8036-8042. http://www.jneurosci.
org/cgi/content/full/19/18/8036
(University of California, Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA2  
[1] Figure 2. Reconstruction of
natural scenes from the responses of a
population of neurons. a, Receptive
fields of 177 cells used in the
reconstruction. Each receptive field
was fitted with a two-dimensional
Gaussian function. Each ellipse
represents the contour at one SD from
the center of the Gaussian fit. Note
that the actual receptive fields
(including surround) are considerably
larger than these ellipses. Red, On
center. Blue, Off center. An area of 32
× 32 pixels (0.2°/pixel) where movie
signals were reconstructed is outlined
in white. The grid inside the white
square delineates the pixels. b,
Comparison between the actual and the
reconstructed images in an area of 6.4
× 6.4° (a, white square). Each panel
shows four consecutive frames
(interframe interval, 31.1 msec) of the
actual (top) and the reconstructed
(bottom) movies. Top panel, Scenes in
the woods, with two trunks of trees as
the most prominent objects. Middle
panel, Scenes in the woods, with
smaller tree branches. Bottom panel, A
face at slightly different
displacements on the screen. c,
Quantitative comparison between the
reconstructed and the actual movie
signals. Top, Histogram of temporal
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of time) at each
pixel. The histogram was generated from
1024 (32 × 32) pixels in the white
square. Bottom, Histogram of spatial
correlation coefficients between the
actual and the reconstructed signals
(both as functions of spatial position)
at each frame. The histogram was
generated from 4096 frames (512 frames
per movie; 8 movies). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content
/vol19/issue18/images/large/ns1893409002
.jpeg

[2] Video from Yang Dan UNKNOWN
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
FdZ9eGTG5A
1 YBN
[09/20/1999 AD] 3 		5833) Embryonic stem cells transplanted
onto spinal cord tissue, are shown to
differentiate, integrate with, and
promote recovery in the spinal cord of
injured rats.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v
5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html {Choi_Denni
s_W_19990920.pdf}
2. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v
5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html {Choi_Denni
s_W_19990920.pdf}
3. ^ JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
"Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord",
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v
5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html {Choi_Denni
s_W_19990920.pdf} {09/20/1999}
(Washington University School of
Medicine) St. Louis, Missouri, USA2
 
[1] JOHN W. MCDONALD, XIAO-ZHONG LIU,
YUN QU, SU LIU, SHANNON K.
MICKEY, DOROTHY TURETSKY, DAVID I.
GOTTLIEB, & DENNIS W. CHOI,
''Transplanted embryonic stem cells
survive, differentiate and promote
recovery in injured rat spinal cord'',
Nature medicine, (1999) volume: 5
issue: 12 page:
1410 http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v
5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html {Choi_Denni
s_W_19990920.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nm/journal
/v5/n12/full/nm1299_1410.html
0 YAN
[02/14/2000 AD] 3 		5638) A ship orbits an asteroid.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/14/2000}
Asteroid Eros2  
[1] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg

[2] Description Near
Shoemaker.jpg Artist's conception of
the NEAR Shoenmaker spacecraft.
Originally from the NSSDC website:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1996-
008A.html Date 2007-07-12
(original upload date) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Andy120290
at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) PD-LAYOUT;
PD-USGOV-NASA. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Near_Shoemaker.jpg
0 YAN
[12/05/2000 AD] 3 		5823) The human genome is sequenced.1
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
2. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
3. ^ J. Craig Venter, et al, "The
Sequence of the Human Genome",
Science, New Series, Vol. 291, No. 5507
(Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf}
{12/05/2000}
(Celera Genomics) Rockville, Maryland,
USA (and 13 other locations)2  
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Craig Venter, et
al, ''The Sequence of the Human
Genome'', Science, New Series, Vol.
291, No. 5507 (Feb. 16, 2001), pp.
1304-1351 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3
083494 {Venter_J_Craig_20001205.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Craigventer2.jpg

[2] Description
Craigventer2.jpg J. Craig
Venter Date published September
4, 2007 Source A New Human Genome
Sequence Paves the Way for
Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS
Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266 http
://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?re
quest=slideshow&type=figure&doi=10.1371/
journal.pbio.0050266&id=85043 Author
Article by Liza Gross, but no
photo credit given CC
source:
1 YAN
[02/12/2001 AD] 5 		5639) The first ship to land on an
asteroid.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
2. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
3. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
4. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A
5. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1996-008A {02/12/2001}
Asteroid Eros4  
[1] Description
Erosregolith.jpg One of the last
photos taken by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft as it landed on the asteroid
433Eros Date 2003(2003) Source
NASA Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a6/Erosregolith.jpg

[2] Description
WholeEros.jpg English: False color
view of
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA02923 Original caption from
NASA's Astronomy picture of the
day...: Asteroid Eros
Reconstructed Credit: NEAR
Project, NLR, JHUAPL, Goddard SVS,
NASA Explanation: Orbiting the Sun
between Mars and Earth, asteroid 433
Eros was visited by the robot
spacecraft NEAR-Shoemaker in 2000
February. High-resolution surface
images and measurements made by NEAR's
Laser Rangefinder (NLR) have been
combined into the above visualization
based on the derived 3D model of the
tumbling space rock. NEAR allowed
scientists to discover that Eros is a
single solid body, that its composition
is nearly uniform, and that it formed
during the early years of our Solar
System. Mysteries remain, however,
including why some rocks on the surface
have disintegrated. On 2001 February
12, the NEAR mission drew to a dramatic
close as it was crash landed onto the
asteroid's surface, surviving well
enough to return an analysis of the
composition of the surface regolith. In
December of 2002, NASA made an
unsuccessful attempt to communicate
with the spacecraft after it spent 22
months resting on the asteroid's
surface. NEAR will likely remain on the
asteroid for billions of years as a
monument to human ingenuity at the turn
of the third millennium. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/WholeEros.jpg
1 YAN
[06/28/2001 AD] 7 		6192) A microscopic radio chip (an RFID
chip).5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
2. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
3. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
4. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
5. ^
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/030902.
html
6. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf}
7. ^ "World's smallest RFID IC,the
“µ-chip” "
http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/E/200
1/0628/index.html {Hitachi_u-chip_20010
628.pdf} {06/28/2001}

MORE INFO
[1] "World's tiniest RFID tag
unveiled", BBC,
02/23/2007 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/t
echnology/6389581.stm
[2]
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/
337
[3]
http://www.thelibertyvoice.com/hitachi-d
evelops-a-new-rfid-with-embedded-antenna
-%C2%B5-chip
(Hitachi) Japan6  
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg

[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg

2 YAN
[02/16/2002 AD] 6 		6332) A remote control device emits
drugs inside a human body.3 4
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
2. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD,
"Remote-controlled chip implant
delivers bone drug", 02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-c
ontrolled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
3. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
4. ^ LAURAN NEERGAARD,
"Remote-controlled chip implant
delivers bone drug", 02/16/2012 AP
article. http://news.yahoo.com/remote-c
ontrolled-chip-implant-delivers-bone-dru
g-190616595.html
5. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
6. ^ Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

MORE INFO
[1]
http://news.yahoo.com/photos/health-1316
123812-slideshow/device-may-someday-allo
w-patients-avoid-daily-injections-photo-
191903806.html
(CCBR-SYNARC) Denmark5  
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276

[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
3 YAN
[04/04/2003 AD] 6 		6195) A nanometer scale electric
motor.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ A. M. Fennimore, T. D. Yuzvinsky,
Wei-Qiang Han, M. S. Fuhrer, J. Cumings
& A. Zettl, “Rotational actuators
based on carbon nanotubes.” Nature
424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
2. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
3. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
4. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
5. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
6. ^ Fennimore, A. M. et al.
“Rotational actuators based on carbon
nanotubes.” Nature 424.6947 (2003) :
408-410. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v424/n6947/abs/nature01823.html
{04/04/2003}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsspecial.ht
m
(University of California at Berkeley),
Berkeley, California, USA5  
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif

[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
4 YAN
[07/01/2004 AD] 7 		5641) The first ship to orbit Saturn.4
5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
5. ^ "Cassini-Huygens." Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc., 1994-2010.
Answers.com 01 Jan. 2012.
http://www.answers.com/topic/cassini-huy
gens
6. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
7. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {07/01/2004}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn6  
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg

[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
4 YAN
[07/22/2004 AD] 4 		6655) The first image of a planet of a
different star.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
2. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
3. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056
4. ^ "A giant planet candidate near a
young brown dwarf. Direct VLT/NACO
observations using IR wavefront
sensing", G. Chauvin, A.-M. Lagrange,
C. Dumas, B. Zuckerman, D. Mouillet, I.
Song, J.-L. Beuzit, P. Lowrance,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 425
(October 2004), pp. L29�L32. Bibcode:
2004A&A...425L..29C
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200400056. http:/
/dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A200400
056

MORE INFO
[1] "Ross 458(AB) c". The
Extrasolar Planet Encyclopaedia.
Exoplanet.eu. http://exoplanet.eu/catal
og/?f=%22imaging%22+IN+detection
(European Southern Observatory)
Santiago, Chili3  
[1] Figure 1: Composite image of brown
dwarf 2M1207 and its GPCC in H (blue),
$K_{rm s}$ (green) and $L~!'$ (red).
The companion appears clearly
distinguishable in comparison to the
color of the brown dwarf
2M1207. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa
/full/2004/38/aagg222/img11.gif

[2] Description Foto subida en
remplazo de
Imagen:First_Exoplanet_picture.jpg,
subida en fecha 9 oct, 2004,
accidentalmente borrada. Licencia de
uso libre con atribución al European
Southern Observatory: ESO Press
Photos may be reproduced, if credit is
given to the European Southern
Observatory. Fuente:
http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr
-2004/pr-23-04.html es:Categoría:Imág
enes con condiciones de uso Date
2005-05-01 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
es.wikipedia; description page is/was
here (original source). Author
Original uploader was Ascánder at
es.wikipedia CC
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik
ipedia/commons/1/12/Primera_foto_planeta
_extrasolar_ESO.jpg
4 YAN
[11/29/2004 AD] 		5832) Stem cells are used to repair
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
2. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
3. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm
4. ^ "Stem cell therapy brings
paralyzed to feet",
ChinaDaily http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
/english/doc/2004-11/29/content_395570.h
tm

MORE INFO
[1] Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et
al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study". Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459
[2] "team co-headed by researchers at
Chosun University", Seoul National
University and the Seoul Cord Blood
Bank (SCB) Umbilical cord cells 'allow
paralysed woman to walk' By Roger
Highfield, Science Editor. Last
Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 Nov 2004
(Chosun University) Kwangju, South
Korea4  
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
5 YAN
[01/14/2005 AD] 5 		5642) A ship lands on a moon of Saturn
(Titan).3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
2. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
3. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
4. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/
5. ^
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/satur
ntourdates/2004through2006saturntourhigh
lights/ {01/14/2005}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraf
tDisplay.do?id=1997-061A
Planet Saturn, moon Titan4  
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg

[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
8 YAN
[06/10/2008 AD] 3 		6582) That mass and motion cannot be
converted into each other is
recognized.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
(UC Irvine) Irvine, CA, USA2  
[1]
http://www.tedhuntington.com/paper_mass_
velocity.htm
source: Ted Huntington, "Mass is
Conserved, and Velocity is Conserved,
but can Mass and Velocity be
Exchanged?",
06/10/2008. http://www.tedhuntington.co
m/paper_mass_velocity.htm
8 YAN
[12/10/2008 AD] 8 		3886) The first remote neuron reading.
An image of what the eyes are seeing is
captured remotely using Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI).5

Different syllables of thought-audio
are also distinguished remotely.6
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
2. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
3. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
4. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
5. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
6. ^ personal communication, see most
of Kamatani's email correspondence with
me at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
7. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6
8. ^ Miyawaki, Y., Uchida, H.,
Yamashita, O., Sato, M., Morito, Y.,
Tanabe, H. C., Sadato, N., Kamitani, Y.
(2008). Visual image reconstruction
from human brain activity using a
combination of multi-scale local image
decoders. Neuron, 60, 5, 915-929.
http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0
896-6273(08)00958-6 {12/10/2008}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
(Collaboration between researchers at
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan7  
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large

[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
12 YAN
[01/31/2012 AD] 8 9 		276) Sound a brain hears is recorded
directly from the brain.4 5 6
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani
N, Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

2. ^ "Researchers tune into what brain
hears", ABC News, 02/01/2012.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles
/2012/02/01/3419795.htm
3. ^ "Science decodes 'internal
voices"', BBC News,
01/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/s
cience-environment-16811042
4. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N,
Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

5. ^ "Researchers tune into what brain
hears", ABC News, 02/01/2012.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles
/2012/02/01/3419795.htm
6. ^ "Science decodes 'internal
voices"', BBC News,
01/31/2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/s
cience-environment-16811042
7. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N,
Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

8. ^ Pasley BN, David SV, Mesgarani N,
Flinker A, Shamma SA, et al. (2012)
Reconstructing Speech from Human
Auditory Cortex. PLoS Biol 10(1):
e1001251.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/inf
o%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001251

9. ^ Ted Huntington. {2015}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

(University of California at Berkeley)
Berkeley, CA, USA7  
[1] Figure 1. Experiment
paradigm. Participants listened to
words (acoustic waveform, top left),
while neural signals were recorded from
cortical surface electrode arrays (top
right, red circles) implanted over
superior and middle temporal gyrus
(STG, MTG). Speech-induced cortical
field potentials (bottom right, gray
curves) recorded at multiple electrode
sites were used to fit multi-input,
multi-output models for offline
decoding. The models take as input
time-varying neural signals at multiple
electrodes and output a spectrogram
consisting of time-varying spectral
power across a range of acoustic
frequencies (180–7,000 Hz, bottom
left). To assess decoding accuracy, the
reconstructed spectrogram is compared
to the spectrogram of the original
acoustic
waveform. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001
251.g001 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g001/largerimage

[2] Figure 2. Spectrogram
reconstruction. (A) Top: spectrogram
of six isolated words (deep, jazz,
cause) and pseudowords (fook, ors, nim)
presented aurally to an individual
participant. Bottom: spectrogram-based
reconstruction of the same speech
segment, linearly decoded from a set of
electrodes. Purple and green bars
denote vowels and fricative consonants,
respectively, and the spectrogram is
normalized within each frequency
channel for display. (B) Single trial
high gamma band power (70–150 Hz,
gray curves) induced by the speech
segment in (A). Recordings are from
four different STG sites used in the
reconstruction. The high gamma response
at each site is z-scored and plotted in
standard deviation (SD) units. Right
panel: frequency tuning curves (dark
black) for each of the four electrode
sites, sorted by peak frequency and
normalized by maximum amplitude. Red
bars overlay each peak frequency and
indicate SEM of the parameter estimate.
Frequency tuning was computed from
spectro-temporal receptive fields
(STRFs) measured at each individual
electrode site. Tuning curves exhibit a
range of functional forms including
multiple frequency peaks (Figures S1B
and S2B). (C) The anatomical
distribution of fitted weights in the
reconstruction model. Dashed box
denotes the extent of the electrode
grid (shown in Figure 1). Weight
magnitudes are averaged over all time
lags and spectrogram frequencies and
spatially smoothed for display. Nonzero
weights are largely focal to STG
electrode sites. Scale bar is 10
mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251.g0
02 CC
source: http://www.plosbiology.org/artic
le/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251
.g002/largerimage
13 YAN
[03/23/2013 AD] 3 		6640) The theory that globular clusters
are the inevitable result of highly
adapted living objects.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington, "Are living
objects in globular clusters collecting
other stars to consume, and should we
be doing that too?",
03/23/2013. http://www.tedhuntington.or
g/paper_globular_collecting.htm
2. ^ Ted Huntington, "Are living
objects in globular clusters collecting
other stars to consume, and should we
be doing that too?",
03/23/2013. http://www.tedhuntington.or
g/paper_globular_collecting.htm
3. ^ Ted Huntington, "Are living
objects in globular clusters collecting
other stars to consume, and should we
be doing that too?",
03/23/2013. http://www.tedhuntington.or
g/paper_globular_collecting.htm
(University of California) Irvine,
California, USA2  
[1] Description This Hubble Space
Telescope (HST) image of a dense swarm
of stars shows the central region of
the globular cluster NGC 2808 and its 3
generations of stars. Date 2 May
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archiv
e/releases/2007/2007/18/image/a/
(direct link) Author NASA, ESA, A.
Sarajedini (University of Florida) and
G. Piotto (University of Padua
(Padova)) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/38/NGC_2808_HST.jp
g/1022px-NGC_2808_HST.jpg
13 YAN
[05/15/2013 AD] 5 		6647) Stem cells are created by
replacing the nucleus of an ovum with
the nucleus of a skin cell. This method
allows people to be their own stem cell
donor.1 2 3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Tachibana et al., Human Embryonic
Stem Cells Derived by Somatic Cell
Nuclear Transfer, Cell V153, p1-11,
06/06/2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j
.cell.2013.05.006 {Tachibana_20130606.p
df}
2. ^ Maggie Fox, "Cloning technique
produces human stem cells for the first
time",
http://vitals.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/0
5/15/18277298-cloning-technique-produces
-human-stem-cells-for-the-first-time?lit
e
3. ^ Sharon Begley, "Scientists create
human stem cells through cloning",
Reuters, Wed, May 15,
2013. http://news.yahoo.com/scientists-
create-human-stem-cells-cloning-16051218
9.html
4. ^ Tachibana et al., Human Embryonic
Stem Cells Derived by Somatic Cell
Nuclear Transfer, Cell V153, p1-11,
06/06/2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j
.cell.2013.05.006 {Tachibana_20130606.p
df}
5. ^ Tachibana et al., Human Embryonic
Stem Cells Derived by Somatic Cell
Nuclear Transfer, Cell V153, p1-11,
06/06/2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j
.cell.2013.05.006 {Tachibana_20130606.p
df}

MORE INFO
[1] Yu, Junying et al. �Induced
Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines Derived
from Human Somatic Cells.� Science
318.5858 (2007):
1917�1920. http://www.sciencemag.org/
content/318/5858/1917.short
(Oregon Health & Science University),
Oregon, USA4  
[1] Cytoplasm of human oocytes
reprograms transplanted somatic cell
nuclei to pluripotency NT-ESCs can be
efficiently derived from high-quality
human oocytes Human NT-ESCs are
similar to ESCs derived from fertilized
embryos COPYRIGHTED
source: http://download.cell.com/images/
journalimages/0092-8674/PIIS009286741300
5710.fx1.lrg.jpg

[2] Oregon Health & Science
University Researchers at Oregon
Health & Science University have
successfully developed a method for
converting human skin cells into
embryonic stem cells. UNKNOWN
source: http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/j/MSNB
C/Components/Photo/_new/130515-stem-cell
-graphic-vmed-915a.photoblog500.jpg
FUTURE
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 6 		332) Sound a brain hears is recorded
remotely and played out loud.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2015}
 
[1] Image by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
15 YAN
[2015 AD] 		6394) A microscopic radio (or particle
transmitter and receiver).
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

18 YAN
[2018 AD] 		6208) A radio device functions inside a
cell. The first human-made cell
organelle. A device like a microscopic
RFID chip exists inside an individual
cell and can send and receive
information with a remote external
device.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 4 		4559) Walking robots are produced in
mass quantity, and are available for
the public to buy.2

This is the start of the "robot
revolution"; how robots replace humans
in most manual labor tasks, greatly
increasing the quantity of food
produced and the population of humans.3

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2020}
  
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		4573) Humans synthesize artificial milk
and cheese.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Diary products PD
source: http://health.mo.gov/living/fami
lies/wic/wicfamilies/education/img/milka
ndcheese.jpg
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6197) The first remote control
microscopic flying device.
 
[1] Drive Gear Side View Side view
of a microengine drive gear meshed with
another gear. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/rs1563_9.jpg

[2] Imaginary microscopic flying
camera on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
20 YAN
[2020 AD] 		6632) Humans move an asteroid by
capturing the asteroid inside a
container.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.space.com/20610-nasa-asteroid
-capture-mission-infographic.html
 
[1] Image of proposed plan to capture
an asteroid in 2025 From NASA PD
source: http://images.nationalgeographic
.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/661/cache
/asteroid-recovery-mission-details_66158
_600x450.jpg

[2] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
23 YAN
[2023 AD] 		6552) The first wireless microscopic
microphone. The "micro-mic".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] SEM (scanning electron micrograph)
of the device, with scale bar at bottom
representing 10 microns. The top
grating layer is suspended by 4 springs
and actuated by two side comb drives.
The second, fixed grating layer is
hidden below the first. The area of the
grating itself is 10 microns x 10
microns. PD
source: http://www.sandia.gov/news-cente
r/news-releases/2004/images/jpg/grating.
jpg

[2] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		337) Remote neuron writing using
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
organelles inside each neuron. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to read the
voltage and to remotely make the neuron
cell fire.5

Sounds, images, smells, touches,
emotions, and muscle contractions can
now be remotely activated in a brain by
sending light particles to
intracellular devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.nerdgrind.com/dream-and-thoug
ht-recorder-created-by-japanese-research
-team/
[2]
http://gizmodo.com/5107377/new-technolog
y-could-display-your-dreams-on-screen
[3] personal communication, see most of
Kamatani's email correspondence with me
at:
http://www.tedhuntington.com/neuron_read
ing_and_writing.htm
 
[1] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Remote neuron writing by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6193) The first wireless microscopic
camera. The "micro-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A
high torque rotary electrostatic
actuator PD
source: http://www.mems.sandia.gov/image
s/mems5.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6198) The first remote controlled
microscopic flying camera.
 
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6375) The wireless microscopic maser.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Silicon Mirror Assembly
Close-up Close-up view of previous
device; detail of rails and hinges is
visible. PD
source: http://mems.sandia.gov/gallery/i
mages/m26.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
25 YAN
[2025 AD] 		6395) The wireless nanometer scale
radio transmitter and receiver (the
nano-radio).

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg

30 YAN
[2030 AD] 6 		365) The first thought-audio is
recorded. Thought-audio is recorded
using remote neuron reading and played
out loud publicly. The first recorded
thought audio may sound like this: "1 2
3". Humans start to communicate by
thought-image and thought-sound only.5

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Hearing Thought by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 1 		366) The first artificial muscle
bipedal robots. These robots are
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
 
[1] Muscular system P150/0098 Rights
Managed Credit: PASIEKA/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Muscular
system. Computer artwork of a male
runner demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg

[2] Muscular system P150/0098
Rights Managed Credit:
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Muscular system.
Computer artwork of a male runner
demonstrating the human muscular
system. These muscles, making up one of
the outer layers of the body, are
skeletal muscles, which are under the
conscious control of the brain. They
account for around 45% of the weight of
the body. Muscles are mainly composed
of proteins; in particular, the
proteins actin and myosin are involved
in making muscles contract. The muscles
then pull on tendons that are attached
to the bones of the skeleton, producing
movements such as running. Skin and fat
cover the muscles, while the internal
organs and bones lie
underneath. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/302911/large/P1500098-Muscular_system-
SPL.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 6 		680) The first images of thought are
seen. Thought-images are recorded
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.5

The first thought-image may be the
image of a triangle.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2025}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of seeing thought by Ted
Huntington. Image of person
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portrait_
of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg Title:
Portrait of a Elderly Lady Date:
1883 Mary Cassatt (1845–1926) Link
back to Creator infobox
template PD [1] Image of
Direct-to-brain windows by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/3/30/Cassatt_Mary_Portra
it_of_a_Elderly_Lady_1883.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 4 		791) Bipedal robots start replacing
humans in most low-skill jobs (for
example as walking security cameras, in
fast-food, and fruit picking).3
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington (my own estimate)
 
[1] Description English: TOPIO
(''TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot'') is a
bipedal humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
TOPIO version 3.0 at Tokyo
International Robot Exhibition, Nov
2009 Date 27 November 2009 Source
Own work Author Humanrobo CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/92/TOPIO_3.jpg/128
0px-TOPIO_3.jpg

[2] Humanoid robot UNKNOWN
source: http://embeddedfortheevil.files.
wordpress.com/2010/06/humanoid-robot-pic
-getty-image-1-449939772.jpg
30 YAN
[2030 AD] 		6391) The first wireless nanometer
scale camera. The "nano-cam".

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] The Scale of Things - Nanometers
and More the scale of things
graphic Chart also available in
Powerpoint file at:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/news-and-r
esources/scale-of-things-chart/. PD
source: http://science.energy.gov/~/medi
a/bes/images/scale-of-things-26may06.jpg


[2] The space between two carbon atoms
within a molecule is about one-tenth of
a nanometer. The DNA double helix has a
diameter of about two nanometers. The
smallest bacteria, on the other hand,
are much bigger: a few hundred
nanometers in length. PD
source: http://publications.nigms.nih.go
v/chemhealth/images/ch4_size.jpg
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 2 		4561) Walking robots can wash dishes,
wash clothing, and do most other simple
household tasks.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2040}
 
[1] Your New Kitchen Helper : This
humanoid robot vacuums, sweeps and
washes the dishes. Jouhou System
Kougaku Laboratory, University of
Tokyo UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/dish
bot-tiles-1.jpg
40 YAN
[2040 AD] 		6553) The first use of remote writing
to motor neurons to stop an act of
violence.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
2. ^
  
45 YAN
[2045 AD] 		6630) Obesity is cured with microscopic
devices.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
 
[1] Nanomedicine Art Gallery Image
120 Nanorobotic Artery Cleaner Image
120 Title: Nanorobotic
Artery Cleaner Date: 1998
Artist(s): Tom Herzberg Image
Size: 268,660 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 820 X
595 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
In an artist's conception, a
microscopic robot cleans deposits from
a blood vessel. Researchers predict the
creation of microscopic robotic devices
that will patrol the human body and
fight disease. Such devices, and many
consumer products, may someday be made
with nanotechnology. Copyright Info:
© Copyright World Book, Inc., 233 N.
Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago,
IL 60601, Tel. 312-729-5800, URL:
http://www.worldbook.com. For reprint
permission, please contact Janet
Peterson, Permissions Editor. Print
Source(s): ''Microscopic Machines''
from 1992 SCIENCE YEAR, The World Book
Annual Science Supplement (pp. 177-189)
© 1991 World Book, Inc; Special Report
- People in Science: ''Mr.
Nanotechnology'' -- An interview with
K. Eric Drexler'' from SCIENCE YEAR
1999, The World Book Annual Science
Supplement (pp.102-115) © 1998 World
Book, Inc. Online Source(s):
None. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/ArtCleanTHerz.jpg
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 6 		790) Humans walk around with robot
servants.5 These robots perform tasks
like carrying objects and protection.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2050 (my
own estimate}
 
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 3 		4564) An artificial muscle robot can
fly by flapping wings.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2050}
 
[1] Flying Robot by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 3 		4566) The first air highway, for
autopiloted flying cars, is
established.2

The flying cars are extremely safe with
emergency parachutes, airbags,
emergency landing thrusters, and have
complete auto-navigation.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2050}
 
[1] Description English: Zoom in of
the highway 401/402 interchange looking
west from the Wellington Road overpass
in London, Ontario. Date 17 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Haljackey Camera location 42°
55′ 20.60″ N, 81° 12′ 45.89″
W mixed with rendered helicopters by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Highway_401_at_
Highway_402.jpg/1280px-Highway_401_at_Hi
ghway_402.jpg and Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 		6298) An artificial muscle wing
flapping passenger plane.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
50 YAN
[2050 AD] 1 		6300) Bacteria are identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices inside
an animal body.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2500} {2100}
{2050}
 
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg

[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
51 YAN
[2051 AD] 7 8 9 		6520) There are 10 billion humans on
Earth.5 6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
4. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
5. ^
Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth
and Technological Change: One Million
B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal
of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
6. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
7. ^ Ted
Huntington.
8. ^
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
9. ^ Ted Huntington
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
55 YAN
[2055 AD] 1 		6302) Cancer cell growth is stopped by
microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2055}

MORE INFO
[1] Schroeder, Avi et al.
“Treating Metastatic Cancer with
Nanotechnology.” Nat Rev Cancer 12.1
(2012):
39–50. http://www.nature.com/nrc/jour
nal/v12/n1/full/nrc3180.html?WT.ec_id=NR
C-201201
 
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg

[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
60 YAN
[2060 AD] 1 		6301) A virus is identified and
destroyed by microscopic devices.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2060}
 
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84

[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
75 YAN
[2075 AD] 3 		6445) Humans stop unwanted weather (for
example tornadoes and hurricanes), by
changing air temperature using millions
of distributed remote control nanometer
sized devices.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Description English: Category
F5 tornado (upgraded from initial
estimate of F4) viewed from the
southeast as it approached Elie,
Manitoba on Friday, June 22nd,
2007. Date 22 June 2007 Source
Transferred from en.wikipedia;
transferred to Commons by User:Gump
Stump using CommonsHelper. Author
Justin Hobson (Justin1569 at
en.wikipedia) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie
_Manitoba_2007.jpg/1280px-F5_tornado_Eli
e_Manitoba_2007.jpg
80 YAN
[2080 AD] 		6392) Accelerated nanocamera ships
reach another planet and return closeup
images.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: This Viking 1 orbiter image
shows the thin atmosphere of Mars. The
2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will
repeatedly brush the top of the
atmosphere to lower and circularize its
orbit around Mars. PD
source: http://marsmobile.jpl.nasa.gov/i
mages/risks02_lg-full.jpg

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Sunset over Western South
America April 25, 2011 PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/50000/50205/ISS027-E-0
12224_lrg.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 		367) Most humans communicate only by
images and sounds of thought.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg

[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 6 		793) Helicopter-cars form a second line
of traffic above the streets.5
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington (my own
estimate) {2100 my own estimate}

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.sdi.gov/curtis/Trans_Trends.h
tml
[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		794) 100 ships with humans orbit Earth.
Eventually, Earth orbit will be filled
with single family houses and stores.
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
 
[1] Three TDRS satellites, the
International Space Station (ISS) and
Hubble Space Telescope orbit a
blue-green Earth in this artist's
concept. The TDRS network facilitates
around the clock communication access
between ground stations and other
satellites and the ISS. Credit:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/605410main_tdrsPlus.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 1 		4569) Most vehicles are machine
controlled. Humans only determine the
destination.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Title: Society Hill Towers is a
three-building condominium development
located in the Society Hill
neighborhood of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania Creator(s): Highsmith,
Carol M., 1946-, photographer Date
Created/Published: [between 1980 and
2006] Medium: 1 transparency : color ;
4 x 5 in. or smaller. Reproduction
Number: LC-DIG-highsm-13394 (digital
file from original) LC-HS503-2139
(color film transparency) Rights
Advisory: No known restrictions on
publication. Call Number: LC-HS503-
2139 (ONLINE) [P&P] Repository:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print Not
es: The complex contains three
31-story skyscraper buildings on a
5-acre site. The towers, originally
apartment buildings, were designed by
I.M. Pei and Associates and were
completed in 1963. Title, date,
and keywords provided by the
photographer. Credit line:
Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith
Archive, Library of Congress, Prints
and Photographs Division. Gift and
purchase; Carol M. Highsmith; 2011;
(DLC/PP-2011:124). Forms part of
the Carol M. Highsmith Archive. PD
source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/service/pn
p/highsm/13300/13394v.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 4 		4575) Robots walk on the moon of Earth
and build buildings.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
moon of Earth 
[1] From ''Moon Zero Two'',
1969 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?fea
ture=player_embedded&v=hM1lsDhSjD8

[2] Pole Colony PD
source: http://artcontest.larc.nasa.gov/
images/2008_win/Pole_Colony.jpg
100 YAN
[2100 AD] 4 		4613) Humans conquer all bacteria and
viruses. Nanoscale devices can identify
and destroy all known bacteria and
viruses anywhere inside or outside of
the body.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2500} {2100}
 
[1] Conference on nanotechnology in
animal health UNKNOWN
source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mFYS8z
kMHXg/T4wFLpl8biI/AAAAAAAAILw/CJQi432-3Y
E/s1600/nanotechnology.jpg

[2] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN

source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 3 		4583) Robots land and walk on an
asteroid.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2220}
 
[1] Image right: This is an artist's
concept of a small lunar outpost.
Someday, larger lunar outposts may
serve as a backup for civilization in
case of a global catastrophe, like an
asteroid impact or a pandemic. Credit:
NASA Print-resolution copy PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/godd
ard/images/content/208291main_lunar_outp
ost.jpg

[2] Ship landing on asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://www.popsci.com/files/imag
ecache/article_image_large/articles/2009
0204_hayabusa.jpg
120 YAN
[2120 AD] 		4584) Robots walk and build buildings
on Mars.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Once built and populated, a colony
with excellent recycling will need only
a few materials to replace leaks and
losses. However, a great deal of
materials will be needed to build a
space colony, particularly shielding.
If a colony expands, builds new
colonies, or builds solar power
satellites or other export products, a
lot of material will be necessary.
There are several sources of materials
to consider: Earth, the Moon,
asteroids, other planets, and other
moons. All the materials necessary for
space colonies are available on Earth.
In addition, manufacturing facilities
to provide finished products are
readily available. PD
source: http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/d
esigner/mars.gif

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 2 		687) Large scale atomic transmutation:
Humans can convert most common atoms
(like Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and
Calcium) into much more useful atoms
(like Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen).
This allows many humans to live
independently of Earth, in ships, and
on planets and moons without air or
water, because they can produce all the
air, fuel, water and food they need
from the common atoms of planets and
moons.

Because of large scale transmutation
large self-sufficient cities of humans
can be created on airless and waterless
planets and moons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image of Large Scale Atomic
Transmutation by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
140 YAN
[2140 AD] 1 		6377) Robots build buildings on an
asteroid.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		659) The first major nation of Earth to
be fully and constantly democratic,
where the people vote directly on the
laws.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. (50 years to get
progressive president, 50 years to get
pro fully democratic, 50 years for
actual full democracy to be integrated
(in courts, military, laws))
 
[1] Description English: A map of
the world colored in to reflect the
latest Democracy Index report from The
Economist. Date 22 December
2011 Source Own work Author
48Lugur CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Democracy_Index_2011_
red_and_green.png
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		4592) The first humans land on Mars.3
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Artist's concept of possible
colonies on future mars missions. PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames
/images/content/135855main_marsconcept-1
.jpg

[2] Future Mars Base 2030 STANDARD
YOUTUBE LICENSE
source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F
fVny-TnxZo
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 		6223) The first "Moon colony". Humans
permanently live on the Moon of Earth.
 
[1] Description This artist's concept
of a lunar base and extra-base activity
was created during a 1984 NASA Summer
Study at the California Space Institute
(CalSpace), Scripps Institute of
Oceanography, University of California,
San Diego. A lunar rover vehicle
similar to the one used on three Apollo
missions is depicted in the
foreground. Date May 1984 Source
http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/gallery/im
ages/exploration/lunarexploration/html/s
86_27256.html Author NASA/Dennis M.
Davidson PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Moon_colony_wit
h_rover.jpeg/1024px-Moon_colony_with_rov
er.jpeg
150 YAN
[2150 AD] 1 		6304) Nucleic Acids are changed by
remote control nanoscale devices. This
will lead to making physical changes to
the shape of a body that originate at
the cellular level.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2058} {2150}
 
[1] nanocaduceus Nanomedicine Art
Gallery Image 108 DNA Repair
Machines Image 108 Title:
DNA Repair Machines Date:
1989 Artist(s): Bryan Leister
Image Size: 45,592 bytes
[CLICK to download] Image Dimensions:
800 X 1,061 pixels Image
Palette: Color Image Size:
408,316 bytes [CLICK to
download] Image Dimensions: 1,170
X 1,552 pixels Image Palette:
Color Image Description:
Floating inside the nucleus of a human
cell, an assembler-built repair vessel
performs some genetic maintenance.
Stretching a supercoil of DNA between
its lower pair of robot arms, the
nanomachine gently pulls the unwound
strand through an opening in its prow
for analysis. Upper arms, meanwhile,
detach regulatory proteins from the
chain and place them in an intake port.
The molecular structures of both DNA
and proteins are compared to
information stored in the database of a
larger nanocomputer positioned outside
the nucleus and connected to the
cell-repair ship by a communications
link. Irregularities found in either
structure are corrected and the
proteins reattached to the DNA chain,
which re-coils into its original
form. With a diameter of only 50
nanometers, the repair vessel would be
smaller than most bacteria and viruses,
yet capable of therapies and cures well
beyond the reach of present-day
physicians. With trillions of these
machines coursing through a patient's
bloodstream, ''internal medicine''
would take on new significance. Disease
would be attacked at the molecular
level, and such maladies as cancer,
viral infections and arteriosclerosis
could be wiped out. Copyright Info:
© Copyright 1989 by Time-Life Books
Inc. For reprint permission, please
contact Time-Life Books Inc. at P.O.
Box C-32068, Richmond, VA 23261-2068,
Tel. 1-800-621-7026, URL:
http://www.timelife.com/. Print
Source(s): Time-Life Editors,
Alternative Computers, Time-Life Books,
Richmond VA, 1989, pp. 112-113. Online
Source(s): None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.foresight.org/Nanomed
icine/Gallery/Images/TimeLifeNM.jpeg

[2] Microscopic laser-machined
particle communication devices identify
and change nucleotides in a DNA
molecule as seen with an scanning
tunneling microscope.[t] Adapted
from: F/col STM image of
DNA G110/0150 Rights Managed Credit:
LAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: False-colour
scanning tunnelling micrograph (STM) of
DNA. A sample of uncoated,
double-stranded DNA was dissolved in a
salt solution & deposited on graphite
prior to being imaged in air by the
STM. An STM image is formed by scanning
a fine point just above the specimen
surface & electronically recording the
height of the point as it moves. The
main feature of this image is a
right-handed, double-stranded DNA
molecule (a DNA duplex), which appears
as the row of orange/yellow peaks at
centre-left. These peaks correspond to
the ridges of the DNA double helix.
Magnification: x1,600,000 at 6x7cm
size. Release details: Model and
property releases are not
available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 3 		4590) Robots land and walk on planet
Mercury.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 3 		4591) Robots land and walk on a moon of
Jupiter.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2250}
Jupiter  
160 YAN
[2160 AD] 3 		6642) Humans orbit Venus.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington

[2] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research
/features/200711_temptracker/venus_cloud
s_mariner10_lrg.jpg The dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere of Venus shrouds the
planet in a thick layer of clouds—and
heats the surface to a scorching 460°
C (860° F). Jim Hansen's research on
Venus' greenhouse effect eventually led
him to the study of carbon dioxide and
the greenhouse effect on Earth. (Image
© 2005 Mattias Malmer.) PD
source: http://www.giss.nasa.gov/researc
h/features/200711_temptracker/venus_clou
ds_mariner10_lrg.jpgTed Huntington
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 2 		4593) Robots land and walk on the
surface of Saturn and its moons.1
FOOTN
OTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Saturn 
[1] Adapted by Ted (only text was
changed) from: This image rendered as
PNG in other widths: 200px, 500px,
1000px, 2000px. Description
English: Interior of Saturn Date
2011-04-24 17:35 (UTC) Source
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg
Saturn_01.svg Author
Interior_of_Saturn.jpg: Mungany
Saturn_01.svg: Dan Gerhards
derivative work: Urutseg (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Interior_of_Sat
urn.svg/1000px-Interior_of_Saturn.svg.pn
g
180 YAN
[2180 AD] 		4594) Humans live permanently on Mars.
The first Mars colony. The first city
of another planet.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mars 
[1] Adapted from: Spirit's
Destination This image, cropped from
a larger panoramic image mosaic taken
by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit
panoramic camera, shows the rover's
destination toward the hills nicknamed
the ''Columbia Hills.'' The rover is
currently positioned outside the view
of this image, on the right. This image
was taken on sols 68 and 69 of Spirit's
mission (March 12 and 13, 2004) from
the location the rover first reached on
the western rim of the crater. The
image is in approximate true color,
based on a scaling of data from the
red, green and blue (750 nanometers,
530 nanometers, and 480 nanometers)
filters. Image credit:
NASA/JPL/Cornell PD
source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/galler
y/press/spirit/20040318a/10-JG-04-hills-
A074R1.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
190 YAN
[2190 AD] 4 		4606) Humans land on Mercury.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
Mercury 
[1] AS17-147-22526 (11 Dec. 1972) ---
Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, commander,
makes a short checkout of the Lunar
Roving Vehicle (LRV) during the early
part of the first Apollo 17
extravehicular activity (EVA) at the
Taurus-Littrow landing site. This view
of the ''stripped down'' LRV is prior
to loading up. Equipment later loaded
onto the LRV included the
ground-controlled television assembly,
the lunar communications relay unit,
hi-gain antenna, low-gain antenna, aft
tool pallet, lunar tools and scientific
gear. This photograph was taken by
scientist-astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt, lunar module pilot. The
mountain in the right background is the
east end of South Massif. While
astronauts Cernan and Schmitt descended
in the Lunar Module (LM) ''Challenger''
to explore the moon, astronaut Ronald
E. Evans, command module pilot,
remained with the Command and Service
Modules (CSM) ''America'' in lunar
orbit. PD
source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gall
ery/images/apollo/apollo17/hires/as17-14
7-22526.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conten
t/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/208698main_merc_horizon.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 8 		792) Robots and other machines have
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, and food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving).6 Robots also do the most
dangerous parts of military, police,
and fire fighting.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington
2. ^ Ted Huntington
3. ^ Ted Huntington
4. ^ Ted
Huntington
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington
7. ^ Ted Huntington.
8. ^ Ted
Huntington (my own estimate) {2200 my
own estimate}
 
[1] Robots pick
oranges Viroids orange
trees Development of HRP-4, a Research
and Development Platform for Working
Humanoid Robots - Supply to external
research organizations from January
2011 - UNKNOWN and Orange
trees: Viroid diseases are
responsible for significant losses of
food and fiber. Our research goals are
to obtain fundamental knowledge about
the molecular interactions between
viroids and their host, to apply this
knowledge to the control of viroid
diseases, and to develop and test
viroid-induced dwarfing strategies to
increase citrus production efficiency.
Robert A. Owens PD UNKNOWN
source: http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/lat
est_research/2010/20101108/fig1.jpghttp:
//www.ars.usda.gov/sp2UserFiles/Place/12
752500/research/images/citrus.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 6 		795) 1000 human-filled ships orbit
Earth.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
2. ^ Ted
Huntington future_est.xls
3. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls
4. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls
5. ^ Ted Huntington
future_est.xls
6. ^ Ted Huntington future_est.xls (my
own estimate)
 
[1] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		4562) Hugging, kissing, sleeping
together, and other non-sexual forms of
pleasure for money are decriminalized
for adults in most developed nations.

MORE INFO
[1]
  
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 3 		4607) The first Mercury colony: humans
live permanently under and on the
surface of Mercury.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
Mercury 
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
200 YAN
[2200 AD] 		6305) Microscopic devices repair,
regrow, and reshape damaged cells.
 
[1] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg

[2] Skin cells, SEM C001/7939
Rights Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Skin cells.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of squamous cells from the
surface of the skin. These are flat,
keratinised, dead cells that are
continuously sloughed off and replaced
with new cells from
below. AND Researchers are
developing a new class of tiny
mechanical devices containing
vibrating, hair-thin structures that
could be used to filter electronic
signals in cell phones and for other
more exotic applications. The work is
done inside a vacuum chamber sitting on
top of a special vibration-absorbing
platform critical to making the precise
measurements. A tiny prototype, roughly
comparable in size to a grain of sand,
is pictured on the monitor at right.
The device is an example of a
microelectromechanical system, or a
MEMS, which contains tiny moving parts.
(Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University) A publication-quality
photo is available at
http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2009/
rhoads-mems2.jpg [1] A scanning
electron microscope (SEM) image of
nanowire-alginate composite scaffolds.
Star-shaped clusters of nanowires can
be seen in these images. Image
courtesy of the Disease Biophysics
Group, Harvard University UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/82340/large/C0017939-Skin_cells,_SEM-S
PL.jpghttp://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/
+2009/rhoads-mems2.jpg
210 YAN
[2210 AD] 3 		4585) Humans land and walk on an
asteroid.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2240}
 
[1] Humans on Asteroid UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0133f505f772970b-800wi
220 YAN
[2220 AD] 2 		4596) Robots land and walk on Uranus
and its moons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2280}
Uranus 
[1] Description Uranus interior
with English legend. The original image
of Uranus was cut from Commons (from
Frederik Beuk Opengewerkte
ijsreuzen.jpg). Date 2011-03-13 11:11
(UTC) Source
Uranus-intern-de.png Author
Uranus-intern-de.png: FrancescoA
derivative work: WolfmanSF
(talk) Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Uranus-intern-ar.png PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Uranus-intern-en.png
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4567) The end of all arrests for
information-sharing crimes, although
many secrets still remain.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 2 		4586) Humans live permanently on an
asteroid.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2250}
 
[1] Asteroid Colony (Close View) by
Hannu Parviainen Category: Asteroid
Settlements Description: The
asteroid in the picture is very similar
to 433 Eros, a close cousin one might
say, with major axis of 30 kilometers
and minor axes of 10 kilometers. The
asteroid has been moved to the cislunar
system, and the Moon is shown in the
background. A colony is build inside a
great crater, born from a huge impact
in the early stages of the solar
system. While most of the
infrastructure of the colony is
hollowed inside the asteroid, the low
gravity combined with advanced
materials allow for the construction of
a main dome with radius of half a
kilometer. Medium/Tools Used: The
asteroid, colony and Moon were modeled
and textured using Blender.
Modifications were made to include the
Lommel-Seeliger diffuse scattering
model to the Blender-renderer. This was
necessary to allow for more realistic
rendering of dusty asteroid surfaces.
Different aspects of the picture
(shadows, ambient occlusion, etc.) were
rendered on separate layers and put
together with Celestia-made starry
background using Gimp. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/asteroid_colony_2-650.jpg

[2] Gaspra Mining Settlement by
Bill
Wright http://ourworld.compuserve.com/h
omepages/billwright5/ Category:
Asteroid Settlements Description:
The Gaspra mining settlement on a close
approach to the planet
Mars. Medium/Tools Used:
Photoshop. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nss.org/settlement/ca
lendar/2009/BillWright-AsteroidColonyA-6
50.jpg
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 3 		4589) The end of arrests for
recreational drugs in most major
nations.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2250}
  
250 YAN
[2250 AD] 5 		4611) Humans reach Jupiter and land on
a moon.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter 
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400

[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
260 YAN
[2260 AD] 2 		4601) Robots land and walk on Neptune
and its moons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2300}
Triton, Neptune 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington (added
text) from: English: Diagram of the
planet Neptune. Upper
atmosphere, top clouds. Atmosphere
consisting of hydrogen, helium, and
methane gas. Mantle consisting of
water, ammonia, and methane ices.
Core consisting of rock (silicates and
nickel-iron). 06:17, 8 October 2008
(UTC) Source
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/
gallery/Neptune_Int-browse.jpg, which
is in the public domain Author NASA;
Pbroks13 (redraw) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Neptune_diagram
.svg/1000px-Neptune_diagram.svg.png
275 YAN
[2275 AD] 		661) Most humans are not religious.

MORE INFO
[1] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
[2] MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES* Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_backer.pdf
[3] future_est.xls
 
[1] UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 3 		4595) All money is electronic.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2280}
  
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 4 		4598) Humans live permanently in a ship
that orbits the Sun.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2280}
 
[1] The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft
with solar panels folded into the
shadows of its protective shield,
gathers data on its approach to the
Sun. Credit: JHU/APL PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/479540main_SPPObservingSun.jpg
280 YAN
[2280 AD] 2 		4620) Humans land on Saturn and its
moons.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {2700}
{2701}
Saturn 
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=userhttp:
//microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/Cap
abilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander.jpg

[2] Artist concept of Cassini at
Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL ›
Larger image PD
source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/c
assini/20090202/pia03883-full.jpg
283 YAN
[2283 AD] 3 		6521) There are 100 billion humans.1 2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Kremer, Michael. “Population
Growth and Technological Change: One
Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly
Journal of Economics 108.3 (1993):
681–716. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2118405
2. ^ Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
3. ^ Ted
Huntington.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://geography.about.com/od/obtainpopu
lationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm
 
[1] Parker, G. Compact History of the
World. Barnes & Noble, 2001,
p17. COPYRIGHTED
source: Parker, G. Compact History of
the World. Barnes & Noble, 2001, p17.
290 YAN
[2290 AD] 3 		4599) The first ships that regularly
transport humans from Earth to the moon
of Earth.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2290}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 3 		4581) The end of arrests for nudity in
public.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2200}
  
300 YAN
[2300 AD] 5 		4627) Humans land on Uranus and its
moons.4
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
Uranus 
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 		4609) Humans switch to a single time
system for all places in the universe.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2350}
 
[1] world time zone map. PD
source: http://www.time.gov/images/world
zones.gif
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 3 4 		4630) Humans reach and land on Neptune
and its moons.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2900}
Neptune 
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
350 YAN
[2350 AD] 		6393) The first ships to reach another
star (Alpha Centauri) and to return the
first closeup images of the planets
around another star. These nanocamera
ships are very small, and are
accelerated to very high speeds,
perhaps even half the speed of light,
allowing them to reach another star in
under 10 years. There need to be many
ships in order to relay images over the
long distances.

Possibly nanometer ships may work
together to assemble larger structures
from the atoms around other stars.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.pn
g
370 YAN
[2370 AD] 1 		6209) Living objects on planets of a
different star are identified (bacteria
made of DNA on planets around
Centauri).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2760} {2765}
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
400 YAN
[2400 AD] 4 		4612) Humans send ships with robots to
the stars of Alpha Centauri.2
These
large scale ships may only go 1% the
speed of light and take 400 years to
get to Centauri.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {2400}
  
420 YAN
[2420 AD] 		779) Most humans in developed nations
reject the theory of gods.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/service
s/index.html
[2] future_est.xls
 
[1] Artist [show]Raphael
(1483–1520) Link back to Creator
infobox template wikidata:Q5597 Title
English: The Council of Gods Date
between 1517 and 1518 Medium
fresco Current location Villa
FarnesinaLink back to Institution
infobox template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Raffaello%2C_concilio
_degli_dei_02.jpg

[2] Artist [show]Giovanni Lanfranco
(1582–1647) Link back to Creator
infobox template
wikidata:Q447730 Title The Council of
Gods Date between 1624 and
1625 Medium fresco Dimensions
Unknown Current location Galleria
BorgheseLink back to Institution
infobox template Rome Notes
http://www.wga.hu/html/l/lanfranc/counc
il.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Lanfranco%2C_Giovanni
_-The_Council_of_Gods_-_1624-25.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 1 2 		683) The removal and conversion of the
Venus atmosphere is started.

This is the first major "conversion of
a gas atmosphere" engineering work of
humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/venusfact.html
2. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg

[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 8 9 		686) The end of death by aging.6
Using
genetic editing, humans can reach any
developmental stage, and then hold that
body shape indefinitely, dying only
from physical destruction. Humans now
live for thousands of years. This
causes the human population to grow at
an extremely fast rate.7
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
7. ^ Ted Huntington
8. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {2500}
9. ^ future_est.xls
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Solution structure of a
trans-opened (10S)-dA adduct of
+)-(7S,8R,9S,10R)-7,8-dihydroxy-9,10-epo
xy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in
a DNA duplex. GNU AND Multiple Gear
Speed Reduction Unit Top view of
gear reduction unit. PD PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Benzopyrene_DNA_adduc
t_1JDG.pnghttp://mems.sandia.gov/gallery
/images/tg8.jpgTed Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		4588) The end of arrests for all forms
of trading money for consensual
physical pleasure.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6546) Microscopic ships reach Barnard's
star, the second closest star, 6 light
years away, and send back the first
images of the planets there.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg

[2] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
500 YAN
[2500 AD] 		6554) The end of homicide, by remote
neuron writing.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
2. ^
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 1 		4617) An asteroid is moved by
propulsion, either by cables or by
embedded engines.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
  
600 YAN
[2600 AD] 		6547) Microscopic ships reach Sirius, 8
light years away, and send back the
first images of the planets there.

MORE INFO
[1]
Sirius 
[1] {ULSF: adapted by Ted Huntington
from below:} Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 6 		4619) Humans create atoms from light
particles. Photon fusion: the reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {2650}
 
[1] Humans create atoms from light
particles Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
650 YAN
[2650 AD] 		6555) The first images of large living
objects on a planet of another star are
seen.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri 
[1] English: Hydra vulgaris, a
hydrozoan cnidarian. Light microscope,
40x 날짜 2008년 6월 6일 출처
자작 만든이 Corvana GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Hydravulgaris.jpg

[2] Descripción English:
Filamentous cyanobacterium of a genus
Lyngbya, as collected in Baja
California, Mexico Česky: Vláknitá
sinice rodu Lyngbya; Baja California,
Mexico Fecha Fuente
http://microbes.arc.nasa.gov/images/con
tent/gallery/lightms/publication/lyngbya
.jpg Autor NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lyngbya.jpg/128
0px-Lyngbya.jpg
700 YAN
[2700 AD] 		4605) Robots land and walk on Venus.2
F
OOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Venus  
750 YAN
[2750 AD] 1 		4622) The first large ship to reach a
different star (Alpha Centauri).

Smaller robot ships then land on all
the planets and moons of Centauri.

Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 		24) Humans consume an asteroid.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 3 		4615) Humans live on Venus. The first
Venus colony.
Humans live on and under the
surface of Venus in cooled buildings.2

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2550}
Venus 
[1] Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4624) Ships containing humans leave for
the stars of Alpha Centauri and will
arrive successfully perhaps 400 years
later. This begins the colonization of
other stars.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
  
800 YAN
[2800 AD] 1 		4628) Humans change the motion of a
moon; perhaps a moon of Jupiter or
Mars.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {2800}
Jupiter 
[1] A map of Io This map of Io was
created by taking three relatively low
resolution Voyager 2 maps of Io and
composing them into a color map. These
maps were taken from this FTP site.
Each of the three original maps was
created from images taken through
differently colored filters. I then
replaced the luminosity channel of the
color map with a very high resolution
grayscale map from the above site. That
map was created from Voyager 1 photos.
The result was impressive despite the
fact that Io changed somewhat between
the two Voyager flybys (it is after all
the most volcanically active body in
the solar system !). I then removed the
most prominent seams and color
discontinuities. Some seams still
remain (I was more lazy when creating
this map than e.g. the Europa map ;)
but remarkably they are usually not
visible in 3D renderings except for
renderings showing Io from a close
range. I may remove these defects some
day. Finally I replaced small, black
areas near the poles (where no imagery
is available) with fictional data
created by cloning adjacent
areas. This map is aesthetically
better than the ones at David Seal's
site and also of higher resolution but
the color is probably less realistic
than in his ''yellowish'' map. His maps
are also more realistic in the sense
that there is no fictional data at the
poles, they are simply blank. Click
the map below to view the 2880x1440
pixel (442 KB JPG) full size map.
Actually my original map is 5760x2880
pixels but I do not have space for such
a monster here. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/i
o/io.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
850 YAN
[2850 AD] 3 		4580) Humans change the motion of a
planet (planet Earth). The large
quantity of ships in orbit causes the
motion of Earth to be carefully
monitored and periodically changed
using organized ship movements. By this
time the Earth and Moon are visibly
surrounded by millions of orbiting
ships.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{2800} {2850}
Earth 
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		29) A ship impacts the surface of
Jupiter. The first image of the surface
of Jupiter is captured. The solid and
liquid body of Jupiter is confirmed to
be 6 times the diameter of Earth.
The
surface of Jupiter may appear to be
molten liquid like the surface of the
Sun and the interior of the other
planets.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Jupiter 
[1] Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] This close-up of the northwestern
region of the Sun shows a filament
erupting. Credit: NASA/SDO PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/480276main_20100904-fulldisk.jpg
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 		775) A ship from Centauri leaves for
Earth carrying matter from Centauri.
This is part of a long term project of
bringing back matter from around
Centauri to be used around the star
Earth orbits where consumable atoms are
in great demand.

MORE INFO
[1]
Alpha Centauri  
900 YAN
[2900 AD] 1 		4629) Human anatomical changes start to
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. Humans
may start to look like ocean organisms
which do not walk but instead move by
pushing the surrounding medium using
their appendages. Humans may also
develop more and larger sex-related
organs of both genders.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
1,000 YAN
[3000 AD] 		4631) The start of the removal of the
Jupiter atmosphere. Many humans may
fear Jupiter exploding. The removal of
the atmosphere is a natural result of
ships "feeding" on the matter of
Jupiter; the lost mass is replaced by
added ships and people.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter 
[1] PIA01369: Jupiter from Voyager
2 PD
source: http://ppj-web-1.jpl.nasa.gov/jp
eg/PIA01369.jpg
1,150 YAN
[3150 AD] 2 		4638) Ships with robots reach the
second closest star, Barnard's star 6
light years away. Robots land on the
planets and start building more ships.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3150}
Barnard's Star 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 		4614) A ship from Centauri reaches
Earth and returns the first objects
from a different star. Robots around
Centauri build ships to go to other
stars and pull them closer.

MORE INFO
[1]
Earth System 
[1] Ship from Centauri reaches
Earth PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 6 		4637) Humans reach a different star
(Alpha Centauri). Humans now live
around two star systems and so the
chance of extinction is greatly
decreased. Humans will start to
reproduce at an exponential rate around
the three stars of Centauri.5
FOOTNOTES

1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {3100}
{3200 (100 years per light year 400
years}
Alpha Centauri 
[1] Humans reach Alpha
Centauri adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,200 YAN
[3200 AD] 1 		4639) Humans completely control the
motion of planet Mercury.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
Mercury  
1,300 YAN
[3300 AD] 		777) The end of major religions. Most
humans belong to no major religion.

MORE INFO
[1] future_est.xls
[2] "MODERNIZATION, CULTURAL
CHANGE, AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
TRADITIONAL VALUES" Ronald
Inglehart University of
Michigan Wayne E. Baker University of
Michigan religion_inglehart_baker.pdf
[3] "ESTIMATING THE RELIGIOUS
COMPOSITION OF ALL NATIONS: AN
EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT", Becky Hsu, Amy
Reynolds, Conrad Hackett, James
Gibbon Princeton University November
2, 2005 Religions_estimating.pdf
 
[1] Images representing 5 major
religions UNKNOWN
source: UNKNOWN
1,350 YAN
[3350 AD] 2 		4640) Ships with robots reach Sirius.1

FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {3350}
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 4 		4643) Humans control the motion of
Mars.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {3600}
Mars 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Nighttime city lights of Europe
from the ISS: London is on the lower
left and Paris is in the
middle UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tamaratemple.com/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2011/08/ISS028-E-024360_l
rg.jpg
1,400 YAN
[3400 AD] 1 		6568) Humans reach Barnard's star.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {3150}
Barnard's Star 
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpghttp://aetd.
gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/new_images/MLA
S.jpg
1,500 YAN
[3500 AD] 1 2 		684) Much of the atmosphere of Venus
has been removed and the surface has
cooled down. Nitrogen and Oxygen gases
are now released into the atmosphere.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^ future_est.xls
Venus 
[1] Atmosphere of Venus completely
removed adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Summary A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg

[2] Venus with no atmosphere adapted
from Mars texture map UNKNOWN
source:
1,600 YAN
[3600 AD] 1 		6569) Humans reach Sirius.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {3350}
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpghttp://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
1,800 YAN
[3800 AD] 4 		4645) The motion of Jupiter is
controlled by orbiting ships.3
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {3800}
Jupiter 
[1] Ships surround Jupiter inj the far
future. by Ted Huntington, Jupiter map
from unknown source. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4644) The atmosphere of Jupiter is
completely removed, which causes the
surface to solidify and be more easily
mined. Humans may add a nitrogen and
oxygen atmosphere or may simply mine
Jupiter for matter, most of which is
exported to humans orbiting Jupiter or
the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1]
Jupiter 
[1] Jupiter after atmosphere is
consumed. By Ted Huntington, adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg GNU
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,000 YAN
[4000 AD] 		4646) Humans have robot ships at 10
different stars.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD

source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg


[2] Description English: Praesepe:
the open cluster Messier 44 Date
Source 2MASS Atlas Image Gallery:
The Messier Catalog Author Two Micron
All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint project
of the University of Massachusetts and
the Infrared Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science
Foundation. Licensing Public domain
This image is from the Two Micron All
Sky Survey (2MASS) project. The images
from this project have been released
into the public domain. 2MASS kindly
requests acknowledgement in one of the
following forms, the longer of which is
preferred. Atlas Image [or Atlas
Image mosaic] obtained as part of the
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a
joint project of the University of
Massachusetts and the Infrared
Processing and Analysis
Center/California Institute of
Technology, funded by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
and the National Science Foundation.
Atlas Image [or Atlas Image mosaic]
courtesy of
2MASS/UMass/IPAC-Caltech/NASA/NSF. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Messier_044_2MASS.jpg

2,200 YAN
[4200 AD] 1 		4651) The rings of Saturn are consumed
by humans living there.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington. {4200}
Saturn 
[1] Saturn surrounded by ships in the
far future. by Ted Huntington using
texture map of Saturn from:
http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/saturn/sa
turn.jpg UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mmedia.is/~bjj/data/s
aturn/saturn.jpgTed Huntington
2,300 YAN
[4300 AD] 4 		6379) Humans land on the surface of
Jupiter.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {4300}
Jupiter 
[1] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

[2] by Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jp
g/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg PD
source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/J
pg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 1 2 		4579) The Venus atmosphere is like the
atmosphere of Earth. Venus becomes a
second Earth (although without oceans
and much more efficiently organized).
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {4500}
2. ^ future_est.xls {4500}
Venus 
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 3 		4652) The first ships to hold an orbit
above or below the planetary plane.
Ships can get closer to the Sun by
occupying an orbit above or below the
planetary plane. These ships may hold a
horizontal orbit by thrusting against
the y component of the Sun's gravity.
Alternatively they may maintain a
thrustless orbit that crosses the
planetary plane.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{4200}
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 		4655) Humans live on the surface of
Jupiter.
Jupiter 
[1] Lava flows on Krafla in
Iceland Licensing: This image
was created by Chris 73. The image is
licensed under a dual license; please
choose either of the two licenses below
as desired. Attribution to Wikipedia or
another project of the Wikimedia
foundation is required for both
licenses if the image is used outside
of projects of the Wikimedia
foundation. Attribution to me is not
required. GNU head Es ist erlaubt,
die Datei unter den Bedingungen der
GNU-Lizenz für freie Dokumentation,
Version 1.3 oder einer späteren
Version, veröffentlicht von der Free
Software Foundation, zu kopieren, zu
verbreiten und/oder zu modifizieren; es
gibt keine unveränderlichen
Abschnitte, keinen vorderen und keinen
hinteren Umschlagtext. Der
vollständige Text der Lizenz ist im
Kapitel GNU-Lizenz für freie
Dokumentation verfügbar. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Lava_at_Vulkan_Krafla
_Iceland_1.JPG

[2] Volle resolusie ‎(3 888 × 2 592
pixels, lêergrootte: 5,96 MG, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Hierdie lêer kom
vanaf Wikimedia Commons en kan ook in
ander projekte gebruik word. Die
beskrywing op die lêer se
inligtingsblad word hieronder
weergegee. Beskrywing English: Lava
flow at The Big Island of Hawaii. The
lava flow is due to July 21 fissure
eruption. The picture was taken from a
helicopter. Datum 09/10/07 Bron
Created and originally uploaded to the
English Wikipedia by Brocken
Inaglory. Outeur Brocken
Inaglory Toestemming (Hergebruik van
die lêer)
CC-BY-SA-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0; Released
under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Kameraligging 19°
23' 11.0'' N, 155° 6' 18.0''
W Hierdie en ander beelde in: Google
Maps - Google Earth - OpenStreetMa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Hawaiian_lava_flow.jp
g
2,500 YAN
[4500 AD] 3 		4662) The motions of all the planets
are under human control.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{4500}
 
[1] Various planetary texture maps and
public domain lava texture map mapped
onto 3D sphere and rendered two spheres
of ships added by Ted Huntington PD
source: Various planetary texture maps
and public domain lava texture map
mapped onto 3D sphere and rendered two
spheres of ships added by Ted
Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
2,800 YAN
[4800 AD] 3 		4669) Jupiter is the most populated
planet, overtaking the Earth in number
of humans living in, on, and in orbit
of it.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{4800}
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4656) The atmosphere of Jupiter is now
Nitrogen and Oxygen, and heated to stay
gaseous.
Jupiter  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 3 4 		4666) More humans live in ships than
live in and on the surface of all the
planets, moons and asteroids.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington. {4700}
  
3,000 YAN
[5000 AD] 		4668) Humans have robot ships at 50
different stars.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,100 YAN
[5100 AD] 6 		4671) The first image of advanced
living objects that evolved around a
different star. Their scientific
technologies, constructions, and highly
adapted anatomies are of great
interest. Obtaining this image is part
of a process that all advanced life
must participate in; sending probe
ships to other stars and capturing
images of any life that has evolved
there.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {5100}
 
[1] Life of another star by Ted
Huntington with background
image: 说明 English: Open Star
Cluster NGC663 in Cassiopeia 日期
2010年11月9日 来源
自己的作品 作者
Hewholooks CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/1/12/NGC663HunterWilson.
jpg

[2] Living object from other star by
Ted Huntington with image in
background: Description English:
This impressive image of the open
cluster known as Trumpler 14 was
obtained with the Multi-conjugate
Adaptive optics Demonstrator (MAD)
mounted on ESO’s Very Large
Telescope. The cluster, which is found
to be only 500 000 years old — a
blink of an eye in the Universe’s
history — resides at the outskirts of
the central region of the Carina
Nebula, located some 8000 light-years
away towards the constellation of
Carina (the Keel). Trumpler 14 is not
only the youngest, but also one of the
most populous clusters within the
nebula. Astronomers counted about 2000
stars in the very central parts of this
cluster. The MAD instrument allows
astronomers to obtain very sharp images
over a wide area and this image is the
adaptive optics image that so far
covers the widest area on the sky. The
field of view is about 2 arcminutes
across and the image is based on data
obtained through two different filters
(K and H). Date 03-12-2009 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso094
7a/ Author ESO/H. Sana CC
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wi
kipedia/commons/5/57/ESO-Trumpler14-clus
ter.jpg
3,200 YAN
[5200 AD] 3 		4673) Humans inhabit 10 stars and have
robot ships around 100 stars.2
FOOTNOTE
S
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{5200}
 
[1] Description English: A spatial
representation of every star within 14
light-years of Sol. There are 32 known
stars in this region, including Sol.
The stars are coloured according to the
spectral type, which may not reflect
the actual colour. Please see this
Wikipedia article for the listing of
stars. If a star is double or triple
the stars are shown stacked vertically:
the actual position is the star closest
to the centre plane. The stars on this
map may not all be visible to the naked
eye, as many are dwarf stars. Some of
this information may be preliminary and
not entirely accurate as a result. The
coordinate system is right ascension
and declination. Hours of RA are
marked, as well as distance in
multiples of 5 light-years. Date
06/04/2008 Source self-made,
Mathematica, Inkscape. See also:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/S/starsnearest.html Author
Inductiveload PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Nearby_Stars_%2814ly_
Radius%29.svg
3,500 YAN
[5500 AD] 		6176) The position of the Sun is under
human control and is moved in the
direction of Centauri.
Sun 
[1] Humans move star by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 		4674) The stars of Centauri are moved
towards the Sun. This will make travel,
communication, and trading of matter
between the two stars faster.

MORE INFO
[1]
Centauri 
[1] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Ships move Alpha Centauri A by
Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
4,000 YAN
[6000 AD] 6 		4675) Humans touch advanced living
objects that evolved around a different
star. This will cause a large amount of
excitement for the many billions of
organisms of both star systems.5
FOOTNO
TES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington. {6000}
 
[1] Humans touch advanced life of
another star by Ted Huntington with
background image of: Double Cluster
in Perseus Credit & Copyright: Roth
Ritter (Dark
Atmospheres) Explanation: Some 7,000
light-years away, this pair of open or
galactic star clusters is an easy
binocular target, a lovely starfield in
the northern constellation Perseus.
Also visible to the unaided eye from
dark sky areas, it was cataloged in 130
BC by Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Now
known as h and chi Persei, or NGC
869(above right) and NGC 884, the
clusters themselves are separated by
only a few hundred light-years and
contain stars much younger and hotter
than the Sun. In addition to being
physically close together, the
clusters' ages based on their
individual stars are similar - evidence
that both clusters were likely a
product of the same star-forming
region. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0901/clusters_2_ritter.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
4,500 YAN
[6500 AD] 		4676) Humans form a cluster of 4 stars
(the Sun and the three stars of
Centauri) and start to look like an
"open cluster".

Each star is within 1 light year from
each other.2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
Sun-Centauri cluster 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg
5,000 YAN
[7000 AD] 1 2 		678) One trillion humans.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {15,505 YAN (rate=0.033%) (at current
rate is 2600}
 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
9,000 YAN
[11000 AD] 3 		4680) Genetic engineering may produce
humans that use photosynthesis, only
needing water, oxygen, and light.2
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{11000}
 
[1] Stomata UNKNOWN
source: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_lw2kg9XyIi1qg1up7o1_1280.jpg

[2] Magnified 1000 X UNKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-e92BaY
WkdLQ/TZRgIdtDT-I/AAAAAAAAANA/YCjudgxn9n
I/s1600/1000%2BX%2BElodea.JPG
10,000 YAN
[12000 AD] 3 		4681) Humans may genetically remove the
requirement to urinate, defecate,
sleep, and reproduce sexually.2
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
{12000}
 
[1] Chromsomes UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~edy
/genome/chromosomes.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
11,000 YAN
[13000 AD] 2 		4682) Humans may genetically remove the
need for a constant supply of oxygen or
water.1
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington. {13000}
 
[1] Image of possible future
photosynthetic human2 by Ted
Huntington with background image of
The Milky Way at 5000 Meters Credit &
Copyright: Serge
Brunier Explanation: Climb up to
5000 meters (16,500 feet) above sea
level, near Cerro Chajnantor in the
northern Chilean Andes, and your night
sky could encompass this cosmic vista.
Recorded from that high and dry locale,
the spectacular fish-eye image features
the myriad stars and sprawling dust
clouds of our Milky Way Galaxy. The
direction toward the center of the
Galaxy is near the zenith and center of
the picture, but the Galactic Center
itself is hidden from view, located far
behind the obscuring dust. Brilliant
Jupiter rules this scene just above the
Milky Way's central bulge with the
noticeably fainter, yellowish, giant
star Antares to its right. Small and
faint, near the right edge of the
picture is one of the Milky Way's many
satellite galaxies, the Small
Magellanic Cloud. PD
source: Ted
Huntingtonhttp://apod.nasa.gov/apod/imag
e/0801/16500feetmilkywaykc2_brunier.jpg

[2] Image of possible future
photosynthetic human by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 		679) One quadrillion humans (1015).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
12,000 YAN
[14000 AD] 1 		4683) Our descendents probably will
look very different from humans now,
adapted for efficiency and to low
gravity space.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg

[2] Ted Huntington AND Description A
meteor and galactic center of Milky Way
galaxy. The image was taken in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park. Date
9/21/08 Source Own work Author
Brocken Inaglory GNU
source: Ted Huntington and
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e5/Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_mete
or.jpg
15,000 YAN
[17000 AD] 		6570) More humans live around other
stars than live around the Sun.

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Open Star Cluster M38 Credit &
Copyright: NOAO, AURA,
NSF Explanation: Open cluster M38
can be seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Auriga. M38 is
considered an intermediately rich open
cluster of stars, each of which is
about 200 million years old. Located in
the disk of our Milky Way galaxy, M38
is still young enough to house many
bright blue stars, although it's
brightest star is a yellow giant
shining 900 times brighter than our
Sun. The cluster spans roughly 25
light-years and lies about 4000
light-years away. M38, pictured above,
is found only about 2.5 degrees
northwest of open cluster M36. Loosely
bound by gravity, open clusters spread
out over time as they orbit the
galactic center and their member stars
slowly escape. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0301/m38_noao.jpg

[2] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
19,000 YAN
[21000 AD] 		6548) One quintillion humans (1018).

MORE INFO
[1]
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

 
[1] Image summarizing population of
humans around planets and stars by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Image adapted from from
http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/gemini
_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpg Cape
Canaveral, site of NASA's Kennedy Space
Center, from the Gemini V ... PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/externalflas
h/gemini_gallery/hi-resjpgs/10.jpgTed
Huntington Ted Huntington
25,000 YAN
[27000 AD] 		4677) Humans have robot ships around
1000 stars, inhabit 100 stars, and form
an open cluster of 10 stars.
 
[1] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
45,000 YAN
[47000 AD] 		4679) Humans have robot ships around
10,000 stars, inhabit 1000 stars and
form a cluster of 100 stars.
 
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg

[2] Hyades for the Holidays Image
Credit & Copyright: Jerry Lodriguss
(Catching the Light) Explanation:
Recognized since antiquity and depicted
on the shield of Achilles according to
Homer, stars of the Hyades cluster form
the head of the constellation Taurus
the Bull. Their general V-shape is
anchored by Aldebaran, the eye of the
Bull and by far the constellation's
brightest star. Yellowish in
appearance, red giant Aldebaran is not
a Hyades cluster member, though. Modern
astronomy puts the Hyades cluster 151
light-years away making it the nearest
established open star cluster, while
Aldebaran lies at less than half that
distance, along the same line-of-sight.
Along with colorful Hyades stars, this
stellar holiday portrait locates
Aldebaran just below center, as well as
another open star cluster in Taurus,
NGC 1647 at the left, some 2,000
light-years or more in the background.
Just slide your cursor over the image
to identify the stars. The central
Hyades stars are spread out over about
15 light-years. Formed some 800 million
years ago, the Hyades star cluster may
share a common origin with M44
(Praesepe), a naked-eye open star
cluster in Cancer, based on M44's
motion through space and remarkably
similar age. UNKNOWN
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1212/HyadesLodriguss.jpg
50,000 YAN
[52000 AD] 		4658) All asteroids are consumed.3
FOOT
NOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
 
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
63,000 YAN
[65000 AD] 		6171) Humans reach the center of the
Earth.

MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth 
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
65,000 YAN
[67000 AD] 3 		6174) Earth is completely filled with
living objects, and has a population of
10 quintillion {KWiNTiLYeN2 } (1019)
humans.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed, mostly as building materials,
fuel, and food. Earth is completely
filled with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ "quintillion." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quintillion

2. ^ "quintillion." The American
Heritage� Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25
Jan. 2013.
http://www.answers.com/topic/quintillion

3. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
Earth 
[1] Earth is completely filled by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
70,000 YAN
[72000 AD] 		4684) Humans have robot ships at
100,000 stars, inhabit 10,000 stars,
and form a cluster of 1,000 stars.

Alternatively, the cluster of stars our
descendents make, may be consumed by or
integrated with a larger star cluster,
for example the Hyades or M13.
 
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
90,000 YAN
[92000 AD] 3 		6210) Humans form a globular cluster of
10,000 stars. This cluster starts to
leave the plane of the Milky Way
Galaxy.

The human population is now around 50
sextillion (50 x 1021).2
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington based on 0.03%
growth from 2000 to 90000
2. ^ Ted Huntington
based on 0.03% growth from 2000 to
90000
3. ^ Ted Huntington. {10000} {92,108
YAN (0.01% growth rate) (was 10000}
 
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg

[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
100,000 YAN
6558) An object made by humans touches
the surface of the Sun. By this time
the Sun is colder and much of the
surface is solid. Matter of the Sun
continues to be removed for food, fuel
and building materials.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Adapted by Ted Huntington
from: Closeup of Sun from NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/sun2_trace.jpg

[2] Corona loop on Sun from NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/coronaloop_trace_big.jpg
121,000 YAN
10 11 12 13 		681) The Moon of Earth population
reaches the maximum possible (200
quadrillion, 200 x 1015 ).7 8 9
FOOTNOT
ES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
8. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

9. ^ future_est.xls
10. ^ Ted Huntington.
11. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
12. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html
 {3800}
13. ^ future_est.xls {3800}
Moon of Earth 
[1] Ships surround Moon of Earth in the
future. Source of Moon Texture Map:
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
125,500 YAN
4672) Planet Mercury is completely
filled with living objects, and
functions like a large ship, perhaps
even dividing into smaller separate
ships.
Mercury 
[1] Mercury at maximum population
adapted by Ted Huntington
from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-1
6525_night.jpg GNU
source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov
/Features/CitiesAtNight/images/ISS007-E-
16525_night.jpg
127,000 YAN
10 11 12 		682) The population of humans on planet
Mars reaches a physical maximum of 1
quintillion (1 x 1018) humans. 7 8 9
FO
OTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
2. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

3. ^ future_est.xls
4. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
5. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

6. ^ future_est.xls
7. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
8. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

9. ^ future_est.xls
10. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
11. ^
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html

12. ^ future_est.xls
Mars 
[1] Ship surround planet Mars in the
far future. Maps map source: Currently
unknown Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
138,000 YAN
4678) All the planets of the Sun are
consumed.

All that remains are ships that orbit
the Sun; most matter must now be taken
from the Sun and other stars.

MORE INFO
[1]
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
148,000 YAN
1 		100) The Sun is consumed.

That the planets and Sun will probably
be consumed is evidence that a globular
cluster is made by an advanced organism
that goes out and brings back other
stars to consume, the matter being
converted into more of their species,
ships, food, and fuel.
FOOTNOTES
1. ^
Huntington_Ted_population_estimates.txt
 
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg

[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
205,000 YAN
6317) Sirius is consumed.
Sirius 
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg

[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
630,000 YAN
106) Ten to the power 100 humans.

MORE INFO
[1]
 
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
1,000,000,000 YAN
4 5 		4685) All the stars in the Milky Way
Galaxy belong to a globular cluster.
The Milky Way is now an elliptical
galaxy.3
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington. {100002000}
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Designation NGC 3115, Bennett 42,
Caldwell 53, the Spindle
Galaxy Object type Type S(0)
lenticular galaxy Coordinates 10 h 05
min - 07° 43' Sextans
(Sex) Description NGC 3115 is also
known as the ''Spindle Galaxy.'' It is
a lenticular, a ''spiral galaxy without
spiral structure'', i.e. a smooth disk
galaxy, where stellar formation has
stopped because the interstellar matter
was used up. From their appearance and
stellar contents, they can often hardly
be distinguished from ellipticals
observationally. Dreyer calls this
lenticular galaxy very bright (mag
9.7), large (8.3'x3.2'), very much
elongated (P.A. 46°), and brightening
sharply to a brightened, elongated
nucleus. It lies 4.8° north of Lambda
Hydrae. North is to the right in the
15 x 10 arcmin field of view.
Exposure LRGB 60:20:20:20 min @
-15°C, all exposures unbinned Camera
SBIG ST-10XE selfguided + CFW8 with
Astrodon LRGB filterset Optics RCOS
14.5'' Ritchey-Chrétien @ f/9 (prime
focus) Mount Astro-Physics
AP1200GTO Software MaxIm DL/CCD,
Adobe Photoshop CS Location - Date -
Time San Esteban (Chile) - 10Apr05 @
00:30 UTC Conditions Transparency 7,
Seeing 5, Temperature +10°C UNKNOWN

source: http://astrosurf.com/antilhue/NG
C3115-LRGB.jpg

[2] All stars in the Milky Way belong
to a globular cluster. Adapted
from: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/0
506/m22_cfht_big.jpg Globular Cluster
M22 from CFHT Credit & Copyright:
Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT),
Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The globular
cluster M22, pictured above, contains
over 100,000 stars. These stars formed
together and are gravitationally bound.
Stars orbit the center of the cluster,
and the cluster orbits the center of
our Galaxy. So far, about 140 globular
clusters are known to exist in a
roughly spherical halo around the
Galactic center. Globular clusters do
not appear spherically distributed as
viewed from the Earth, and this fact
was a key point in the determination
that our Sun is not at the center of
our Galaxy. Globular clusters are very
old. There is a straightforward method
of determining their age, and this
nearly matches the 13.7 billion-year
age of our entire universe. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0506/m22_cfht_big.jpg
25,000,000,000 YAN
4686) The star clusters in the outer
areas are pulled closer to the center
making the galaxy more spherical, and
the galaxy develops a massive
propulsion system in order to go get
more matter to consume. The Milky Way
is now a spherical globular galaxy.

The galaxy may try to position itself
behind another galaxy to consume its
emitted exhaust.
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg

[2] Description Hubble
Illuminates Cluster of Diverse Galaxies
(Abell S740), cropped to ESO
325-G004. Date January
2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg
30,000,000,000 YAN
4687) The Milky Way Globular Galaxy
integrates the matter of the two
Magellanic Cloud galaxies.5
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy 
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg

[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
40,000,000,000 YAN
4688) The Andromeda and Milky Way
globular galaxies may merge into a
single larger galaxy, which then
resumes the search for a smaller galaxy
to consume. Natural selection must also
create a large scale "eat or be eaten",
"predator-prey" existence for galaxies
similar to that on Earth. The Milky Way
may seek to consume galaxies that are
smaller, while trying to move away from
galaxies that are larger.6
FOOTNOTES
1. ^ Ted Huntington.
2. ^ Ted Huntington.
3. ^ Ted Huntington.
4. ^ Ted
Huntington.
5. ^ Ted Huntington.
6. ^ Ted Huntington.
Milky Way Galaxy and Andromeda
Galaxy 
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg

[2] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg
"Universe, Life, Science, Future" is published under the GNU license, except where otherwise indicated or determined to be fair use, copyrighted, public domain, CC, GDFL or other license.
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